II-3- PERMEABILITY

1. Introduction
2. Sources for permeability determination
3. Laboratory determination
4. Factors Affecting Permeability Determination
5. Average Permeability
6. Effective permeability
7. Relative permeability “two & three phases”
8. Laboratory measurement of Relative Permeability
a) Steady state method
b) Capillary End Effect
c) Unsteady state method

Basic Reservoir Engineering 1

II-3-Permeability
 1. Introduction
• Definition (ABW, Ref: API 27)
– … permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids
– … a measure of the fluid conductivity of the particular material
• Permeability is an INTENSIVE property of a porous
medium (e.g. reservoir rock)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 2

II-3-Permeability
 A
Darcy’s
Apparatus for h1-h2
q
Determining
Permeability
A
h1

h2
(Sand Pack Length) L

•Flow is Steady State

•q = KA (h1-h2)/L q

•K is a constant of
proportionality
•h1>h2 for downward flow Basic Reservoir Engineering 3
II-3-Permeability
 PERMEABILITY

• Darcy’s “K” was determined to be a combination

of
– k, permeability of the sand pack (porous medium,
e.g. reservoir rock)
– , viscosity of the liquid

k
K
μ
Basic Reservoir Engineering 4
II-3-Permeability
 Review - Derived Units

• Consider Newton’s 2nd Law for constant mass,

F=ma
– SI Units are Absolute and Coherent
• Absolute: Force is a derived unit, 1 N = 1 (kg*m/s2)
• Coherent (consistent): No conversion constants needed
– So: F[N] = m[kg]*a[m/s2]

Basic Reservoir Engineering 5

II-3-Permeability
 Review - Derived Units

• What if we want F to be in [lbf ]?

– Then, F[lbf]*4.448[ N/lbf] = m[kg]*a[m/s2]

– Adding the conversion factor restores the original formula (a true

statement in SI units)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 6

II-3-Permeability
 Review - Derived Units

• For: F in [lbf ], m in [lbm ], a in [ft/s2]

– Then, F[lbf ]*4.448222[N / lbf] = m[lbm ]*0.4535924[kg/lbm] *

a[ft/s2]*0.3048[m/ft]

– Or, F[lbf ] = m[lbm ] * a[ft/s2] /

32.17405[(lbmft)/(lbf s2)]

– Remember: 1[N] / 1[kg*m/s2] = 1; dimensionless

Basic Reservoir Engineering 7

II-3-Permeability
 Permeability “Dimensions & Units”

• Permeability is a derived dimension

• From Darcy’s equation, the dimension of permeability is length
squared
qμ L  L3 P  T L 1 1 
k ;     2    L2
A Δp  T 1 1 L P 
 

– This is not the same as area, even though for example, it is m2 in SI units

• See handout: Darcy, {SI}, and [Oilfield] units

• In Darcy and SI Units, this equation is coherent
– Oilfield units are non-coherent, a unit conversion constant is required

Basic Reservoir Engineering 8

II-3-Permeability
 Darcy Units
• Permeability is a derived dimension based on Darcy’s Equation
k = (q m L) / (A Dp)

• The unit of permeability is the Darcy [d]

– The oilfield unit is millidarcy [md]

• The Darcy is defined from Darcy’s Equation, where:

q [cm3/s]
m [cp]
L [cm]
A [cm2]
Dp [atm]

Basic Reservoir Engineering 9

II-3-Permeability
 Differential Form - Darcy’s Law

• Darcy’s Equation rearranged as Darcy velocity (volumetric flux)

vs = q/A = (k/m) (Dp/L)

• This equation applies for any L,  as L0

vs = q/A = -(k/m) (dp/ds)

where,
vs Darcy velocity, (volumetric flux)
s distance along flow path (0s  L), in the direction of
decreasing pressure (note negative sign)
• The differential form is Darcy’s Law

Basic Reservoir Engineering 10

II-3-Permeability
Examples, Typical Permeability-Porosity
Relationship

Basic Reservoir Engineering 12

II-3-Permeability
From Tiab and Donaldson, 1996
2.Sources for Permeability Determination
• Core analysis
• Well test analysis (flow testing)
– RFT (repeat formation tester) provides small well tests
• Production data
– production logging measures fluid flow into well
• Log data
– MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) logs calibrated via core
analysis

