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CONVECTION IN MICROCHANNELS
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Continuum and Thermodynamic Hypothesis.
• Previous chapters are based on two fundamental assumptions:
(1) Continuum: Navier-Stokes equations, and the energy equation are applicable
(2) Thermodynamic equilibrium: No-velocity slip and no-temperature jump at
boundaries.
• Validity criterion: The Knudsen number:
λ
Kn = (1.2)
De
λ is the mean free path.
Qe
>1 (11.5)
Qt
11.3.2 Friction Factor
• Friction coefficient C f
τw
Cf = (4.37a)
(1 / 2) ρ u m2
• Friction factor f
1 D Δp
f = (11.6)
2 L ρ u m2
11.4.1 Compressibility
• Compressibility affects pressure drop, Poiseuille number and Nusselt number.
11.4.2 Axial Conduction
• Axial conduction is neglected in macrochannels for Peclet numbers greater than 100.
• Microchannels typically operate at low Peclet numbers. Axial conduction may be
important.
• Axial conduction increases the Nusselt number in the velocity-slip domain.
11.4.3. Dissipation
• Dissipation becomes important when the Mach number is close to unity or larger.
11.5 Velocity Slip and Temperature Jump Boundary Conditions
• In microchannels fluid velocity is not the same as surface velocity. The velocity slip
condition is
2 − σ u ∂u ( x,0)
u ( x ,0 ) − u s = λ (11.10)
σu ∂n
u ( x,0) = fluid axial velocity at surface
u s = surface axial velocity
x = axial coordinate
n = normal coordinate measured from the surface
σ u = tangential momentum accommodating coefficient
• Gas temperature at a surface differs from surface temperature:
2 − σ T 2γ λ ∂T ( x,0)
T ( x,0) − Ts = (11.11)
σ T 1 + γ Pr ∂n
T(x,0) = fluid temperature at the boundary
Ts = surface temperature
γ = c p / cv , specific heat ratio
σ T = energy accommodating coefficient
• σ u and σ T are assume equal to unity.
• (11.10) and (11.11) are valid for gases.
11.6 Analytic Solutions: Slip Flows
• Consider Couette and Poiseuille flows.
• Applications: MEMS.
• Thermal boundary conditions: Uniform surface temperature and uniform surface heat flux.
• Examine the effects of rarefaction and compressibility.
5
11.6.1 Assumptions
(1) Steady state
(2) Laminar flow
(3) Two-dimensional
(4) Slip flow regime (0.001 < Kn < 0.1)
(5) Ideal gas
(6) Constant viscosity, conductivity, and specific heats
(7) Negligible lateral variation of density and pressure
(8) Negligible dissipation (unless otherwise stated)
(9) Negligible gravity
(10) The accommodation coefficients are assumed equal to unity, σ u = σ T = 1.0.
11.6.2 Couette Flow with Viscous Dissipation: Parallel Plates with Surface Convection
• Stationary lower plate, moving upper plate.
• Insulated lower plate, convection at the
upper plate. y ho T∞ us
• Determine:
(1) Velocity distribution u H
x
(2) Mass flow rate
(3) Nusselt number
Fig. 11.6
Flow Field
• x-component of the Navier-Stokes equations for compressible, constant viscosity
flow (2.9), simplifies to
d 2u
=0 (11.12)
dy 2
• Boundary conditions: apply (11.10)
du ( x,0)
u ( x ,0 ) = λ (g)
dy
du ( x, H )
u ( x, H ) = u s − λ (h)
dy
• Solution
u 1
= ( y + Kn) (11.14)
u s 1 + 2 Kn H
Mass Flow Rate. The flow rate, m, for a channel of width W is
H
m =W
∫ 0
ρ u dy (11.15)
6
• Mean temperature Tm
H
∫
2
Tm = uT dy (11.22)
us H
0
Dissipation function Φ :
2
⎛ ∂u ⎞
Φ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (11.24)
⎝ ∂y ⎠
(11.24) into (11.23)
2
d 2T μ ⎛ du ⎞
=− ⎜ ⎟ (11.25)
dy 2 k ⎜⎝ dy ⎟⎠
• Boundary conditions
dT (0)
=0 (m)
dy
dT ( H )
−k = ho (Ts − T∞ )
dy
Use (11.20)
dT ( H ) ⎡ 2γ λ ∂T ( x, H ) ⎤
−k = ho ⎢T ( x, H ) + 1 + γ Pr − T∞ ⎥ (n)
dy ⎣ ∂n ⎦
• Solution: Use (11.14) for u, substitute into (11.25), solve and use boundary
conditions (m) and (n)
ϕ kHϕ H 2ϕ 2γ Kn 2
T = − y2 + + + H ϕ + T∞ (11.26)
2 ho 2 γ + 1 Pr
2
μ⎡ us ⎤
ϕ= ⎢ (p)
k ⎣ H (1 + 2 Kn) ⎥⎦
dT ( H )
• Nusselt number: Use (11.26) to formulate Ts , and Tm , substitute into
dy
8(1 + 2 Kn)
(11.19) Nu = (11.27)
8 8γ (1 + 2 Kn) Kn
1 + Kn +
3 γ +1 Pr
NOTE:
• The Nusselt number is independent of Biot number.
