Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
ON
Introduction to Locomotive Engines & Turbocharger
Submitted by
Shiva Ganesh Balyapally
(13ME001816)
Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
I hereby declare that work entitled “Industrial training project report”, Submitted towards
completion of vocational training after Third year of B. tech (MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)
at SIR PADAMPAT SINGHANIA UNIVERSITY comprises of my original work pursued
under the supervision of guides at South Central Railways. The Project embodied in this report
have not been submitted to any other Institute or University for the fulfillment of any other
curriculum.
Place: Hyderabad
Date: 18-june-2016
Its gives us immense pleasure to express our deepest sense of gratitude and sincere
thanks to our highly respected and esteemed guide Mr. Hari Veda Murthy,
(Sr.DME/DSL/Mly), for their valuable guidance, encouragement and help for this
work. His useful Suggestion for this whole work and co-operative behavior are
sincerely acknowledge
Chapter 6 Lubrication
6.1 Lubricating Oil 70
Chapter 7 Turbocharger
7.1 Nomenclature 71
7.2 Working Principle 72
7.3 History 73
7.4 Aviation 73
7.5 Design and Installation 74
Chapter 8 Suspension
8.1 Wheels 82
8.2 Traction 82
Indian Railways operates about 9,000 passenger trains and transports 18 million
passengers daily .Indian Railways makes 70% of its revenues and most of its profits
from the freight sector, and uses these profits to cross-subsidies the loss-making
passenger sector. The Rajdhani Express and Shatabdi Express are the fastest trains
of India
1.1.1 Classification:
1. Standard “Gauge” designations and dimensions: -
W = Broad gauge (1.67 m)
Y = Medium gauge ( 1 m)
Z = Narrow gauge ( 0.762 m)
N = Narrow gauge ( 0.610 m)
2. “ Type of Traction” designations:-
D = Diesel-electric traction
C = DC traction
A = AC traction
CA=Dual power AC/DC traction
3. The “ type of load” or “Service” designations:-
M= Mixed service
P = Passenger
G= Goods
S = Shunting
4. “ Horse power ” designations from June 2002 (except WDP-1 & WDM-2
LOCOS)
‘ 3 ’ For 3000 horsepower
‘ 4 ’ For 4000 horsepower
‘ 5 ’ For 5000 horsepower
‘ A ’ For extra 100 horsepower
‘ B ’ For extra 200 horsepower and so on.
1.1.2 History:
Profile:
1. Number of Divisions 06
2. Number of States covered 06
3. Number of stations 704
4. Originating Earnings 2014-15 (` in crores) 13064.18
5. Apportioned Earnings 2014-15 (` in crores) 15395.38
6. No. of Originating Passengers 2014-15(in millions) 361.814
7. Originating Loading 2014-15 (in million Tonnes) 116.810
8. Operating Ratio 2014-15 76.40
9. Number of passenger Trains run daily: 736
Mail / Express trains 261
Passager Trains 357
MMTS Trains 118
10. Staff Strength Sanctions Actual
State BG MG Total
Andhra Pradesh 2739.501 - 2739.501
Telangana 1676.175 - 1676.175
Maharashtra 996.945 105.750 1102.695
Karnataka 326.676 - 326.676
Madhya Pradesh - 70.180 70.180
Tamil Nadu 6.860 - 6.860
Total 5746.157 175.930 5922.087
Table 1.2 Railway Track Length in KM
Division BG MG Total
Route Running Route Running Route Running
Secunderabad 1369.890 2128.611 -- -- 1369.890 2128.611
Vijayawada 958.926 1642.160 -- -- 958.926 1642.160
Guntakal 1355.151 2015.814 -- -- 1354.151 2015.814
Guntur 629.516 660.992 - -- 629.516 660.992
Hyderabad 622.809 651.579 -- -- 622.809 651.579
Nanded 809.865 809.615 175.930 175.930 985.795 985.545
Total 5746.157 7908.771 175.930 175.930 5922.087 8084.701
Table 1.3 Railway Track Length in Andhra Pradesh & Telangana
Establishment No Location
Logo of Shed:
Diesel Engine
____________________________________________________
The diesel engine was first patented by Dr. Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) in
Germany in 1892 and he actually got a successful engine working by 1897. By 1913,
when he died, his engine was in use on locomotives and he had set up a facility with
Sulzer in Switzerland to manufacture them. His death was mysterious in that he
simply disappeared from a ship taking him to London.
The advantage of the diesel engine over the petrol engine is that it has a higher
thermal capacity (it gets more work out of the fuel), the fuel is cheaper because it is
less refined than petrol and it can do heavy work under extended periods of overload.
It can however, in a high speed form, be sensitive to maintenance and noisy, which
is why it is still not popular for passenger automobiles.
1. Suction stroke: Pure air gets sucked in by the piston sliding downward.
2. Compression stroke: The piston compresses the air above and uses thereby
work, performed by the crankshaft.
3. Power stroke: In the upper dead-center, the air is max. Compressed: Pressure
and Temperature are very high. Now the black injection pump injects heavy
fuel in the hot air. By the high temperature the fuel gets ignited immediately
(auto ignition). The piston gets pressed downward and performs work to the
crankshaft.
4. Expulsion stroke: The burned exhaust gases are ejected out of the cylinder
through a second valve by the piston sliding upward again.
The diesel engine ideally should operate with maximum fuel economy as long
as maximum power is not required. Maintaining acceptable operating parameters
was one of the principal design considerations that had to be solved in early Diesel-
electric locomotive development, and ultimately led to the complex control systems
in place on modern units where all these parameters are solved and regulated by
computer modules.
When the throttle is in the idle position, the prime mover will be receiving
minimal fuel, causing it to idle at low RPM. Also, the traction motors will not be
connected to the main generator and the generator's field windings will not be
excited (energized)—the generator will not produce electricity with no excitation.
Therefore, the locomotive will be in "neutral." Conceptually, this is the same as
placing an automobile's transmission into neutral while the engine is running.
To set the locomotive in motion, the reverser control handle is placed into the
correct position (forward or reverse), the brake is released and the throttle is moved
to the run 1 position (the first power notch). An experienced engineer (driver) can
accomplish these steps in a coordinated fashion that will result in a nearly
imperceptible start. The positioning of the reverser and movement of the throttle
together is conceptually like shifting an automobile's automatic transmission into
gear while the engine is idling
Placing the throttle into the first power position will cause the traction motors
to be connected to the main generator and the latter's field coils to be excited. It will
As the throttle is moved to higher power notches, the fuel rate to the prime
mover will increase, resulting in a corresponding increase in RPM and horsepower
output. At the same time, main generator field excitation will be proportionally
increased to absorb the higher power. This will translate into increased electrical
output to the traction motors, with a corresponding increase in tractive force.
Eventually, depending on the requirements of the train's schedule, the engineer
(driver) will have moved the throttle to the position of maximum power and will
maintain it there until the train has accelerated to the desired speed.
In older designs, the prime mover's governor and a companion device, the
load regulator, play a central role in the control system. The governor has two
external inputs: requested engine speed, determined by the engineer's throttle setting,
and actual engine speed (feedback). The governor has two external control outputs:
fuel injector setting, which determines the engine fuel rate, and load regulator
position, which affects main generator excitation. The governor also incorporates a
separate over speed protective mechanism that will immediately cut off the fuel
supply to the injectors and sound an alarm in the cab in the event the prime mover
exceeds a defined RPM. It should be noted that not all of these inputs and outputs
are necessarily electrical.
The load regulator is essentially a large potentiometer that controls the main
generator power output by varying its field excitation and hence the degree of
loading applied to the engine. The load regulator's job is relatively complex, because
although the prime mover's power output is proportional to RPM and fuel rate, the
main generator's output is not (which characteristic was not correctly handled by the
Ward Leonard elevator drive system that was initially tried in early locomotives).