Basic Reservoir Engineering 13

II-3-Permeability
LABORATORY DETERMATION
OF PERMEABILITY

Basic Reservoir Engineering 14

II-3-Permeability
LABORATORY METHODS FOR DETERMINING ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY

1” or 1 1/2”

Plug
Slab Taken for
Most Common •Photography
•Description
•Archival
Full Diameter

Heterogeneous

Whole Core
Heterogeneous
Basic Reservoir Engineering 15
II-3-Permeability
 WHOLE-CORE METHOD

• Uses selected pieces from the full or whole

core
– Core sizes 2 1/2 to 5 1/2 inches in diameter

– Several inches to several feet long

• Most applicable approach for very

heterogeneous formations.
• Additional expense limits the practical number
of tests.

Basic Reservoir Engineering 16

II-3-Permeability
 CORE PLUG METHOD

• Most commonly applied method.

• Uses small cylindrical core samples
– 3/4 inch to 1 1/2 inch diameter

– 1 to a few inches long

• May not apply to heterogeneous

formations.

Basic Reservoir Engineering 17

II-3-Permeability
 I IIa IIb
Unacceptable
Different
Lithologies ~1 ft
kH ?

Require Or
Full-
Careful Suitable
kH Diameter

Selection of kV kV

Suitable Core III IV V

Plugs or kV
Require Full
Diameter kH Matrix
Only
`4” - 9”
Whole-Core
Analyses Fracture
k and ?

Whole Core
Analysis
Basic Reservoir Engineering 18
(2-3 ft)
II-3-Permeability
WHOLE CORE

Whole Core Photograph,

Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela

Photo by W. Ayers
Basic Reservoir Engineering 19
II-3-Permeability
 LAB PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING
PERMEABILITY

• Cut core plugs from whole core or use sample from whole
core
• Clean core and extract reservoir fluids, then dry the core
• Flow a fluid through core at several flow rates
• Record inlet and outlet pressures for each rate

Basic Reservoir Engineering 20

II-3-Permeability
 PERM PLUG METHOD
LIQUID FLOW

• Measure inlet and outlet pressures (p1 and p2) at several

different flow rates
• Graph ratio of flow rate to area (q/A) versus the pressure
function (p1 - p2)/L
• For laminar flow, data follow a straight line with slope of
k/
• At very high flow rates, turbulent flow is indicated by a
deviation from straight line through origin

Basic Reservoir Engineering 21

II-3-Permeability
Laboratory Determination of Absolute Permeability,
Liquid Flow

Darcy Flow Non-Darcy Flow

q
A

k
Slope = 

0
0 (p1 - p2)

Basic Reservoir L
Engineering 22
II-3-Permeability
ISSUES AFFECTING LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
OF PERMEABILITY

• Core Handling, Cleaning, and Sampling

• Fluid-Rock Interactions
• Pressure Changes
• Rock Heterogeneities (Fractures)
• Gas Velocity Effects (Klinkenberg)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 23

II-3-Permeability
CORE HANDLING PROCESSES AFFECT PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS

• Core Handling
• Cleaning
• Drying (Clay Damage)
• Storage (Freezing)
• Sampling

Basic Reservoir Engineering 24

II-3-Permeability
 FLUID-ROCK INTERACTIONS AFFECT
MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY

• Fresh water may cause clay swelling, reducing

permeability
• Tests may cause fines migration, plugging pore
throats and reducing permeability
• Reservoir or synthetic reservoir fluids are
generally preferred

Basic Reservoir Engineering 25

II-3-Permeability
 PRESSURES AFFECT LABORATORY
MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY

• Core alterations resulting from loss of

Confining Pressure during core recovery
• Core testing may be conducted by applying a
range of net overburden pressures

Basic Reservoir Engineering 26

II-3-Permeability
 CORE HETEROGENEITIES AFFECT
MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY

• Naturally-fractured reservoirs
– Core plugs represent matrix permeability
– Total system permeability (matrix + fractures) is higher

• Core Mineralogy problems (Salts,

Gypsum)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 27

II-3-Permeability
EXAMPLE CORE REPORT

Basic Reservoir Engineering 28

II-3-Permeability
 4.Factors Affecting
Permeability Determination

Non-Darcy Flow

Basic Reservoir Engineering 33

II-3-Permeability
 Air Permeability Measurement

• Measurement of permeability in the laboratory is most commonly

done with air
– Convenient and inexpensive
– Problem: low values of mean flowing pressure
• downstream pressure, patm
• upstream pressure, just a few psi higher than patm

