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Acousto-ultrasonic sensing using fiber Bragg gratings

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INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING SMART MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
Smart Mater. Struct. 12 (2003) 122–128 PII: S0964-1726(03)56118-3

Acousto-ultrasonic sensing using fiber


Bragg gratings
Daniel C Betz1 , Graham Thursby2 , Brian Culshaw2 and
Wieslaw J Staszewski3
1
DaimlerChrysler AG, Optoelectronics, D-89081 Ulm, Germany
2
Optoelectronics Division, Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XW, UK
3
Dynamics Research Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sheffield,
Sheffield S1 3JD, UK

Received 22 May 2002, in final form 11 October 2002


Published 10 January 2003
Online at stacks.iop.org/SMS/12/122

Abstract
This paper describes a fiber-optic system which is able to detect ultrasound
in structures. The aim of the sensing system is to monitor structures, in
particular aircraft structures, by detecting ultrasonic Lamb waves. This type
of monitoring technique has recently become a key topic in structural health
monitoring. Most common approaches use piezoceramic devices to launch
and receive the ultrasound. A new way of fiber-optic detection of Lamb
waves is based on fiber Bragg grating sensors. In addition to the well known
advantages of fiber-optic sensors, this new interrogation scheme allows the
use of Bragg gratings for both high-resolution strain and high-speed
ultrasound detection. The focus of the paper is on the ultrasonic part of the
system. The theoretical approach and the implementation into a laboratory
set-up are elaborated. Experiments have been carried out to calibrate the
system and first results on simple structures show the feasibility of the
system for sensing ultrasonic Lamb waves.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction time [3]. Only a few NDT techniques can be considered


sufficiently technically mature for use in smart materials, the
Structural health monitoring (SHM) has become of major most promising being acousto-ultrasonics. This technique
interest to the engineering community. Applications cover requires two probes, one of which is used to introduce
a broad bandwidth from civil engineering to aerospace ultrasonic stress waves into the structure and the other to pick
applications [1]. Especially in the aircraft industry, current up these stress waves at another position [4]. Figure 1 gives a
concerns such as ageing aircraft, necessary enhanced schematic diagram of the technique. The use of Lamb waves
performance and the need to reduce operational cost call for for ultrasonic inspection has become very attractive especially
new SHM concepts. One idea is to allow non-destructive for large structures, e.g. aircraft components. Lamb waves can
testing (NDT) methods to become an integral part of the be excited at one point of a structure and can be propagated over
structure [2]. Monitoring can be performed in several ways: considerable distances [5]. Hence, a relatively large area of the
the most important techniques are load monitoring and damage structure can be interrogated between actuator and sensor. The
monitoring. Load monitoring allows the actual usage of the Lamb wave method involves the analysis of the transmitted
aircraft to be determined, and this information helps the aircraft and/or reflected wave. The presence of damage is identified
operators to deploy their aircraft accordingly. Actual in-flight when the detected ultrasonic signal deviates from the reference
monitoring today is based on operational loads using either signal of the undamaged structure [6, 7].
conventional strain gauges or flight parameters. However, Fiber-optic sensors for SHM offer many benefits
predicted fatigue life often differs greatly from real fatigue life. compared to their electric counterparts. Most important is
A damage monitoring system avoids this drawback by actually their immunity to electromagnetic interference, which enables
sensing any failure of the structure at a non-critical point in applications under difficult environmental conditions. Fiber-

0964-1726/03/010122+07$30.00 © 2003 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 122