• The Nusselt number is independent of the Reynolds number. This is also the case
with macrochannel flows.
• The Nusselt number depends on the fluid (Pr and γ ).
• Nusselt number for macrochannel flow, Nu o : set Kn = 0 in (11.27)
Nu o = 8 (11.28)
Thus
8
Nu 1 + 2 Kn
= (11.29)
Nu o 8 8γ (1 + 2 Kn) Kn
1 + Kn +
3 γ +1 Pr
∂
(ρ u ) + ∂ (ρ v ) = 0 (h)
∂x ∂y
Use ideal gas law in (h)
∂
( p v ) = − ∂ ( pu ) (i)
∂y ∂x
(11.30) into (i)
∂ 2 ⎡ 2 ⎤
( pv) = H ∂ ⎢ p dp (1 + 4 Kn( p) − 4 y 2 )⎥ (j)
∂y 8μ ∂x ⎣⎢ dx H ⎦⎥
Boundary conditions on v
v ( x ,0 ) = 0 (k)
v( x, H / 2) = 0 (l)
Multiply (j) by dy, integrate
y y
H 2 ∂ ⎡ dp y2 ⎤
∫ 0
d ( p v) = ⎢p
8μ ∂x ⎢ dx
⎣
∫
0
(1 + 4 Kn( p) − 4 )⎥ dy
H 2 ⎥⎦
(m)
∂ ⎧⎪ dp ⎡ y 4 y3 ⎤ ⎫⎪
⎨p ⎢[1 + 4 Kn( p )] − ⎥ ⎬ =0 (n)
∂x ⎪⎩ dx ⎣⎢ H 3 H 3 ⎦⎥ ⎪⎭ y =H / 2
μ μ2
p ( x) = −3 2π RT + 18π RT + 6Cx + 6 D (p)
H H2
Boundary conditions on p
p ( 0) = p i , p ( L ) = p o (q)
Use (q) to find C and D, substitute into (p) and use the definition of Knudsen number
2
p( x) ⎡ pi ⎤ ⎡ pi2 pi ⎤ x
= −6 Kno + ⎢6 Kno + ⎥ + ⎢(1 − 2 ) + 12 Kno (1 − )⎥ (11.35)
po ⎣ po ⎦ ⎢⎣ po p o ⎦⎥ L
H/ 2
m = 2W
∫ 0
ρ u dy (s)
WH 3 ⎡ μ π ⎤ dp
m=− ⎢p + 6 RT ⎥ (11.38)
12 μ RT ⎣ H 2 ⎦ dx
Using (11.35) to formulate the pressure gradient, substituting into (11.38), assuming
constant temperature ( T ≅ To ), and rearranging, gives
1 W H 3 po2 ⎡ pi2 pi ⎤
m= ⎢ 2 − 1 + 12 Kno ( − 1)⎥ (11.39)
24 μ LRTo ⎣⎢ p o po ⎥⎦
For macrochannel
1 W H 3 po2 ⎡ pi ⎤
mo = ⎢ − 1⎥ (11.40)
12 μ LRTo ⎣ p o ⎦
Taking ratio
m 1 ⎡ pi ⎤
= ⎢ + 1 + 12 Kno ⎥ (11.41)
mo 2 ⎣ p o ⎦
NOTE:
• m in microchannels is very sensitive to channel height H.
• (11.39) shows the effect of rarefaction and compressibility.
Tm =
∫ 0
uT dy
(11.43)
H /2
∫ 0
udy
(14) Axial velocity distribution is approximated by the solution to the isothermal case.