• At low mean flowing pressure, gas slippage occurs

– Diameter of flow path through porous media approaches the “mean free
path” of gas molecules
• mean free path is a function of molecule size
• mean free path is a function of gas density
– Increasing mean flowing pressure results in less slippage
• as pmean, we obtain absolute (equivalent liquid) permeability

Basic Reservoir Engineering 34

II-3-Permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Gas Slippage

• Liquid flow and gas flow at high mean flowing pressure is laminar
– Darcy’s Law is valid
– flow velocity at walls is zero

• At low mean flowing pressure gas slippage occurs

– Non-Darcy flow is observed
– flow at walls is not zero

• Klinkenberg developed a method to correct gas permeability measured at low

mean flowing pressure to equivalent liquid permeability

Basic Reservoir Engineering 35

II-3-Permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

• As pmean, gas permeability approaches absolute permeability

Basic Reservoir Engineering 36

II-3-Permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

• Klinkenberg correction for kair depends on mean flowing pressure

– correction ratio shown is for pmean = 1 atm

Basic Reservoir Engineering 37

II-3-Permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

• Klinkenberg correction for kair is more important for low absolute

permeability

Basic Reservoir Engineering 38

II-3-Permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - High Flow Rates

• In the field, gas wells exhibit non-Darcy flow at high flow rates
• At high flow velocity, inertial effects and turbulence become
important, and cause non-Darcy flow
– inertial effect

Basic Reservoir Engineering 39

II-3-Permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Turbulence

• Recalling Darcy’s equation for gas flow, (zg )=Constant

k A  Tsc   1  2
q g,sc   
L  T p sc 

 2zμ 

 p1  p 22 
 g 
• For laboratory flow experiments we can assume T=Tsc and z=1

q g,sc 
k
 

 A  p12  p 22 
μg  psc  2L
• For Darcy flow, plotting (qg,sc psc)/A vs. (p12-p22)/(2L) results in straight line.
• line passes through origin [when qg,sc =0, then (p12-p22)=0]
• slope = k/ g
• behavior departs from straight line under turbulent flow conditions (high flow
velocity)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 40

II-3-Permeability
 Non-Darcy Flow - Turbulence

Darcy Non-Darcy
flow flow

q psc
A

k
Slope = 

0
0 (p12- p22)

Basic Reservoir2Engineering
L 41
II-3-Permeability
 5.Average Permeability
Flow in Layered Systems

Basic Reservoir Engineering 45

II-3-Permeability
 Average Permeability
• If permeability is not a constant function of space
(heterogeneity), we can calculate the average permeability
– Common, simple flow cases are considered here
• Linear, Parallel (cores, horizontal permeability)
• Linear, Serial (cores, vertical permeability)
• Radial, Parallel (reservoirs, horizontal layers)
• Radial, Serial (reservoir, damage or stimulation)

• Average permeability should represent the correct flow capacity

– For a specified flow rate, average permeability results in same pressure
drop (and vice versa)
• Review Integral Averages (Self Study, e.g. Average Velocity)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 46

II-3-Permeability
 Linear Flow, Pressure Profile
q k  dp 
• Review, Darcy’s Law: vs    
– horizontal flow (F=p) A μ  ds 
kA
q ds   dp
μ
L p2
A
kA
q L 2 q  ds    dp
1
0
μ p1

q
kA
p1  p2 
μL

Basic Reservoir Engineering 47

II-3-Permeability
 Linear Flow, Pressure Profile
• We can determine how x p(x)
kA
pressure varies along the q  ds    dp
flow path, p(x), by 0
μ p1
considering an arbitrary qμ x
point, 0x  L p(x)  p1 
– Integral from 0x
kA
OR, equivalently
L p2
kA
q  ds   
A
dp
μ p(x)
q L 2
1 x

– We could also integrate q μ (L  x)

xL p(x)  p2 
kA
Basic Reservoir Engineering 48
II-3-Permeability
 Linear Flow, Pressure Profile
• Pressure profile is a linear
function for homogeneous
properties p1