Number of cylinders: 12
Compression ratio: 16:1
Displacement per cylinder: 11.6 L (710 in3)
Cylinder bore: 230 mm (9.2 inches)
Cylinder stroke: 279 mm (11.1 inches)
Full speed: 904 rpm
Normal idle speed: 269 rpm
2.4 Starting:
Generator transition
o Reconnecting the two separate internal main generator stator windings
from parallel to series to increase the output voltage.
This combination of diesel engine and electric generators and motors makes
the locomotive a hybrid vehicle. In this article, we'll start by learning why
locomotives are built this way and why they have steel wheels. Then we'll take a
look at the layout and key components.
Basically, the more power you need, the bigger the engine has to be. Early
diesel engines were less than 100 horse power (hp) but today the US is building 6000
hp locomotives. For a UK locomotive of 3,300 hp (Class 58), each cylinder will
produce about 200 hp, and a modern engine can double this if the engine is
turbocharged.
The maximum rotational speed of the engine when producing full power will
be about 1000 rpm (revolutions per minute) and the engine will idle at about 400
rpm. These relatively low speeds mean that the engine design is heavy, as opposed
to a high speed, lightweight engine. However, the UK HST (High Speed Train,
developed in the 1970s) engine has a speed of 1,500 rpm and this is regarded as high
speed in the railway diesel engine category. The slow, heavy engine used in railway
locomotives will give low maintenance requirements and an extended life.
There is a limit to the size of the engine which can be accommodated within
the railway loading gauge, so the power of a single locomotive is limited. Where
additional power is required, it has become usual to add locomotives. In the US,
where freight trains run into tens of thousands of tons weight, four locomotives at
Diesel engines can be designed with the cylinders "in-line", "double banked"
or in a "V". The double banked engine has two rows of cylinders in line. Most
diesel locomotives now have V form engines. This means that the cylinders are split
into two sets, with half forming one side of the V. A V8 engine has 4 cylinders set
at an angle forming one side of the V with the other set of four forming the other
side. The crankshaft, providing the drive, is at the base of the V. The V12 was a
popular design used in the UK. In the US, V16 is usual for freight locomotives and
there are some designs with V20 engines.
The relationship between power and drawbar pull is that a low speed and a
high drawbar pull can produce the same power as high speed and low drawbar pull.
One thing worth remembering is that the power produced by the diesel engine
is not all available for traction. In a 2,580 hp diesel electric locomotive, some 450
hp is lost to on-board equipment like blowers, radiator fans, air compressors and
"hotel power" for the train.
____________________________________________________
The first few prototype WDM-2s were imported. After Diesel Locomotive
Works (DLW) completed construction of its factory in Varanasi, production of the
locomotives began in India. The first 12 locos were built using kits imported from
ALCO in the United States. After that DLW started manufacturing the WDM-2
locomotives from their own components. Since then over 2,800 locomotives have
been manufactured and the WDM-2 has become the most popular locomotive in
India.
However, even before the arrival of WDM-2 another type of diesel locomotive
was imported from ALCO beginning in 1957. This locomotive was classified as
WDM-1.
The WDM-2 is the diesel workhorse of the Indian Railways, being very
reliable and rugged.
The class WDM-2 is Indian Railways' workhorse diesel locomotive. The first
units were imported fully built from the American Locomotive Company (Alco) in
1962. Since 1964, it has been manufactured in India by the Diesel Locomotive
Works (DLW), Varanasi. The model name stands for broad gauge (W), diesel (D),
mixed traffic (M) engine. The WDM-2 is the most common diesel locomotive of
Indian Railways.
Traction GE752 (original Alco models) (405 hp), BHEL 4906 BZ (AZ?)
motors (435 hp) and (newer) 4907 AZ (with roller bearings)
The above facilities comparable to the best facilities in the world were created
to meet the following objectives:
Develop capability for designing new Rail Traction Diesel Engines for
meeting future needs of Indian Railways.
Diesel Electric main line, heavy duty goods service locomotive, with 16 cylinder
ALCO engine and AC/DC traction with microprocessor controls.
Weight 123 t
Gear Ratio 18 : 74
Brake IRAB-1
Train Air
Diesel Electric Locomotive with microprocessor control suitable for main line
mixed Service train operation.
Weight 117 t
Gear Ratio 18 : 65
Transmission Electric AC / DC
Train Air
3.4.1Technical Information
A heavy duty shunting Diesel Electric Locomotive for main line and branch
line train operation. This locomotive is very popular with Steel Plants and Port
Trusts.
Weight 113 t
Gear Ratio 74 : 18
Transmission Electric AC / DC
Brake IRAB-1
Loco Air
Train Air
The test bed facilities in RDSO are equipped with four Test Cells. These Test
Cells house four (16 cylinders GMEMD, 16 cylinders ALCO, 12 cylinders ALCO,
6 cylinders ALCO) types of DLW manufactured Engines. Each test cell has its own
microprocessor controlled data acquisition and control systems and Video Display
Unit (VDU) for pressure, temperature and other parameters. Various transducers
relay the information from the test engines to the microprocessor based test
commander for further processing with the help of sophisticated software. Each test
cell has an instrumentation catering to 60 to 120 pressures / temperature transducers
along with sophisticated equipment’s like gravimetric fuel balance for measurement
of fuel consumption and the equipment for measurement of air flow.
Since the fuel consumption at 8th notch is highest and also since Locomotives
run at this notch for longer duration as compared to other notches, fuel consumption
at this notch is one of the important fuel efficiency index. This is measured in terms
of gm / bhp - hr.
You don't just hop in the cab, turn the key and drive away in a diesel
locomotive. Starting a train is a little more complicated than starting your car.
The engineer climbs an 8-foot (2.4-m) ladder and enters a corridor behind the cab.
He or she engages a knife switch (like the ones in old Frankenstein movies) that
connects the batteries to the starter circuit. Then the engineer flips about a hundred
switches on a circuit-breaker panel, providing power to everything from the lights
to the fuel pump.
Next, the engineer walks down a corridor into the engine room. He turns and
holds a switch there, which primes the fuel system, making sure that all of the air is
out of the system. He then turns the switch the other way and the starter motor
engages. The engine cranks over and starts running.
Finally he can head back up to the cab and take over control from there. Once
he has permission from the conductor of the train to move, he engages the bell, which
rings continuously, and sounds the air horns twice (indicating forward motion).
The throttle control has eight positions, plus an idle position. Each of the
throttle positions is called a "notch." Notch 1 is the slowest speed, and notch 8 is the
highest speed. To get the train moving, the engineer releases the brakes and puts the
throttle into notch 1.
In this General Motors EMD 710 series engine, putting the throttle into notch
1 engages a set of contactors (giant electrical relays). These contactors hook the main
generator to the traction motors. Each notch engages a different combination of
contactors, producing a different voltage. Some combinations of contactors put
certain parts of the generator winding into a series configuration that results in a
higher voltage. Others put certain parts in parallel, resulting in a lower voltage. The
traction motors produce more power at higher voltages.
As the contactors engage, the computerized engine controls adjust the fuel
injectors to start producing more engine power.
____________________________________________________
4.1 Main Alternator
The diesel engine drives the main alternator which provides the power to
move the train. The alternator generates AC electricity which is used to provide
power for the traction motors mounted on the trucks (bogies). In older locomotives,
the alternator was a DC machine, called a generator. It produced direct current
which was used to provide power for DC traction motors. Many of these machines
are still in regular use. The next development was the replacement of the generator
by the alternator but still using DC traction motors. The AC output is rectified to
give the DC required for the motors.
The diesel engine also drives a motor blower. As its name suggests, the motor
blower provides air which is blown over the traction motors to keep them cool during
periods of heavy work. The blower is mounted inside the locomotive body but the
motors are on the trucks, so the blower output is connected to each of the motors
The air for cooling the locomotive's motors is drawn in from outside the
locomotive. It has to be filtered to remove dust and other impurities and its flow
regulated by temperature, both inside and outside the locomotive. The air
management system has to take account of the wide range of temperatures from the
possible +40° C of summer to the possible -40° C of winter.