Acousto-ultrasonic sensing using fiber Bragg gratings

Ultrasonic Transducer Ultrasonic Receiver where Cε and CT are material constants usually determined
from calibration experiments. Typical values for the relative
shift of the Bragg wavelength are ∼10 pm K−1 for the
Structure
temperature sensitivity and ∼1.2 pm/µstrain for the strain
Bursted Excitation Ultrasonic Stress Wave sensitivity in the 1.5 µm wavelength region. The use of Bragg
gratings as strain or temperature sensors demands a high-
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the acousto-ultrasonic technique.
resolution interrogation system with a high absolute accuracy.
Such a system can be based on a tunable laser and a high-
optic sensors are small, lightweight and can easily be integrated precision wavelength measurement and attachment unit as
into structures—a property which is especially attractive described in [10].
for composite materials where fiber optics can be used to
implement smart structures, i.e. materials having their own
2.2. Ultrasonic sensing
nervous system [8]. Sensor applications are as manifold as
fiber-optic sensor configurations, but the sensor with the most The demands on a system suitable for detecting ultrasonic
attraction for the fiber-optic community today is the fiber Bragg acoustic waves are different than for the more common strain
grating sensor (FBGS). In addition to the above-mentioned and temperature systems. On the one hand, the frequency is
advantages of fiber optics, Bragg gratings offer self-calibration much higher, with typical values for ultrasonic frequencies
and excellent multiplexing capabilities [9]. What makes them used in NDT ranging from 100 kHz up to several MHz.
most attractive for SHM is that they can be used for both On the other hand, the related strain levels are much lower,
strain-based load monitoring and acousto-ultrasonic damage normally in the µstrain range. Fiber-optic solutions for
detection. this problem do exist. The most common approach is use
This paper focuses on the use of Bragg gratings as acousto- of an interferometric technique [11, 12]. Fiber optics is
ultrasonic receivers. The intention of the paper is to present particularly attractive for ultrasonic sensing as the sensors offer
a Bragg grating interrogation system for the detection of broadband detection capability. Despite the fact that research
ultrasonic Lamb waves, which in addition could be used as on Bragg grating sensors has soared, few publications deal with
a fiber-optic strain sensing system. As far as the authors know, Bragg gratings as ultrasonic sensors. Fisher et al [13] have
such an approach has not been reported in the literature before. demonstrated the feasibility of short fiber Bragg gratings to
The structure of the paper is as follows: in section 2 a brief measure MHz acoustic fields and temperature simultaneously.
introduction to fiber Bragg gratings is given, and section 3 An underwater acoustic sensor with fiber Bragg gratings has
spotlights the ultrasonic sensing technique, whose practical been examined by Takahashi et al [14]. More recently, a study
implementation is described in section 4. First results obtained on Bragg gratings for ultrasonic sensing related to damage
using the system in a laboratory set-up are given in section 5, detection has been presented [15]. This proves the growing
and the paper is concluded in section 6. importance of this kind of sensing technique. What still
remains an open task is the merging of both load monitoring
2. Fiber Bragg grating sensor and damage detection concepts with a single fiber-optic sensor
technology.
2.1. General description The idea of a combined system based on fiber Bragg
gratings is very attractive. Yet, the demands on the optical
A fiber-optic Bragg grating (FBG) is a permanent, periodic interrogation system are stringent, because high absolute
perturbation of the refractive index which is laterally exposed accuracy and ultra-fast interrogation have to be implemented in
in the core of an optical fiber, extending over a limited length a single system. An approach including a tunable laser source
of the fiber [9]. The grating is characterized by its period, will be able to meet these requirements. This approach enables
amplitude and length, usually 1–20 mm. Such a periodic a dual load and damage monitoring system, where the fiber-
structure acts as a filter for light traveling along the fiber line. optical system runs in a scanning mode to record the load levels
It has the property of reflecting light in a predetermined range for the time the structure is in service. During maintenance,
of wavelength centered around a peak wavelength value. This however, when the structure is out of service, the system can
value, the Bragg wavelength λ B , is given as follows: be driven in the acousto-ultrasonic mode in order to detect any
structural damage. The load sensing part of the system has
λ B = 2n̄ e f f  (1) been explained in [10]. The ultrasonic interrogation part is
presented in the following sections. Special effort is made
where  is the grating period and n̄ e f f is the mean effective
to find a consistent mathematical description of the signal
refractive index in the grating region. External forces such
composition. This allows the identification of the critical
as strain, pressure or a temperature change lead to changes
parameters, which have to be determined experimentally
in the grating period and in the effective refractive index.
during sensor calibration.
Consequently, the wavelength of the light reflected from the
grating varies. The relative shift of the Bragg wavelength for an
applied strain along the fiber axes εz and a temperature change 3. Analytical approach
T is, in a first approximation, given as follows:
The basic idea of the interrogation method is to use a narrow-
λ B linewidth laser diode. If the wavelength of the laser matches a
= Cε εz + CT T (2)
λB certain part of the grating spectrum, any shift of the spectrum