– slope depends on flow rate

p(x)

p
A
p2
q L 2
1

0
0 x L
x

Basic Reservoir Engineering 49

II-3-Permeability
 Linear, Parallel Flow
• Permeability varies across several
horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
– Discrete changes in permeability
h  h1  h 2  h3   hi
– Same pressure drop for each layer
p1 - p2  Δp  Δp1  Δp2  Δp3
– Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers
q  q1  q 2  q3   qi
– Average permeability results in correct total flow rate

kwh
q Δp ; A  w  h
μL Basic Reservoir Engineering 50
II-3-Permeability
 Linear, Parallel Flow
• Substituting,
kwh k1 w h1 k2 w h2 k3 w h3
q Δp  Δp  Δp  Δp
μL μL μL μL

• Rearranging,

k
 k i  hi
h
• Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers

Basic Reservoir Engineering 51

II-3-Permeability
 Linear, Serial Flow
• Permeability varies across several
vertical layers (k1,k2,k3)
– Discrete changes in permeability
L  L1  L2  L3   Li
– Same flow rate passes through each layer
q  q1  q 2  q3
– Total pressure drop is summation of pressure drop across layers
p1  p2  Δp1  Δp2  Δp3   Δpi
– Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop
qμ L
p1 - p2  ; A  wh
kwh
Basic Reservoir Engineering 52
II-3-Permeability
 Linear, Serial Flow
• Substituting,
qμ L q μ L1 q μ L2 q μ L3
p1 - p2    
k w h k1 w h k 2 w h k 3 w h

• Rearranging, L
k
Li
k p1

• If k1>k2>k3, then k
p
– Linear pressure profile in each layer p2

0
Basic Reservoir Engineering0 53 L
II-3-Permeability x
 Radial Flow, Pressure Profile
q k  dp 
• Review, Darcy’s Law: vs    
– horizontal flow (F=p) A μ  ds 
q k
dr  dp
2π rh μ
rw pw
1 2π kh
q q  dr   dp
re
r μ pe

q
2π kh
pe  p w 
rw re
μ ln(re /rw )

Basic Reservoir Engineering 54

II-3-Permeability
 Radial Flow, Pressure Profile
• We can determine how rw
1 2π kh
pw

pressure varies along the q  dr   dp

flow path, p(r), by r
r μ p(r)
considering an arbitrary q μ ln(r/rw )
point, rwr  re p(r)  p w 
– Integral from r  rw
2π k h
OR, equivalently
OR
r p(r)
1 2π kh
– Integral from rer q  dr   dp
re
r μ pe

q μ ln(re /r)
p(r)  p e 
2π k h
Basic Reservoir Engineering 55
II-3-Permeability
 Radial Flow, Pressure Profile
• Pressure profile is a linear
function of ln(r) for
homogeneous properties
pe
– slope depends on flow rate
p(r)

p
pw
q

0
rw r re
ln(r) 

rw re

Basic Reservoir Engineering 56

II-3-Permeability
 Radial, Parallel Flow
• Permeability varies across several
(3) horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
– Discrete changes in permeability
h  h1  h 2  h3   hi
– Same pressure drop for each layer
pe - pw  Δp  Δp1  Δp2  Δp3
– Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers
q  q1  q 2  q3   qi
– Average permeability results in correct total flow rate
2π k h
q Δp
μ ln(re /rw ) Basic Reservoir Engineering 57
II-3-Permeability
 Radial, Parallel Flow
• Substituting,
2π k h
q Δp
μ ln(re /rw )
2π k1 h1 2π k 2 h 2 2π k 3 h 3
 Δp  Δp  Δp
μ ln(re /rw ) μ ln(re /rw ) μ ln(re /rw )
• Rearranging,

k
 k i  hi
h

• Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers

Basic Reservoir Engineering 58
II-3-Permeability
 R1 of this

Radial, Serial Flow figure is r2 of

equations

• Permeability varies across two vertical

concentric cylindrical layers
[k(rwrr2) = k1, k(r2rre = k2]
– Discrete changes in permeability
re  rw  Δr1  Δr2   Δri
– Same flow rate passes through each layer
q  q1  q 2

– Total pressure drop is summation of pressure drop across layers

pe  pw  Δp1  Δp2   Δpi
– Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop
q μ ln(re /rw )
pe - p w 
2π k hBasic II-3-Permeability
Reservoir Engineering 59
 Radial, Serial Flow
• Substituting (rw=r1, r2 ,re=r3),
q μ ln(re /rw ) q μ ln(r2 /rw ) q μ ln(re /r2 )
pe - p w   
2π k h 2π k1 h 2π k 2 h
• Rearranging,
ln(re /rw )
k
(ln(ri 1/ri )