4.5 Rectifiers/Inverters
The output from the main alternator is AC but it can be used in a locomotive
with either DC or AC traction motors. DC motors were the traditional type used for
many years but, in the last 10 years, AC motors have become standard for new
locomotives. They are cheaper to build and cost less to maintain and, with electronic
management can be very finely controlled. To see more on the difference between
DC and AC traction technology try the Electronic Power Page on this site.
To convert the AC output from the main alternator to DC, rectifiers are
required. If the motors are DC, the output from the rectifiers is used directly. If the
motors are AC, the DC output from the rectifiers is converted to 3-phase AC for the
traction motors.
In the US, there are some variations in how the inverters are configured. GM
EMD relies on one inverter per truck, while GE uses one inverter per axle - both
systems have their merits. EMD's system links the axles within each truck in
Almost every part of the modern locomotive's equipment has some form of
electronic control. These are usually collected in a control cubicle near the cab for
easy access.
4.8 Batteries
Just like an automobile, the diesel engine needs a battery to start it and to
provide electrical power for lights and controls when the engine is switched off and
the alternator is not running.
The locomotive operates on a nominal 64-volt electrical system. The locomotive has
eight 8-volt batteries; each weighing over 300 pounds (136 kg). These batteries
provide the power needed to start the engine (it has a huge starter motor), as well as
to run the electronics in the locomotive. Once the main engine is running, an
alternator supplies power to the electronics and the batteries.
4.9 Cab
Most US diesel locomotives have only one cab but the practice in Europe is
two cabs. US freight locos are also designed with narrow engine compartments and
walkways along either side. This gives a reasonable forward view if the locomotive
is working "hood forwards". US passenger locos, on the other hand have full width
bodies and more streamlined ends but still usually with one cab. In Europe, it is
difficult to tell the difference between a freight and passenger locomotive because
the designs are almost all wide bodied and their use is often mixed. The cab of the
locomotive rides on its own suspension system, which helps isolate the engineer
from bumps. The seats have a suspension system as well.
Propulsion: The traction motors provide propulsion power to the wheels. There is
one on each axle. Each motor drives a small gear, which meshes with a larger gear
on the axle shaft. This provides the gear reduction that allows the motor to drive the
train at speeds of up to 110 mph.
Each motor weighs 6,000 pounds (2,722 kg) and can draw up to 1,170 amps of
electrical current.
A diesel locomotive has to carry its own fuel around with it and there has to
be enough for a reasonable length of trip. The fuel tank is normally under the loco
frame and will have a capacity of say 1,000 imperial gallons (UK Class 59, 3,000
hp) or 5,000 US gallons in a General Electric AC4400CW 4,400 hp locomotive. The
new AC6000s have 5,500 gallon tanks. In addition to fuel, the locomotive will carry
around, typically about 300 US gallons of cooling water and 250 gallons of
This huge tank in the underbelly of the locomotive holds 2,200 gallons (8,328
L) of diesel fuel. The fuel tank is compartmentalized, so if any compartment is
damaged or starts to leak, pumps can remove the fuel from that compartment.
4.12 Governor
Once a diesel engine is running, the engine speed is monitored and controlled
through a governor. The governor ensures that the engine speed stays high enough
to idle at the right speed and that the engine speed will not rise too high when full
power is demanded. The governor is a simple mechanical device which first
appeared on steam engines. It operates on a diesel engine as shown in the diagram
below.
The two types of governors, each of which serves a distinctly different purpose,
are : over speed governor and regulating governor. The over speed type is used
on most marine engines where the speed of the engine is variable. By necessity, the
marine engine requires flexibility in speed due to the maneuvering of the ship. This
type of governor is installed as a safety measure and comes into action when the
engine approaches dangerous over speed. This condition could occur before the
operator had time to bring the engine under control by other means. The over speed
trip functions only if the regulating governor fails. This governor controls all
abnormal speed surges.
Overspeed governors are of the centrifugal type; that is, the action of the
governor depends upon the centrifugal force created as the governor weights
revolve. Centrifugal force is the force that tends to move a body away from the axis
The type of regulating governor used on all submarine main engines is the
Woodward SI hydraulic type governor. On F-M engines, it is driven from the lower
crankshaft, and on GM engines, from one of the camshafts. The purpose of the
In this governor the flyweights are linked hydraulically to the fuel control
cylinder. The downward pressure of the power spring is balanced by the hydraulic
lock on the lower side of the power piston. The amount of oil below the power piston
is regulated by the pilot valve plunger controlled by the flyweights.
When the engine is running at the speed set on the governor, the land on the
pilot valve plunger covers the regulating port in the bushing. The plunger is held in
If the load increases, the engine slows down, and the flyweights move inward.
This lowers the pilot valve plunger, allowing pressure oil to flow through the pilot
valve chamber to the power cylinder. This oil supplied by a pump is under a pressure
sufficient to overcome the pressure of the power spring. The power piston moves
upward, actuating the linkage to increase the amount of fuel injected into the engine
When the engine speed drops below the set rate, the actuating compensating
plunger moves upward with the power piston. This increases the pressure above the
actuating compensating plunger and consequently above the receiving compensating
piston which therefore moves down, carrying with it the pilot valve bushing. As
before, the lower bushing port is closed. The excess oil in the compensating system
The governing speed of the engine is set by changing the tension of the speed
adjusting spring. The pressure of this spring determines the engine speed necessary
for the flyweights to maintain their central position. Oil allowed to leak past the
various plungers for lubricating purposes is drained into the governing oil sump.
a. Drive adapter: - The drive adapter assembly serves as a mounting base for
the governor. The upper flange of the casting is bored out at the center to form
a bearing surface for the hub of the pump drive gear and for the upper end of
the drive shaft.
b. Power case assembly: - This assembly includes the governor oil pump, oil
pump check valves, oil pressure accumulators, and compensating needle
valves.
The oil pump drive gear turns the rotating sleeve to which it is attached.
The pump idler gear is carried on a stud and rotates in a bored recess in the
power case. These two gears and their housing constitute the governor oil
pump. On opposite sides of the central bore in the power case, and parallel to
it, are two long oil passages leading from the bottom of the power case to the
top of the accumulator bores. Check valve seats are arranged at the top and
Fig. 4.6 Governor-sections through adapter, power, case, power cylinder and
rotating sleeve assembly.
The area underneath the power piston is connected to the pilot valve
regulating ports. An oil drain is provided in the space above the power piston
to permit any oil that may leak by the piston to drain into the governor case
oil sump. No piston rings are used in the closely fitting piston. A shallow,
helical groove permits equal oil pressure on all sides of the piston, thus
preventing wear and binding.
4.12.4 ADJUSTMENTS
The needle valve will usually be open about one-fourth of a turn for best
performance. However, the adjustment depends on the characteristics of the
engine. The needle valve should be kept open as far as possible to prevent
sluggishness. Once the valve has been adjusted correctly for the engine, it
should not be necessary to change the adjustment except for a permanent
temperature change affecting the viscosity of the oil.
The radiator and its cooling fan is often located in the roof of the locomotive.
Drive to the fan is therefore through a gearbox to change the direction of the drive
upwards.
Fig. 4.7 Fuel injection pump Fig. 4.8 FIP cut section
The original fuel injection pumps used on ALCO Engines had plunger
diameter of 15 mm. The plunger diameter of the fuel injection pump was increased
from 15 mm to 17 mm. This modification led to sharper fuel injection i.e. injection
at higher-pressure. The modification resulted in increase of peak fuel line pressure
from 750 to 850 bars and, thus, improvement in the fuel efficiency.
The estimated fuel and lube oil economy with this modification is approx.
1.5% and 4% respectively.
Ensure the level of servo calibration. Oil is above the low mark in storage tank
of test stand.