123
D C Betz et al

wave propagating along the fiber axis. In addition, the time


dependence is assumed to be sinusoidal:
ε(t) = AU S cos(ks x − ωt). (5)
Here AU S is the amplitude of the acoustic wave, ks = 2π/λU S
is the wavenumber at the acoustic wavelength λU S , ω is the
angular frequency and x indicates the direction along the fiber
axis. In general, R is a complex function of ε, since, due to
an arbitrary strain distribution, the grating spectrum changes
not only in wavelength but also in shape. However, if the
acoustic wavelength is much greater than the length of the
Bragg grating, the strain can be considered constant along
the length of the grating. This, on the other hand, poses a
limitation on the actual detectable size of the damage. In
order to obtain a significant change in the acoustic wave, the
acoustic wavelength should be at least at the same order of
Figure 2. Relevant parameters to describe the grating spectrum. magnitude as the defects size or smaller. For a sufficiently
long acoustic wavelength the spectral response of the grating
will as a consequence modulate the reflected optical power. will shift only in wavelength and keep its shape as in standard
The use of a tunable laser source allows the interrogation of grating theory [17]. In this case the dependence of the
Bragg wavelength with respect to strain is linear and follows
several gratings within a single fiber line.
equation (2). The wavelength shift will be modulated with the
A typical Bragg grating reflection spectrum is shown in
frequency of the acoustic wave. From (4) and (2), the reflection
figure 4. The optical power reflected by the fiber grating Pr, opt
as a function of strain can be written as follows:
depends on the wavelength λ. It can be given as a function
dR
of the incoming optical power Pin, opt and the wavelength- R(ε(t)) = R0 + ε(t) (6)
dependent reflection R(λ): dε
where
Pr, opt (λ) = Pin, opt R(λ) (3) dR dR dλ
= . (7)
dε dλ dε
where R(λ) describes the entire grating spectrum and is a non- Both terms on the right-hand side can be obtained from
linear function of λ [16]. calibration experiments, as described below. The first term
The interrogation method concentrates on the part of the dR/dλ is different for each grating. Its value is a function
spectrum where the function can be assumed to be linear. This of the grating reflectivity and the grating’s bandwidth, both of
is true for 20–80% of the grating’s maximum reflectivity Rmax which depend on the length and the strength of the grating.
(figure 2). The corresponding wavelength range is marked as The second term dλ/dε depends on the material parameters
δλ. For this part of the spectrum, on both sides of the main and corresponds to Cε in equation (2).
For the measurements, the results are not obtained in terms
peak, the slope is constant with a value presented as dR/dλ.
of reflection but rather in terms of reflected optical power. The
For experiments that only include reflection spectra it is useful
optical power is converted to an electrical voltage U (t) by
to normalize the reflectivity of the grating with the main peak
means of the photo receiver. The equation that relates the
giving, by definition, a reflection of 1.
measured electrical voltage to the strain field seen by the fiber
While the input wavelength is kept constant during the grating is
measurement process, as a first step the laser should be tuned to   
any point in the spectra where the linear approximation holds R0 dR −1
ε(t) = U (t) − R0 . (8)
true. Yet, in order to achieve the maximum range in both U0 dε
directions, the laser should be set to the wavelength at full width
The time-dependent voltage can be expressed in terms of a DC
at half-maximum (FWHM). This results in a linear relation and AC component:
between the shift of the optical spectrum and the reflected
power amplitude. With the laser being fixed at the wavelength U (t) = U0 + U (t). (9)
λ0 (see figure 2), the time-varying reflection of the grating can Finally the acoustic strain is given as a function of the measured
be given as a function of the time-varying wavelength shift of voltage:
the main peak λ(t) and initial reflection R0 :   
R0 dR −1
ε(t) = U (t) (10)
dR U0 dε
R(λ(t)) = λ(t) + R0 . (4) where by definition the strain at t = 0 and U = U0 is zero.

Using (10), it is possible to determine the acoustic strain
The acoustic wave traveling through the material is described levels from the fiber-optic signal, provided that the calibration
as a series of expansions and compressions, yielding a time- has been carried out carefully. The next section presents
dependent strain field ε(t). The next step is to find an equation the results of the calibration experiments where the grating
that represents R as a function of the strain ε(t). As a first parameters were obtained. First the optical set-up is explained,
assumption, the strain field is modeled by a longitudinal strain followed by a description of the experiments.

124
Acousto-ultrasonic sensing using fiber Bragg gratings

Figure 3. Measurement set-up for acousto-ultrasonic sensing. The system operates in WDM mode.

bandwidth; the same is true for a standard oscilloscope or any


another A/D converter.
The required resolution in terms of voltage strongly
depends on the respective test conditions and is determined
by the expected acoustic strain field. The acoustic wave
amplitude at the detector depends on numerous parameters:
Reflection