All Layers ki

Basic Reservoir Engineering 60

II-3-Permeability
 Radial, Serial Flow
pe • Damage: k1<k2
– Shown in sketch to the left
– Permeability is damaged near the
wellbore
p

pw k • Reactive fluids
• Fines migration

0
rw re pe
ln(r) 
k1  
k
• Stimulation k1>k2 p
– Shown in sketch to the right pw

– Permeability is improved near

the wellbore
0
• Acid stimulation Basic Reservoir Engineeringrw 61 re
II-3-Permeability ln(r) 
 Integration of Darcy’s Law
• Beginning with the differential form of Darcy’s Law
q k  dp 
• Previous lecture on gas flow vs    
– gas properties are functions of pressure A μ  ds 
• include gas properties in the dp integral
• In this lecture
– parallel flow (permeability varies over cross sectional area)
• integrate over area (integrated average value)
– serial flow (permeability varies along flow path)
• integrate over flow path (leave k in ds integral)
• This approach can be extended to other cases (order of precedence as shown)
– Any term that varies as a function of pressure can be included in the dp integral
– Any term that varies along flow path can be included in the ds integral
– Any term that varies over cross sectional area can use an integrated average value
(integrated over cross sectional area, e.g. parallel flow)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 62

II-3-Permeability
6. Effective Permeability

Basic Reservoir Engineering 63

II-3-Permeability
 Review: Absolute Permeability

• Absolute permeability: is the permeability of a porous

medium saturated with a single fluid (e.g. Sw=1)

• Absolute permeability can be calculated from the steady-

state flow equation (1D, Linear Flow; Darcy Units):

k A p
q
L
Basic Reservoir Engineering 64
II-3-Permeability
 Multiphase Flow in Reservoirs

Commonly, reservoirs contain 2 or 3 fluids

• Water-oil systems
• Oil-gas systems
• Water-gas systems
• Three phase systems (water, oil, and gas)
To evaluate multiphase systems, must consider the
effective and relative permeability

Basic Reservoir Engineering 65

II-3-Permeability
 Effective Permeability

Effective permeability: is a measure of the

conductance of a porous medium for one
fluid phase when the medium is saturated
with more than one fluid.
• The porous medium can have a distinct and measurable
conductance to each phase present in the medium

• Effective permeabilities: (ko, kg, kw)

Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960; PETE 311 Notes66

Basic Reservoir Engineering
II-3-Permeability
7. Relative permeability “two & three
phases”

Basic Reservoir Engineering 67

II-3-Permeability
 Effective Permeability
Steady state, 1D, linear flow
ko A F o equation (Darcy units):
• Oil qo 
o L qn = volumetric flow rate for a
specific phase, n

k w A F w
• Water qw  A = flow area
w L Fn = flow potential drop for
phase, n (including pressure,
gravity and capillary pressure
k g A F g terms)
qg 
• Gas g L n = fluid viscosity for phase n

L = flow length

Modified from NExT, 1999; Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960; PETE 311 NOTES
Basic Reservoir Engineering 68
II-3-Permeability
 Relative Permeability
Relative Permeability is the ratio of the effective permeability of a
fluid at a given saturation to some base permeability
• Base permeability is typically defined as:
– absolute permeability, k

– air permeability, kair

– effective permeability to non-wetting phase at irreducible wetting phase saturation

[e.g. ko(Sw=Swi)]

– because definition of base permeability varies, the definition used must always be:

• confirmed before applying relative permeability data

• noted along with tables and figures presenting relative permeability data

Basic Reservoir Engineering 69

II-3-Permeability Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960
 Relative Permeability

ko ( 0.5,0.3)
• Oil k ro( 0.5,0.3) 
k So =0.5
Sw =0.3
k w( 0.5,0.3) Sg = 0.2
• Water k rw( 0.5, 0.3)  k

k g ( 0.5,0.3)
k rg ( 0.5, 0.3) 
• Gas k
Modified from Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960
Basic Reservoir Engineering 70
II-3-Permeability
 Relative Permeability Functions
Imbibition Relative Permeability
(Water Wet Case)
1.00
kro @ Swi • Wettability and direction of
Relative Permeability (fraction)

saturation change must be

0.80 considered
•drainage
Two-Phase Flow •imbibition
0.60 Region
• Base used to normalize this
Oil relative permeability curve is
0.40 kro @ Swi