Heat the oil to 100° F to 120° F.
Mount the m/c nozzle according to FIP type to be used on m/c.
Mount the overhauled FIP on cam housing & tighten. The FIP rack should be
against the spring loaded plunger.
Screw the fuel inlet union.
Connect the high pressure tube b/w FIP discharge & calibrating nozzle.
Keep the control rack in full fuel oil position & insert horse shoe space according
to FIP type to be tested b/w the rack positioning tool & FIP face.
Reset the counter to zero.
Operate the calibrating m/c & set the oil pressure 25-30 psi.
Measure the oil delivery in beaker for 300 strokes. Do this process five times &
check the average of last three measurement of oil delivery.
If specified delivery is not achieved adjust the rack by rotating rack position tool
in the required direction to get the specified delivery & when it is found within
specified limit, stop the m/c.
Adjust the pointer of full fuel position to proper mm reading. Remove the horse
shoe space & ensure rack length is at idle fuel length i.e. at 9 mm & record the
full fuel delivery in calibration data nozzle.
Clean all the components once again using clean HSD oil & assemble them wet.
Place the injector nozzle holder body in the fixture with nozzle & upward.
Position the spring seat & spring in the body.
Keep spindle with guide bush & intermediate disc on spring.
Place assemble nozzle over the intermediate disc & screw the nozzle cap nut &
torque to 105 ft. lbs.
The amount of fuel being applied to the cylinders is varied by altering the
effective delivery rate of the piston in the injector pumps. Each injector has its own
pump, operated by an engine-driven cam, and the pumps are aligned in a row so that
they can all be adjusted together. The adjustment is done by a toothed rack (called
the "fuel rack") acting on a toothed section of the pump mechanism. As the fuel rack
moves, so the toothed section of the pump rotates and provides a drive to move the
pump piston round inside the pump. The fuel rack can be moved either by the driver
operating the power controller in the cab or by the governor. If the driver asks for
more power, the control rod moves the fuel rack to set the pump pistons to allow
more fuel to the injectors. The engine will increase power and the governor will
monitor engine speed to ensure it does not go above the predetermined limit. The
limits are fixed by springs limiting the weight movement.
4.14 Radiators
They are used for cooling internal combustion engines, chiefly in automobiles
but also in piston-engined aircraft, railway locomotives, motorcycles, stationary
generating plant or any similar use of such an engine.
They operate by passing a liquid coolant through the engine block, where it is
heated, then through the radiator itself where it loses this heat to the atmosphere.
This coolant is usually water-based, but may also be oil. It's usual for the coolant
flow to be pumped, also for a fan to blow air through the radiator.
The radiator transfers the heat from the fluid inside to the air outside, thereby
cooling the engine. Radiators are also often used to cool automatic transmissions, air
conditioners, and sometimes to cool engine oil. Radiators are typically mounted in a
position where they receive airflow from the forward movement of the vehicle, such
as behind a front grill. Where engines are mid- or rear-mounted, it is common to
mount the radiator behind a front grill to achieve sufficient airflow, even though this
requires long coolant pipes. Alternatively, the radiator may draw air from the flow
over the top of the vehicle or from a side-mounted grill. For long vehicles, such as
buses, side airflow is most common for engine and transmission cooling and top
airflow most common for air conditioner cooling.
Temperature Control
When the engine is cold the thermostat is closed, with a small bypass flow so
that the thermostat experiences changes to the coolant temperature as the engine
warms up. Coolant is directed by the thermostat to the inlet of the circulating pump
Other factors influence the temperature of the engine including radiator size
and the type of radiator fan. The size of the radiator (and thus its cooling capacity)
is chosen such that it can keep the engine at the design temperature under the most
4.14.4 Coolant
Before World War II, radiator coolant was usually plain water. Antifreeze was
used solely to control freezing, and this was often only done in cold weather.
On this type system, if the coolant in the overflow container gets too low, fluid
transfer to overflow will cause an increased loss by vaporizing the engine coolant.
To protect the unwary, the cap often contains a mechanism that attempts to
relieve the internal pressure before the cap can be fully opened. Some scalding of
one's hands can easily occur in this event. Opening a hot radiator drops the system
pressure immediately and may cause a sudden ebullition of super-heated coolant
which can cause severe burns (see geyser).
Attempts were made with aero-engines of the 1930s, notably the Rolls-Royce
Goshawk, to exceed this limit by allowing the coolant to boil. This absorbs an
amount of heat equivalent to the specific heat of vaporization, which for water is
The practical difficulty was the need to provide condensers rather than radiators.
Cooling was now needed not just for hot dense liquid coolant, but for low-density
steam. This required a condenser far larger and with higher drag than a radiator. For
aircraft, especially high-speed aircraft, these were soon realized to be unworkable
and so steam cooling was abandoned.
Remove the radiator fan assembly from the loco and place on the sand.
Remove the radiator fan from bearing housing.
Clean bearing housing externally with diesel oil and place it on work bench.
Dismantle the components in the following sequence:
o Universal end hub.
o Bearing housing covers.
o Shaft & bearing using hydraulic press.
Open bearing seal plate.
Clean the bearing with HSD oil and water and dry air.
Pack the bearing with servogen 3 grease and seal.
Press bearing to shaft by hydraulic press.
Apply both bearing covers duly ensuring for free rotation of shaft.
Fit hub at universal end.
Fix the bearing housing in the fixture.
Set the fan end key to fan and fan shaft.
Fix the fan to the shaft and tighten the nut and secure the split pin.
____________________________________________________
Like an automobile engine, the diesel engine needs to work at an optimum
temperature for best efficiency. When it starts, it is too cold and, when working, it
must not be allowed to get too hot. To keep the temperature stable, a cooling system
is provided. This consists of a water-based coolant circulating around the engine
block, the coolant being kept cool by passing it through a radiator.
The coolant is pumped round the cylinder block and the radiator by an
electrically or belt driven pump. The temperature is monitored by a thermostat and
this regulates the speed of the (electric or hydraulic) radiator fan motor to adjust the
cooling rate. When starting the coolant isn't circulated at all. After all, you want the
temperature to rise as fast as possible when starting on a cold morning and this will
not happen if you a blowing cold air into your radiator. Some radiators are provided
with shutters to help regulate the temperature in cold conditions.
3. To retain the strength of the metals used: - High temperatures change the
strength and physical properties of the various ferrous metals used in an
engine. For example, if a cylinder head is subjected to high temperatures
without being cooled, the tensile strength of the metal is reduced, resulting in
possible fracture. This high temperature also causes excessive expansion of
the metal which may result in shearing of the cylinder bolts.
Cylinder heads, cylinder jackets, cylinder liners, exhaust headers, valves, and
exhaust elbows usually are cooled by water. Pistons may be cooled either by water
or oil. In present fleet type submarine installations, the pistons are cooled by
lubricating oil which is in turn cooled by engine cooling water. It is important to
keep all parts of the engine at as nearly the same temperature as possible. This can
be accomplished to some extent by engine design. For instance, the water jacket
should cover the entire length of the piston stroke to avoid possible unequal
expansion of various sections of the cylinder and cylinder liner.
It requires time to conduct heat through any substance, therefore the thicker
the metal, the slower the conduction. This is one of the reasons the size of cylinders
in diesel engines is limited, because the larger the cylinder, the thicker the material
necessary for liners and cylinder heads in order to withstand the pressures of
combustion. Thicker metals cause the inside surfaces to run hotter, because the heat
is not conducted so rapidly to the cooling water.
____________________________________________________
Like an automobile engine, a diesel engine needs lubrication. In an
arrangement similar to the engine cooling system, lubricating oil is distributed
around the engine to the cylinders, crankshaft and other moving parts. The oil gets
heated by its passage around the engine and has to be kept cool, so it is passed
through a radiator during its journey. The radiator is sometimes designed as a heat
exchanger, where the oil passes through pipes encased in a water tank which is
connected to the engine cooling system.