e.g. transducer properties, material of the structure, location of


the sensor with respect to transducer, mounting techniques,
and the resulting acoustic coupling of both transducer and
receiver. It has been found that a typical order of magnitude for
strains related to ultrasonic Lamb waves is in the micro strain
range. Equation (10) translates this into a requirement for the
detectable voltage. As we will show in the next section, the
fiber optical system is easily capable of detecting these signals.
Wavelength [nm] Equation (10) gives the key parameter for increasing
the sensitivity of the system: dR/dε. In order to achieve
Figure 4. Measured grating spectrum and linear fit between 20 and a maximum sensitivity, it should have the highest possible
80% of the peak value.
value, hence both values dR/dλ and dλ/dε (see equation (7))
should be maximized. Whereas the first parameter can be
4. Optical set-up and calibration adjusted over a wider range by appropriate grating parameters,
e.g. length and strength, the second one is a material constant
The optical interrogation system is based on a tunable laser and varies only slightly for different types of fiber. Bragg
(figure 3). An external cavity laser (ECL) has been used gratings from different manufacturers have been studied by
because of its extremely narrow linewidth (<100 kHz) and DaimlerChrysler over the last few years. The variation in
its wide tuning range of about 100 nm in the 1500 nm region. the strain sensitivity is marginal and it can assumed to be
The gratings are interrogated in reflection, their signal being a constant within the measurement uncertainties. The value
detected by a photo receiver. Any oscilloscope or PC can be which is used in this work is dλ/dε = 1.2 pm/µstrain for a
used to acquire the data. This set-up enables the interrogation grating at 1540 nm. To study the variation of dR/dλ with the
of several Bragg gratings (FBGS λ1 –λn ) within a single grating parameters, several different types of gratings from one
optical fiber by means of wavelength division multiplexing manufacturer were acquired. Grating specifications varied in
(WDM). Each grating can be measured within a certain time, reflectivity (10, 50 and 90%) and length (1 and 5 mm). For
before the laser scans to the next wavelength, which is the each grating, the reflection spectrum was measured. A high-
wavelength of the corresponding grating at FWHM. In the resolution interrogation system as described in [10] was used.
intended application, where damage detection is carried out Figure 4 shows a typical result. A linear fit gives the desired
at certain inspection intervals, an interrogation sequentially in value of the spectrum’s slope, and also the wavelength range
time is adequate. In conclusion, this permits the monitoring of where the linear approximation holds can be obtained. As
stated above, the grating length should be as short as possible,
a large area of a structure with only one optical fiber and one
since it has to be much shorter than the acoustic wavelength.
ultrasonic transducer.
The gratings that have been chosen as possible ultrasonic
The requirements for the system bandwidth are
sensing elements have a length of 1 mm.
determined by the expected acoustic frequencies. Lamb To validate the resulting value for dR/dε, a simple
wave propagation is typically characterized by the product of experiment has been carried out where both strain and the
sample thickness and the frequency of the excitation. This change in reflected power were measured. This involved a
is often referred to as the frequency–thickness (FT) product. cantilever on which an electrical strain gauge (ESG) and a fiber
It is an objective to have a low FT product, since only then grating were mounted. By deflecting the cantilever, a strain is
will two modes of Lamb waves propagate, which simplifies introduced in both the ESG and the grating. The grating and
signal interpretation. A low FT product is commonly seen the ESG are glued to opposite sides of the cantilever, leading
as <1 MHz mm. Most structures have a thickness >1 mm, to a different sign of the respective strain values. Figure 5 sets
resulting in an upper limit for the acoustic frequency of out the result. In this graph the starting point where the laser
1 MHz. Standard optical receivers easily extend the required is set to 50% of maximum reflection is marked as FWHM.

125
D C Betz et al

Figure 5. Result of the calibration experiment to obtain the grating Figure 7. Dimensions of the Perspex plate and location of
sensitivity. transducers (PZT) and receivers (FBGS).