• As Sw increases, kro decreases

and krw increases until
0.20
krw @ Sor reaching residual oil
Water saturation
0
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Basic Reservoir Engineering 71
Water Saturation (fraction)
II-3-Permeability
Effect of Wettability for Increasing Sw

1.0 1.0
Relative Permeability, Fraction

Relative Permeability, Fraction

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

Oil Oil Water

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

Water
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation (% PV) Water Saturation (% PV)

Strongly Water-Wet Rock Strongly Oil-Wet Rock

Basic Reservoir Engineering • Water flows more freely 72
II-3-Permeability • Higher residual oil saturation
Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities

• Fluid saturations
• Geometry of the pore spaces and pore size
distribution
• Wettability
• Fluid saturation history (i.e., imbibition or
drainage)
Basic Reservoir Engineering 73
II-3-Permeability After Standing, 1975
Characteristics of Relative Permeability Functions

• Relative permeability is unique for

different rocks and fluids
• Relative permeability affects the flow
characteristics of reservoir fluids.
• Relative permeability affects the
recovery efficiency of oil and/or gas.

Basic Reservoir Engineering Modified from NExT, 199974

II-3-Permeability
Applications of Relative Permeability Functions

• Reservoir simulation
• Flow calculations that involve multi-
phase flow in reservoirs
• Estimation of residual oil (and/or
gas) saturation

Basic Reservoir Engineering 75

II-3-Permeability
 Ternary Diagrams
• Because So+Sw+Sg=1, we can use a ternary diagram to
represent three phase saturations, and plot values of
relative permeability as the independent variable.
– Two of the three saturations are independent
• We can plot in 2-D space using two independent
(not same direction) coordinates

Basic Reservoir Engineering 76

II-3-Permeability
 Ternary Diagrams

• Plot Point for:

Sw=0.30
So=0.25
Sg=0.45

Basic Reservoir Engineering 77

0.00 So 1.00
II-3-Permeability
 Three Phase Relative Permeability

• Saturation plotted on ternary

diagram
• Lines show constant krw
– parallel to water saturation
lines
• krw is function only of
water saturation
• for water wet, water is
in smallest pores

Basic Reservoir Engineering 78

II-3-Permeability
 Three Phase Relative Permeability

• Saturation plotted on ternary

diagram
• Lines show constant krg
– approximately parallel to
gas saturation lines
• krg is primarily a
function of gas
saturation
• gas is in largest pores

Basic Reservoir Engineering 79

II-3-Permeability
 Three Phase Relative Permeability
• Saturation plotted on ternary
diagram
• Lines show constant kro
– not parallel to any saturation
lines
• kro is function of both
water and gas saturation
• pore size distribution
– water: smallest
– gas: largest
– oil: intermediate size
pores
Basic Reservoir Engineering 80
II-3-Permeability
 Three Phase Relative Permeability
• Lines show constant kro
– not parallel to any saturation
lines
• At low gas saturation, kro
is a primarily function of
oil saturation
• At low water saturation,
kro is primarily a function
of gas saturation

Basic Reservoir Engineering 81

II-3-Permeability
 Three Phase Relative Permeability
• Three phase flow occurs over a limited range of three phase
saturations
– outside this range, two phase or single phase flow occurs

Basic Reservoir Engineering 82

II-3-Permeability
Application of Three Phase Relative Permeability

• Three phase relative permeability data is needed whenever we

wish to consider reservoir flow with all three phases present
– Three phase lab data is expensive and time consuming
– Two phase data is much more common
– Many methods have been developed to calculate three phase
relative permeability from two phase curves (water/oil curve
and oil/gas curve)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 83

II-3-Permeability
 Modeling of Three Phase Relative Permeability

• Stones Method II
– An accepted industry standard
– krg obtained from gas/oil two phase curve as function of Sg
– krw obtained from oil/water two phase curve as function of Sw
– kro for three phase flow obtained from both two phase curves as
function of Sg and Sw

k ro  k row  k rwo k rog  k rgo   k rwo  k rgo

– krow, kro from oil/water
– krwo, krw from oil/water
– krog, kro from gas/oil
– krgo, krg from gas/oil
Basic Reservoir Engineering 84
II-3-Permeability
 General statement on Rel. Perm.
Relative permeability is a direct measure of the ability of a porous system to conduct
one fluid when one or more fluids are present.