The oil has to be filtered to remove impurities and it has to be monitored for
low pressure. If oil pressure falls to a level which could cause the engine to seize
up, a "low oil pressure switch" will shut down the engine. There is also a high
pressure relief valve, to drain off excess oil back to the sump.
Turbocharger
____________________________________________________
A turbocharger, or turbo, is a gas compressor used for forced-induction of
an internal combustion engine. Like a supercharger, the purpose of a turbocharger is
to increase the density of air entering the engine to create more power. However, a
turbocharger differs in that the compressor is powered by a turbine driven by the
engine's own exhaust gases.
7.1 Nomenclature
A turbocharger is a small radial fan pump driven by the energy of the exhaust
gases of an engine. A turbocharger consists of a turbine and a compressor on a shared
shaft. The turbine converts heat to rotational force, which is in turn used to drive the
compressor. The compressor draws in ambient air and pumps it in to the intake
manifold at increased pressure, resulting in a greater mass of air entering the
cylinders on each intake stroke.
Because the pressure in the cylinder must not go too high to avoid detonation
and physical damage, the intake pressure must be controlled by controlling the
rotational speed of the turbocharger. The control function is performed by a
7.3 History
The turbocharger was invented by Swiss engineer Alfred Büchi. His patent
for a turbocharger was applied for use in 1905. Diesel ships and locomotives with
turbochargers began appearing in the 1920s.
7.4 Aviation
During the First World War French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbo
chargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success.
7.5.1 Components:
Fig. 7.3 On the left, the brass oil drain connection. On the right are the braided oil
supply line and water coolant line connections.
The turbocharger has four main components. The turbine (almost always a
radial turbine) and impeller/compressor wheels are each contained within their own
folded conical housing on opposite sides of the third component, the center
housing/hub rotating assembly (CHRA).
The housings fitted around the compressor impeller and turbine collect and
direct the gas flow through the wheels as they spin. The size and shape can dictate
some performance characteristics of the overall turbocharger. Often the same basic
turbocharger assembly will be available from the manufacturer with multiple
housing choices for the turbine and sometimes the compressor cover as well. This
allows the designer of the engine system to tailor the compromises between
performance, response, and efficiency to application or preference. Twin-scroll
designs have two valve-operated exhaust gas inlets, a smaller sharper angled one for
quick response and a larger less angled one for peak performance.
The turbine and impeller wheel sizes also dictate the amount of air or exhaust
that can be flowed through the system, and the relative efficiency at which they
operate. Generally, the larger the turbine wheel and compressor wheel, the larger the
flow capacity. Measurements and shapes can vary, as well as curvature and number
The center hub rotating assembly (CHRA) houses the shaft which connects
the compressor impeller and turbine. It also must contain a bearing system to
suspend the shaft, allowing it to rotate at very high speed with minimal friction. For
instance, in automotive applications the CHRA typically uses a thrust bearing or ball
bearing lubricated by a constant supply of pressurized engine oil. The CHRA may
also be considered "water cooled" by having an entry and exit point for engine
coolant to be cycled. Water cooled models allow engine coolant to be used to keep
the lubricating oil cooler, avoiding possible oil coking from the extreme heat found
in the turbine. The development of air-foil bearings has removed this risk.
Boost pressure is limited to keep the entire engine system, including the turbo,
inside its thermal and mechanical design operating range. The speed and thus the
output pressure of the turbo is controlled by the wastegate, a bypass which shunts
the gases from the cylinders around the turbine directly to the exhaust pipe.
The maximum possible boost depends on the fuel's octane rating and the
inherent tendency of any particular engine towards detonation. Premium gasoline or
racing gasoline can be used to prevent detonation within reasonable limits. Ethanol,
methanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and diesel fuels allow higher boost than
gasoline, because of these fuels' combustion characteristics.
To obtain more power from higher boost levels and maintain reliability, many
engine components have to be replaced or upgraded such as the fuel pump, fuel
injectors, pistons, valves, head-gasket, and head bolts.
7.5.2 Wastegate
Turbocharged engines operating at wide open throttle and high rpm require a
large volume of air to flow between the turbo and the inlet of the engine. When the
throttle is closed compressed air will flow to the throttle valve without an exit (i.e.
the air has nowhere to go).
This causes a surge which can raise the pressure of the air to a level which can
damage the engine. If the pressure rises high enough, a compressor stall will occur,
where the stored pressurized air decompresses backwards across the impeller and
out the inlet. The reverse flow back across the turbocharger causes the turbine shaft
to reduce in speed quicker than it would naturally, possibly damaging the
turbocharger. In order to prevent this from happening, a valve is fitted between the
turbo and inlet which vents off the excess air pressure. These are known as an anti-
surge, bypass, blow-off valve (BOV) or dump valve. It is basically a pressure relief
valve, and is normally operated by the excess pressure in the intake manifold.
The primary use of this valve is to maintain the turbo spinning at a high speed.
The air is usually recycled back into the turbo inlet but can also be vented to the
atmosphere. Recycling back into the turbocharger inlet is required on an engine that
uses a mass-airflow fuel injection system, because dumping the excessive air
overboard downstream of the mass airflow sensor will cause an excessively rich fuel
mixture. A dump valve will also shorten the time needed to re-spool the turbo after
sudden engine deceleration.
Locomotives always carry sand to assist adhesion in bad rail conditions. Sand
is not often provided on multiple unit trains because the adhesion requirements are
lower and there are normally more driven axles.
The weight of the locomotive rests on the leaf springs, which compress when
it passes over a bump. This isolates the body of the locomotive from the bump. The
links allow the trucks to move from side to side with fluctuations in the track. The
track is not perfectly straight, and at high speeds, the small variations in the track
would make for a rough ride if the trucks could not swing laterally. The system also
keeps the amount of weight on each rail relatively equal, reducing wear on the tracks
and wheels.
Ever wonder why trains have steel wheels, rather than tires like a car? It's to
reduce rolling friction. When your car is driving on the freeway, something like 25
percent of the engine's power is being used to push the tires down the road. Tires
bend and deform a lot as they roll, which uses a lot of energy. The amount of energy
used by the tires is proportional to the weight that is on them. Since a car is relatively
light, this amount of energy is acceptable (you can buy low rolling-resistance tires
for your car if you want to save a little gas).
Since a train weighs thousands of times more than a car, the rolling resistance
is a huge factor in determining how much force it takes to pull the train. The steel
wheels on the train ride on a tiny contact patch -- the contact area between each
wheel and the track is about the size of a dime.
8.2 Traction:
Traction when going around turns is not an issue because train wheels have
flanges that keep them on the track. But traction when braking and accelerating is
an issue.
This locomotive can generate 64,000 pounds of thrust. But in order for it to
use this thrust effectively, the eight wheels on the locomotive have to be able to
In front of each wheel is a nozzle that uses compressed air to spray sand,
which is stored in two tanks on the locomotive. The sand dramatically increases the
traction of the drive wheels. The train has an electronic traction-control system that
automatically starts the sand sprayers when the wheels slip or when the engineer
makes an emergency stop. The system can also reduce the power of any traction
motor whose wheels are slipping.
9.2 Gearbox
This does the same job as that on an automobile. It varies the gear ratio
between the engine and the road wheels so that the appropriate level of power can
be applied to the wheels. Gear change is manual. There is no need for a separate
clutch because the functions of a clutch are already provided in the fluid coupling.
Hydraulic transmission works on the same principal as the fluid coupling but
it allows a wider range of "slip" between the engine and wheels. It is known as a
"torque converter". When the train speed has increased sufficiently to match the
engine speed, the fluid is drained out of the torque converter so that the engine is
virtually coupled directly to the locomotive wheels. It is virtually direct because the
coupling is usually a fluid coupling, to give some "slip". Higher speed locomotives
use two or three torque converters in a sequence similar to gear changing in a
mechanical transmission and some have used a combination of torque converters
and gears.