the sample: density, longitudinal vlong and transverse vtrans


acoustic velocity, thickness of the plate, FT product at 150 kHz,
and the longitudinal acoustic wavelength λU S, long .
λU S, long is several times greater than the grating length,
and the FT product is smaller 1 MHz mm, thus fulfilling the
requirements defined in sections 3 and 4. Furthermore, for this
small FT product, the first symmetrical Lamb wave mode can
be described using the longitudinal wave velocity vlong [5].
This allows a straightforward signal interpretation, which is
sufficient for a simple validation experiment at this stage.
The layout of the different types of actuators and sensors
Figure 6. Measurement set-up for the detection of Lamb waves is shown in figure 7 with the possible paths which the acoustic
using a fiber Bragg grating. wave can take between them being marked with a dotted
line. The distances are given in mm. A PZT can be used
The range where the grating response is linear with strain can as either an actuator or sensing element. Both PZT and Bragg
be clearly identified. The numerical value for the sensitivity grating (FBGS) have been glued to the surface. The mounting
dR/dε is obtained by a fitting routine. The result is within 5% technique for the fiber grating has been studied before with
of the theoretically derived value when dR/dλ and dλ/dε are respect to an optimal strain transfer from the structure to the
combined and, hence, validates the former results. fiber [10].
Table 1 gives the experimental results on the parameters Figure 8 shows the actuator signal and corresponding
of possible ultrasonic sensing elements. The grating found receiver signals from both PZT and FBGS. The actuator signal
to be best suited has a reflection of 50%. This result is a five-cycle sine tone burst at 150 kHz. In this experiment
is a compromise between maximum sensitivity dR/dλ and PZT 2 acts as the transmitter, PZT 4 and FBGS 1 are the
maximum wavelength range δλ with minimum FWHM, which receivers. The evaluation of both sensor signals shows that the
is desirable for multiplexing capabilities. acoustic wave is dominated by the first symmetric mode. The
corresponding time matches the distance–velocity quotient for
5. Results the longitudinal velocity. On closer inspection the FBGS
response shows several smaller signals besides the dominating
The experimental set-up for Lamb wave detection is shown in symmetric mode at 0.1 ms. A possible explanation for the
figure 6. The standard technique for Lamb wave excitation has signals around 0.15 ms is the interference of the antisymmetric
been used, including a function generator, RF amplifier, and mode with reflections of the symmetric one. At 0.3 ms the
PZT transducer disks. The optical interrogation system used back-reflection of the symmetric mode from the opposite edge
is that described in section 4. A digital oscilloscope not only can be observed. Using equation (10) the related strains in the
enables the representation of the signals from both PZT and optical fiber can be found. With the calibration parameters as
optical systems, it can also be used to store the data for further given in table 1 a strain level of ±4 µstrain is obtained, which
processing. The test specimen is a Perspex plate. Perspex has is in good agreement with the predictions of section 2.
been chosen as it is easily available, the material properties The signals shown in figure 8 have been averaged
are well known and, as an isotropic material, it simplifies 128 times. The noise analysis shows the same signal-to-noise
Lamb wave analysis. Table 2 presents the material parameters ratio of 26 dB for both FBGS and PZT. By taking the standard
which are relevant to describe the acoustic properties of definition for the minimum detectable signal as the one for

126
Acousto-ultrasonic sensing using fiber Bragg gratings

Table 1. Parameters of different Bragg grating sensors.


Wavelength Reflectivity Length d R/dλ dλ/dε d R/dε FWHM δλ
(nm) (%) (mm) (pm−1 ) (pm/µε) (µε−1 ) (pm) (pm)

1540 50 1 1.88 × 10−3 1.2 2.3 × 10−3 950 300


1540 10 5 1.13 × 10−2 1.2 1.4 × 10−2 130 50
1540 90 1 2.23 × 10−3 1.2 2.7 × 10−3 1380 300
1548 99 5 not linear — not linear 3000 —

Table 2. Acoustic properties of the test specimen (material data [4]).


Material Density vlong vtrans Thickness FT at 150 kHz λU S, long
−3 −1 −1
Perspex 1.18 g cm 2.67 km s 1.12 km s 3 mm 450 kHz mm 18 mm

Figure 9. FBGS signal for different orientation of the transducers


with respect to fiber axis.

Figure 8. Lamb wave detection using a FBGS. Also shown are the 6. Conclusion
actuator signal, and the signal received by a PZT.
For the first time, fiber Bragg gratings have been used to detect
ultrasonic Lamb waves. In order to achieve this, a simple
which the signal-to-noise ratio is 0 dB, the minimum detectable
but powerful optical interrogation system has been developed,
strain is 16 nstrain for the fiber optical system. The resolution which shows excellent signal quality. Additionally, this optical
obtained is 40 fstrain (Hz)−1/2 . The main noise source found set-up can easily be modified to allow the interrogation of
in the system is the relative intensity noise of the laser, which is Bragg gratings for both strain-oriented load monitoring and an
given by the manufacturer as 160 dB Hz. However, the overall ultrasonic technique for damage monitoring. The study of the
noise level is very low and poses no limits for the analysis of relevant process parameters, e.g. grating properties, allows the
the acousto-ultrasonic signals. use of tailor-made Bragg gratings for ultrasonic sensing. Due
As illustrated in figure 9, the Bragg grating shows high to the calibration of the sensor prior to the ultrasonic sensing,
directivity. The upper part shows the response of FBGS 1 the corresponding surface strains produced by the Lamb waves
when the acoustic wave is launched perpendicular to the fiber have been obtained. The results obtained in this work show
new ways of SHM using fiber Bragg grating sensors.
by PZT 3. The lower part refers to the parallel case, when the
actuator is PZT 2. For both experiments, the grating interacts
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