Dependent upon:

• Rock structure (pore geometry)

• Fluid properties
• Wettability
• Saturation history

K= absolute permeability, where only one fluid is present

If 2 or more fluids are present, neither fluid will flow as efficiently. Thus, relative
permeability is the ratio between the ability to flow a particular fluid at a specific
saturation percentage divided by the absolute permeability.

kro = relative permeability to oil for 0≤kro≤1

Effective permeability = K x kro = ko for 0≤kro≤1

Basic Reservoir Engineering 85

II-3-Permeability
 General statement on Rel. Perm.
Keff = K x kro

Keff = effective permeability of the system to fluid « A »

K = absolute permeability of the rock
Kr = relative permeability of the system to fluid « A »

Basic Reservoir Engineering 86

II-3-Permeability
 General statement on Rel. Perm.
Relative permeability curves can be expressed relative to two different bases:
• The absolute permeability of the core saturated with a single phase, or
• The effective permeability of the core at a specified initial saturation – usually this
is the hydrocarbon permeability at the irreducible water saturation.

Basic Reservoir Engineering 87

II-3-Permeability
8.Laboratory Measurement of
Relative Permeability

a - Steady State Method

Basic Reservoir Engineering 88

II-3-Permeability
Hysteresis Effect on Rel. Perm.

Non-wetting
100 Wetting phase
Relative Permeability, % phase

80

Imbibition krnw krw

60 krnw Drainage

40

20
Irreducible wetting Residual non-wetting
phase saturation phase saturation
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Wetting Phase Saturation, %PV

Basic Reservoir Engineering 89
II-3-Permeability
 Hysteresis Effect on Rel. Perm.
• During drainage, the wetting phase ceases to flow at the irreducible
wetting phase saturation
– This determines the maximum possible non-wetting phase
saturation
– Common Examples:
• Petroleum accumulation (secondary migration)
• Formation of secondary gas cap
• During imbibition, the non-wetting phase becomes discontinuous and
ceases to flow when the non-wetting phase saturation reaches the
residual non-wetting phase saturation
– This determines the minimum possible non-wetting phase
saturation displacement by the wetting phase
– Common Example: waterflooding water wet reservoir
Basic Reservoir Engineering 90
II-3-Permeability
 Review: Effective Permeability
Steady state, 1D, linear flow
ko A F o equation (Darcy units):
• Oil qo 
o L qn = volumetric flow rate for a
specific phase, n

k w A F w
• Water qw  A = flow area
w L Fn = flow potential drop for
phase, n (including pressure,
gravity and capillary pressure
k g A F g terms)
qg 
• Gas g L n = fluid viscosity for phase n

L = flow length

Basic Reservoir Engineering 91

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Steady State
• Purpose: determination of
– two phase relative permeability functions
– irreducible wetting phase saturation (drainage)
– residual non-wetting phase saturation (imbibition)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 92

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Steady State
• Process (oil/water, water wet case):
– simultaneously inject constant rates of oil and water until
steady state behavior is observed
• production will be constant at same oil and water rates as
injection
• pressure drop for each phase will be constant
– determine saturation of core sample
• usually by resistivity or weighing
• this is typically not the same as the injection ratio
– change injection ratio and repeat

Basic Reservoir Engineering 93

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Steady State
• Imbibition Relative Permeability
Functions
– Stage 1: Preparation for drainage
• core saturated with wetting
phase
• steady state injection of wetting
phase used to determine
absolute permeability
– Stage 2: Irreducible wetting phase
• inject non-wetting phase until
steady state, measure saturation
– no wetting phase will be
produced at steady state

Basic Reservoir Engineering 94

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Steady State
• Imbibition Relative Permeability
Functions (continued)
– Stage 3 (A-C): determination of
points on imbibition relative
permeability function
• steady state injection at
constant rates of wetting and
non-wetting phase
– Initially ratio qw/qnw is
small
• measure saturation and phase
pressure drops at steady state
– saturation ratio will in
general, not be the same as
injection ratio
• repeat with increasing ratio,
qw/qnw Basic Reservoir Engineering 95
II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Steady State
• Imbibition Relative Permeability
Functions (continued)
– Stage 4: determination of residual
non-wetting phase saturation
• inject wetting phase until
steady state behavior observed
• measure saturation and wetting
phase pressure drop