Some designs of diesel-hydraulic locomotives had two diesel engines and two
transmission systems, one for each bogie. The design was poplar in Germany (the
V200 series of locomotives, for example) in the 1950s and was imported into parts
of the UK in the 1960s. However, it did not work well in heavy or express
locomotive designs and has largely been replaced by diesel-electric transmission.
Dynamic braking takes advantage of the fact that the traction motor armatures
are always rotating when the locomotive is in motion and that a motor can be made
to act as a generator by separately exciting the field winding. When dynamic braking
is utilized, the traction control circuits are configured as follows:
The field winding of each traction motor is connected across the main
generator.
The armature of each traction motor is connected across a forced-air cooled
resistance grid (the dynamic braking grid) in the roof of the locomotive's hood.
The prime mover RPM is increased and the main generator field is excited,
causing a corresponding excitation of the traction motor fields.
Ultimately, the source of the energy dissipated in the dynamic braking grid is
the motion of the locomotive as imparted to the traction motor armatures. Therefore,
the traction motors impose drag and the locomotive acts as a brake. As speed
decreases, the braking effect decays and usually becomes ineffective below
approximately 16 km/h (10 mph), depending on the gear ratio between the traction
motors and axles.
Advantages:
Regenerative braking.
No gear shifting.
No backlash and breaking of couplings during shifting.
10.1 BRAKE: A traditional clasp brake: the brake shoe (brown) bears on the surface
(tyre) of the wheel (red), and is operated by the levers (grey) on the left
Brakes are used on the vehicles of railway trains to slow them, or to keep them
standing when parked. While the principle is familiar from road vehicle usage,
operational features are more complex because of the need to control trains, i.e.
multiple vehicles running together, and to be effective on vehicles left without a
prime mover.
In the earliest days of railways, braking technology was primitive. The first
trains had brakes operative on the locomotive tender and on vehicles in the train,
where “porters” or, in the United States brakemen, traveling for the purpose on those
vehicles operated the brakes. Some railways fitted a special deep-noted brake whistle
to locomotives to indicate to the porters the necessity to apply the brakes. All the
brakes at this stage of development were applied by operation of a screw and linkage
to brake blocks applied to wheel treads, and these brakes could be used when
vehicles were parked. In the earliest times, the porters travelled in crude shelters
outside the vehicles, but “assistant guards” who travelled inside passenger vehicles,
and who had access to a brake wheel at their posts supplanted them.
The braking effort achievable was limited, and an early development was the
application of a steam brake to locomotives, where boiler pressure could be applied
to brake blocks on the locomotive wheels.
However there was no clear technical solution to the problem, because of the
necessity of achieving a reasonably uniform rate of braking effort throughout a train,
and because of the necessity to add and remove vehicles from the train at frequent
points on the journey. (At these dates, unit trains were a rarity).
The chain brake, such as the Heberlein brake, in which a chain was connected
continuously along the train.
The Westinghouse air brake system. In this system, air reservoirs are provided
on every vehicle and the locomotive charges the train pipe with a positive air
In British practice, only passenger trains were fitted with continuous brakes
until about 1930, and goods and mineral trains ran at slower speed, and relied on the
brake force from the locomotive and tender, and the brake van – a heavy vehicle
provided at the rear of the train and occupied by a guard.
Goods and mineral vehicles were provided with hand brakes, by which the
brakes could be applied by a hand lever operated by staff on the ground. These hand
brakes were used where necessary when vehicles were parked, but also when these
trains needed to descend a steep gradient; the train then stopped before descending,
and the guard walked forward to pin down the handles of sufficient brakes to give
adequate braking effort. Early goods vehicles had brake handles on one side only,
and random alignment of the vehicles gave the guard sufficient braking, but from
about 1930 so-called "either-side" brake handles were provided. These trains, not
fitted with continuous brakes were described as "unfitted" trains and they survived
in British practice until about 1985. However from about 1930 semi-fitted trains
were introduced, in which some goods vehicles were fitted with continuous brakes,
The chain brake was soon superseded by air operated or vacuum operated
brakes. These brakes used hoses connecting all the wagons of a train, so the driver
could apply or release the brakes with a single valve in the locomotive.
Automatic brakes on the other hand use the air or vacuum pressure to hold the
brakes off against a reservoir carried on each vehicle, which applies the brakes if
pressure/vacuum is lost in the train pipe. Automatic brakes are thus largely "fail
Non-automatic brakes still have a role on engines and first few wagons, as
they can be used to control the whole train without having to apply the automatic
brakes.
In the early part of the 20th century, many British railways employed vacuum
brakes rather than the air brakes used in America and much of the rest of the world.
The main advantage of vacuum was that the vacuum can be created by a steam
ejector with no moving parts (and which could be powered by the steam of a steam
locomotive), whereas an air brake system requires a noisy and complicated
compressor.
However, air brakes can be made much more effective than vacuum brakes
for a given size of brake cylinder. An air brake compressor is usually capable of
generating a pressure of 90 psi (620 kPa) vs only 15 psi (100 kPa) for vacuum. With
a vacuum system, the maximum pressure differential is atmospheric pressure
(14.7 psi or 101 kPa at sea level, less at altitude). Therefore, an air brake system can
use a much smaller brake cylinder than a vacuum system to generate the same
braking force. This advantage of air brakes increases at high altitude, e.g. Peru and
One enhancement of the automatic air brake is to have a second air hose (the
main reservoir or main line) along the train to recharge the air reservoirs on each
wagon. This air pressure can also be used to operate loading and unloading doors on
wheat wagons and coal and ballast wagons. On passenger coaches, the main
reservoir pipe is also used to supply air to operate doors and air suspension.
Air Brake System: Most air brake equipped vehicles on the road today are
using a dual air brake system. The system has been developed to accommodate a
mechanically secured parking brake that can be applied in the event of service brake
failure. It also accommodates the need for a modulated braking system should either
one of the two systems fail. It is actually two brake systems in one, with more
reservoir capacity resulting in a much safer system. At first glance, the dual system
might seem complicated, but if you understand the basic air brake system described
so far, and if the dual system is separated into basic functions, it becomes quite
simple.
As its name suggests, the dual system is two systems or circuits in one. There
are different ways of separating the two parts of the system. On a two–axle vehicle,
one circuit operates the rear axle and the other circuit operates the front axle. If one
circuit has a failure, the other circuit is isolated and will continue to operate.
Air from the primary/dry reservoir is directed to the foot valve (31). Air is
also directed from the secondary/dry reservoir to the foot valve. The foot valve is
similar to the one described earlier in the basic air brake system, but is divided into
A higher performing EP brake has a train pipe delivering air to all the
reservoirs on the train, with the brakes controlled electrically with a 3-wire control
circuit. This can give seven levels of braking, from mild to severe, and allows the
driver greater control over the level of braking used, which greatly increases
passenger comfort. It also allows for faster brake application, as the electrical control
signal is propagated effectively instantly to all vehicles in the train, whereas the
change in air pressure which activates the brakes in a conventional system can take
several seconds or tens of seconds to propagate fully to the rear of the train. This
system is not however used on freight trains due to cost.
With ECP, a power and control line is installed from wagon to wagon from
the front of the train to the rear. Electrical control signals are propagated effectively
instantaneously, as opposed to changes in air pressure which propagate at a rather
slow speed limited in practice by the resistance to air flow of the pipe work, so that
the brakes on all wagons can be applied simultaneously rather than from front to
rear. This prevents wagons at the rear "shoving" wagons at the front, and results in
reduced stopping distance and less equipment wear.
There are two brands of ECP brakes under development, one by New York
Air Brake and the other by Wabtec. A single standard is desirable, and it is intended
that the two types be interchangeable.
The brake control varies the air pressure in the brake cylinders to apply
pressure to the brake shoes. At the same time, it blends in the dynamic braking, using
the motors to slow the train down as well.
The engineer also has a host of other controls and indicator lights.
A computerized readout displays data from sensors all over the locomotive. It
can provide the engineer or mechanics with information that can help diagnose
problems. For instance, if the pressure in the fuel lines is getting too high, this may
mean that a fuel filter is clogged.
Fig. 10.6 This computerized display can show the status of systems all over the
locomotive.
On the new Fortescue railway opened in 2008, wagons are operated in sets,
although their direction changes at the balloon loop at the port. The ECP connections
are on one side only and are unidirectional
The vacuum brake is a braking system used on trains. It was first introduced
in the mid-1860s and a variant, the automatic vacuum brake system became almost
universal in British train equipment, and in those countries influenced by British
practice.
Fig. 10.7 Vacuum brake cylinder in running position: the vacuum is the same
above and below the piston
Fig. 10.8 Air at atmospheric pressure from the train pipe is admitted below the
piston, which is forced up
In its simplest form, the automatic vacuum brake consists of a continuous pipe
-- the train pipe -- running throughout the length of the train. In normal running a
partial vacuum is maintained in the train pipe, and the brakes are released. When air
is admitted to the train pipe, the air pressure acts against pistons in cylinders in each
vehicle. A vacuum is sustained on the other face of the pistons, so that a net force is
applied. A mechanical linkage transmits this force to brake shoes which act by
friction on the treads of the wheels.
A train pipe: a steel pipe running the length of each vehicle, with flexible vacuum
hoses at each end of the vehicles, and coupled between adjacent vehicles; at the
end of the train, the final hose is seated on an air-tight plug;
An ejector on the locomotive, to create vacuum in the train pipe;
controls for the driver to bring the ejector into action, and to admit air to the train
pipe; these may be separate controls or a combined brake valve;
A brake cylinder on each vehicle containing a piston, connected by rigging to the
brake shoes on the vehicle; and
A vacuum (pressure) gauge on the locomotive to indicate to the driver the degree
of vacuum in the train pipe.
When the vehicles have been at rest, so that the brake is not charged, the brake
pistons will have dropped to their lower position in the absence of a pressure
differential (as air will have leaked slowly into the upper part of the cylinder,
destroying the vacuum).
When a locomotive is coupled to the vehicles, the driver moves his brake
control to the "release" position and air is exhausted from the train pipe, creating a
partial vacuum. Air in the upper part of the brake cylinders is also exhausted from
the train pipe, through the ball valve.
Practical considerations:
Graduable brake valve (right) and the small (upper) and large ejector cocks
from a GWR locomotive
The driver's brake valve was usually combined with the steam brake control
on the locomotive.
The ejectors on steam locomotives are set to create a certain degree of vacuum
in the train pipe; in British practice a full release is 21 inches of mercury (533.4
Torr). An absolute vacuum is about 30 inches of mercury (760 Torr), depending on
atmospheric conditions; the Great Western Railway adopted 25 inches of mercury
(635 Torr) as its standard degree of vacuum.
Release valves are provided on the brake cylinders; when operated, usually
by manually pulling a cord near the cylinder, air is admitted to the upper part of the
brake cylinder on that vehicle. This is necessary to release the brake on a vehicle
The provision of a train pipe running throughout the train enabled the
automatic vacuum brake to be operated in emergency from any position in the train.
Every guard's compartment had a brake valve, and the passenger communication
apparatus (usually called "the communication cord" in lay terminology) also
admitted air into the train pipe at the end of coaches so equipped. This is called
pulling the tail.
The practical limit on the degree of vacuum attainable means that a very large
brake piston and cylinder are required to generate the force necessary on the
brake blocks; when a proportion of the British ordinary wagon fleet was fitted
with vacuum brakes in the 1950's, the physical dimensions of the brake cylinder
prevented the wagons from operating in some private sidings that had tight
clearances;
For the same reason, on a very long train, a considerable volume of air has to be
admitted to the train pipe to make a full brake application, and a considerable
volume has to be exhausted to release the brake (if for example a signal at danger
is suddenly lowered and the driver requires to resume speed); while the air is
traveling along the train pipe, the brake pistons at the head of the train have
responded to the brake application or release, but those at the tail will respond
much later, leading to undesirable longitudinal forces in the train. In extreme
cases this has led to breaking couplings and causing the train to divide.
The existence of vacuum in the train pipe can cause debris to be sucked in. An
accident took place near Ilford in the 1950's, due to inadequate braking effort in
the train. A rolled newspaper was discovered in the train pipe, effectively
isolating the rear part of the train from the driver's control. The blockage should
have been detected if a proper brake continuity test had been carried out before
the train started its journey.
A development introduced in the 1950's was the direct admission valve,
fitted to every brake cylinder. These valves responded to a rise in train pipe pressure
American and continental European practice had long favored compressed air
brake systems, the leading pattern being a proprietary Westinghouse system. This
has a number of advantages, including smaller brake cylinders (because a higher air
pressure could be used) and a somewhat more responsive braking effort. However
the system requires an air pump. On steam engines this was usually a reciprocating
steam pump, and it was quite bulky. Its distinctive shape and the characteristic
puffing sound when the brake is released (as the train pipe has to be recharged with
air) make steam locomotives fitted with the Westinghouse brake unmistakable, for
example in old films.
In the UK, the Great Eastern Railway, the North Eastern Railway, the London
Brighton and South Coast Railway and the Caledonian Railway adopted the
Westinghouse system. It was also standard on the Isle of Wight rail system.
Inevitably this led to compatibility problems in exchanging traffic with other lines.
It was possible to provide through pipes for the braking system not fitted to any
particular vehicle so that it could run in a train using the "other" system, allowing
through control of the fitted vehicles behind it, but of course with no braking effort
of its own.
Vehicles can be fitted with dual brakes, vacuum and air, provided that there
is room to fit the duplicated equipment. It is much easier to fit one kind of brake with
a pipe for continuity of the other. Train crew need to take note that the wrong-fitted
wagons do not contribute to the braking effort and make allowances on downgrades
When spring brakes are added to a dual air brake system, the same type of
dash control valve discussed previously is used. Blended air is used to supply the
spring parking brake control valve (27). Blended air is air taken from the primary
and secondary circuits through a two–way check valve (26). With this piping
arrangement the vehicle can have a failure in either circuit without the spring brakes
applying automatically. If air is lost in both circuits, the spring brakes will apply.
Air brakes need a tap to seal the hose at the ends of the train. If these taps are
incorrectly closed, a loss of brake force may occur, leading to a dangerous runaway.
With vacuum brakes, the end of the hose can be plugged into a stopper which seals
the hose by suction. It is much harder to block the hose pipe compared to air brakes.
On the rear truck there is also a hand brake -- yes, even trains need hand
brakes. Since the brakes are air powered, they can only function while the
compressor is running. If the train has been shut down for a while, there will be no
air pressure to keep the brakes engaged. Without a hand brake and the failsafe of an
air pressure reservoir, even a slight slope would be enough to get the train rolling
because of its immense weight and the very low rolling friction between the wheels
and the track.
Today's largest operators of trains equipped with vacuum brakes are the
Railways of India and Spoornet (South Africa), however there are also trains with
air brakes and dual brakes in use. Other African railways are believed to continue to
use the vacuum brake. Other operators of vacuum brakes are narrow gauge railways
in Central Europe, largest of them is Ferrovia Retica.
Vacuum brakes have been entirely superseded on the National Rail system in
the UK, although they are still in use on most heritage railways. They are also to be
found on a number (though increasingly fewer) main line vintage specials.
C & E has developed the automatic vacuum brake and designed it in its
simplest form; the automatic vacuum brake consists of a continuous pipe -- the train
pipe -- running throughout the length of the train.