Basic Reservoir Engineering 96

II-3-Permeability
STEADY-STATE RELATIVE PERMEABILITY TEST EQUIPMENT
(HASSLER METHOD)

Gas Gas
outlet inlet

Po
Pg Pc

Core

Oil inlet
To Porcelain
atmosphere plate

Oil burette
Basic Reservoir Engineering 97
II-3-Permeability
PENN STATE METHOD FOR MEASURING STEADY-STATE
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

Packing Copper Inlet

Thermometer nut Electrodes orifice
plate

xxxx
xxxx
End Test Mixing xxxx
xxxx
xxxx
section section section xxxx

Differential
pressure taps
Outlet Bronze Highly permeable Inlet
Basic Reservoir Engineering
screen 98
II-3-Permeability disk
HAFFORD’S METHOD FOR MEASURING STEADY-STATE
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

Gas

Gas
pressure
Porous end plate gauge

Oil
pressure

Oil pressure pad

Gas meter Oil
Basic Reservoir Engineering 99
Oil burette II-3-Permeability
Laboratory Measurement of
Relative Permeability

c- Unsteady State Method

Basic Reservoir Engineering 105

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State
• Unsteady State Method for relative permeability provides
– Relative permeability ratio (kr,nonwet/kr,wet) as a function of
wetting phase saturation (Swet)
– Irreducible wetting phase saturation (drainage)
– Residual nonwetting phase saturation (imbibition)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 106

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State
Saturation in Production
• Imbibition Relative Permeability Ratio Core Plug Rates
Function
– Stage 1: Preparation for drainage
• core saturated with wetting
phase
– Stage 2: Irreducible wetting phase
(drainage)
• inject non-wetting phase until
steady state, measure saturation
– no wetting phase will be
produced after steady state

Basic Reservoir Engineering 107

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State
Saturation in Production
• Imbibition Relative Permeability Core Plug Rates
Ratio Function
– Stages 3-6: Inject wetting phase
• Stage 3 (A) Wetting phase has
not yet reached outflow face
– only nonwetting phase
produced at outflow face
• Stage 4 (B) Wetting phase
just reaches outflow face,
called breakthrough
– wetting phase will be
produced at outflow face

Basic Reservoir Engineering 108

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State
Saturation in Production
• Imbibition Relative Permeability Core Plug Rates
Ratio Function
– Stages 3-6: Inject wetting phase
• Stage 5 (C) As injection of
wetting phase continues,
production of nonwetting
phase decreases (unsteady
state)
– Important to take many
data points during this
decrease
» cummulative
nonwetting phase
produced
» production rate for
both phases
Basic Reservoir Engineering 109
II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State
Saturation in Production
• Imbibition Relative Permeability Core Plug Rates
Ratio Function
– Stages 3-6: Inject wetting phase

• Stage 6 (D) Eventually, no

more nonwetting phase is
produced, allowing residual
nonwetting phase saturation
to be determined

Basic Reservoir Engineering 110

II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State
• Analysis Procedure
– Assumptions
• immiscible displacement
• incompressible fluids
• linear, 1-D flow
• capillary pressure neglected
– Determination of average saturation
• cumulative nonwetting phase production
– Determination of relative permeability ratio from fractional flow
• fwet = qwet/qtotal ; where qtotal = qwet + qnonwet
• production rate measured at outflow face
1
f wet 
 k r ,nonwet  wet 
1    

k 
 r , wetBasic Reservoir
nonwet 
Engineering 111
II-3-Permeability
 Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State
• Relative Permeability Ratio usually
plotted semi-log
– hysteresis due to saturation
process (drainage, imbibition)

Basic Reservoir Engineering 112

II-3-Permeability
Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State

Basic Reservoir Engineering 113

II-3-Permeability
Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State

Basic Reservoir Engineering 114

II-3-Permeability
Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State

Basic Reservoir Engineering 115

II-3-Permeability
Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State

Basic Reservoir Engineering 116

II-3-Permeability
Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State

Basic Reservoir Engineering 117

II-3-Permeability
Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State

Basic Reservoir Engineering 118

II-3-Permeability
Basic Reservoir Engineering 119
II-3-Permeability