So far we have seen a simple example of diesel engine control but the systems
used by most locomotives in service today are more sophisticated. To begin with,
the drivers control was combined with the governor and hydraulic control was
introduced. One type of governor uses oil to control the fuel racks hydraulically and
another uses the fuel oil pumped by a gear pump driven by the engine. Some
governors are also linked to the turbo charging system to ensure that fuel does not
increase before enough turbocharged air is available. In the most modern systems,
the governor is electronic and is part of a complete engine management system.
The diesel engine in a diesel-electric locomotive provides the drive for the
main alternator which, in turn, provides the power required for the traction
motors. We can see from this therefore, that the power required from the diesel
engine is related to the power required by the motors. So, if we want more power
from the motors, we must get more current from the alternator so the engine needs
to run faster to generate it. Therefore, to get the optimum performance from the
locomotive, we must link the control of the diesel engine to the power demands
being made on the alternator.
Archbar type truck with journal bearings as used on some steam locomotive tenders.
A bogie in the UK, or a wheel truck, or simply truck in the USA and Canada
as well as Mexico, is a structure underneath a train to which axles (and, hence,
wheels) are attached through bearings.
Usually two bogies are fitted to each carriage, wagon or locomotive, one at
each end. An alternate configuration often is used in articulated vehicles, which
places the bogies under the connection between the carriages or wagons.
Most bogies have two axles as it is the simplest design, but some cars designed
for extremely heavy loads have been built with up to five axles per bogie. Heavy-
duty cars may have more than two bogies using span bolsters to equalize the load
and connect the bogies to the cars.
Usually the train floor is at a level above the bogies, but the floor of the car
may be lower between bogies, such as for a double decker train to increase interior
space while staying within height restrictions, or in easy-access, stepless-entry low-
floor trains.
The British Railways Mark 1 coach brought into production in 1950 utilized
the BR1 bogie, which was rated to run at 90 mph (145 km/h). The wheels were cast
as a one-piece item in a pair with their axle. The simple design involved the bogie
resting on four leaf springs (one spring per wheel) which in turn were connected to
the axles. The leaf springs were designed to absorb any movement or resonance and
to have a damping effect to benefit ride quality.
Each spring was connected to the outermost edge of the axle by means of a
roller bearing contained in oil filled axle box. The oil in these boxes had to be topped
up at regular maintenance times to avoid the bearing running hot and from seizing.
Fig. 12.2 Commonwealth bogie as used on BR Mark 1 and CIE Park Royals.
The leaf springs were replaced with coil type springs (one per wheel) running
vertically rather than horizontally. The advanced design gave a superior ride quality
to the BR1, being rated for 100 miles per hour (160 km/h).
The side frame of the bogie was usually of bar construction, with simple horn
guides attached, allowing the axle boxes vertical movements between them. The axle
boxes had a cast steel equalizer beam or bar resting on them. The bar had two steel
coil springs placed on it and the bogie frame rested on the springs. The effect was to
allow the bar to act as a compensating lever between the two axles and to use both
springs to soften shocks from either axle. The bogie had a conventional bolster
suspension with swing links carrying a spring plank.
Axle/spring connection was again with fitted roller bearings. However, now two coil
springs rather than one were fitted per wheel.
Only a very small amount of Mark 1 stock was fitted with the B4 bogie from
new, it being used on the Mark 1 only to replace worn out BR1 bogies. The British
Rail Mark 2 coach however carried the B4 bogies from new. A heavier duty version,
the B5, was standard on Southern Region Mk1 based EMUs from the 1960s
onwards. Some Mark 1 catering cars had mixed bogies—a B5 under the kitchen end,
and a B4 under the seating end. Some of the B4 fitted Mark 2s, as well as many B4
fitted Mark 1 BGs were allowed to run at 110 miles per hour (180 km/h) with extra
maintenance, particularly of the wheel profile, and more frequent exams.
The BT10 bogie was introduced on the British Rail Mark 3 coach in the 1970s.
Each wheel is separately connected to the bogie by a swing-arm axle.
Primary suspension via a coil spring and damper mounted on each axle.
Secondary suspension via two air springs mounted on the pivot plank. This is
connected to the bogie by pendulum links. A constant coach height is maintained
by air valves.
Most diesel locomotives and electric locomotives are carried on bogies (UK)
or trucks (US). Trucks used in the USA include AAR type A switcher truck,
Bloomberg B, HT-C truck and Flexi coil.
PROJECT STUDY
Project title: - To study about turbo supercharger of locomotive
TURBOSUPERCHARGERS
____________________________________________________
A turbosupercharger, or turbo, is a gas compressor that is used for forced-
induction of an internal combustion engine. It increases the density of air
entering the engine to create more power.
A turbosupercharger has the compressor powered by a turbine, driven by the
engine's own exhaust gases. The turbine and compressor are mounted on a
shared shaft. The turbine converts exhaust heat and pressure to rotational
force, which is in turn used to drive the compressor. The compressor draws in
ambient air and pumps it in to the intake manifold at increased pressure,
resulting in a greater mass of air entering the cylinders on each intake stroke.
Turbosupercharging dramatically improves the engine's specific power,
power-to-weight ratio and performance characteristics which are normally
poor in non-turbosupercharged diesel engines.
1. ALCO-2600
2. ABB-2300
4. ABB-3100
5. ABB-TPR 61
6. NAPIER-2300
7. NAPIER-2600
11.HISPANO SUIZA-3100
12.ELGI
Bearing Disorder
Exhaust gas temperature Fouling or damage to turbine Cleaning the turbine side of
higher than normal. nozzle or turbine blades. the turbocharger or
component replacement.
Instruction Manual.
Bearing Casing:
Cleaning of the sealing air ducts:
The carbon deposits are dissolved and cleaning is done with the help of
flexible wire for ensuring free passage.
Compressed air is used to check that the sealing air ducts in the bearing casing
are unobstructed / unchoked.
Oil Passages:
It is cleaned with 80% kerosene/diesel + 20% mineral oil solution (i.e. 80/20
solution).
Bearing Parts:
All bearing parts, bearing covers are cleaned in 80/20 solution and with
malmal (piece of cloth). Special care is taken to clean the carbon deposits from the
“O” ring grooves and the oil supply/oil drain lines.
1. Secure the loco: Keep the A9 (Train Brake lever) in released condition; keep
the SA9 (Loco brake lever) in an applied condition; switch off the GF
(Generator Field); keep the reverser in neutral condition; and put the ECS
(Engine control switch) in the run mode.
2. Ensure that the water temperature is higher than 49 degrees Celsius.
Flasher lights have been installed on all diesel locomotives to give indication to
drivers of train approaching from the opposite direction on double line sections
in case of mishap for prevention of future accident. All main line locomotives
have been provided with auto flasher lights, which start blinking and brakes
apply automatically whenever there is any discontinuity in the brake pipe due to
train parting or any other reason.
On the whole, this internship was a useful experience. I have gained new
knowledge, skills and met many new people. I achieved several of my learning goals,
however for some the conditions did not permit. I got insight into professional
practice.
Here the main aim is to effectively utilize the non-renewable energy such as
petrol and diesel. Complete combustion of the fuels can be achieved. Power output
can be increased. Wind energy can be used for air compression. We conclude that
the power as well as the efficiency is increasing 10 to 15 % and pollution can also
decrease. From the observation we can conclude that when the full throttle valve is
open at that time the engine speed is 4000 rpm and by this the turbocharger generate
1.60 bar pressurized air. Generally, the naturally aspirated engine takes atmospheric
pressurized air to the carburetor for air fuel mixture but we can add the high density
air for the combustion so as the result the power and the complete combustion take
place so efficiency is increasing.
References
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbocharger
2. I.C Engines, Colin, R. Ferguson C. John Wiley & Sons, 1986
3. I C Engines, Shyam K Agarwal, New Age Publications,2006
4. Automobile Engineering by R.B. Gupta
5. Automobile engineering, R. K. Rajput, Laxmi Publication
6. I C Engines, V. Ganeshan