(15) Negligible dissipation, Φ = 0
q ′s′
T ( x, H / 2) − Tm ( x) = − = constant (11.50)
dφ ( H / 2)
dy
Combining this with (11.48), gives
dT ( x, H / 2) dTm ( x) ∂T
= = (11.51)
dx dx ∂x
Conservation of energy for the element in Fig. 11.8 gives
⎡ dT ⎤
2q ′s′Wdx + mc p Tm = mc p ⎢Tm + m dx ⎥
q′s′
⎣ dx ⎦
Simplify and eliminate m m dTm
Tm Tm + dx
dTm 2q ′s′ dx
= = constant (11.52) dx
dx ρ c pum H
(11.52) into (11.51) q′s′
dT ( x, H / 2) dTm ( x) ∂T 2q ′s′ Fig. 11.8
= = =
dx dx ∂x ρ c p u m H
where u m is given by
H /2
∫ udy
2
um = (cc)
H 0
(11.30) into (cc)
H 2 dp
um = − [1 + 6 Kn] (11.55)
12 μ dx
(11.30) and (11.55)
u 6 ⎡1 y2 ⎤
= ⎢ + Kn − ⎥ (11.56)
u m 1 + 6 Kn ⎢⎣ 4 H 2 ⎥⎦
(11.56) into (11.54)
∂ 2T 12 q ′s′ ⎡ 1 y2 ⎤
= ⎢ + Kn − 2 ⎥ (11.57)
∂y 2 1 + 6 Kn kH ⎣⎢ 4 H ⎥⎦
Integrating twice and use (w)
12q ′s′ ⎡1 1 y4 ⎤
⎢ ( + Kn) y −
2
T ( x, y ) = ⎥ + g ( x) (11.58)
(1 + 6 Kn)kH ⎣⎢ 2 4 12 H 2 ⎦⎥
13
∫ ∫
2q ′s′
dTm = dx
ρc p u m H
Tmi 0
Surface temperature Ts ( x, H / 2) :
3q ′s′ H ⎡ 1 5 ⎤ 2γ q ′s′ H
Ts ( x ) = ⎢ Kn + ⎥ + Kn + g ( x) (11.63)
k (1 + 6 Kn) ⎣ 2 48 ⎦ γ + 1 kPr
Nusselt number: (11.61) and (11.63) into (v)
2
Nu = (11.64)
3 ⎧1 5 1 ⎡ 13 13 ⎤ ⎫ 2γ 1
⎨ Kn + − ⎢ ( Kn) 2 + Kn + ⎬+ Kn
(1 + 6 Kn) ⎩2 48 (1 + 6 Kn) ⎣ 40 560 ⎥⎦ ⎭ γ + 1 Pr
9
NOTE:
(i) The Nusselt number is an implicit function of 8
x since Kn is a function p which is a function of
x. 7
(ii) Unlike macrochannels, the Nusselt number Nu
depends on the fluid, as indicated by Pr and γ 6
in (11.64).
5
(iii) The effect of temperature jump on the
Nusselt number is represented by the last term 4
0 0.04 0.08 0.12
in the denominator of (11.64).
Kn
(iv) The Nusselt for no-slip, Nu o , is determined Fig. 11.9 Nusselt number for air flow between
by setting Kn = 0 in (11.64) parallel plates at unifrorm surface
γ = 1.4, Pr = 0.7,
heat flux for air,
σu =σT =1
14
140
Nu o = = 8.235 (11.65)
17
(v) Rarefaction and compressibility have the effect of decreasing the Nusselt number.
T − Ts x y 2ρum H
θ= , ξ= , η = , Re = , Pe = RePr (11.72)
Ti − Ts H RePr H μ
Use (11.56) and (11.72), into (11.66a)-(11.71a)
2 ∂θ (ξ ,η / 2)
Nu = − (11.66)
θm ∂η
15
2 2
6
( 1 + Kn − η 2 ) ∂θ = 1 2 ∂ θ2 + ∂ θ2 (11.67)
1 + 6 Kn 4 ∂ξ ( Pe) ∂ξ ∂η
∂θ (ξ ,0)
=0 (11.68)
∂η
2γ 1 ∂θ (ξ ,1 / 2)
θ (ξ ,1 / 2) = − Kn (11.69)
γ + 1 Pr ∂η
θ (0,η ) = 1 (11.70)
θ (∞, η ) = 0 (11.71)
• Results:
16
ro2 dp ⎡ r2 ⎤
vz = − ⎢1 + 4 Kn − 2 ⎥ (11.74)
4 μ dz ⎣⎢ ro ⎦⎥
vz 1 + 4 Kn − (r / ro ) 2
=2 (11.77)
v zm 1 + 8 Kn
2
p( z ) ⎡ p ⎤ ⎡ p2 p ⎤z
= −8 Kno + ⎢8 Kno + i ⎥ + ⎢(1 − i2 ) + 16 Kno (1 − i )⎥ (11.78)
po ⎣ po ⎦ ⎢⎣ po p o ⎥⎦ L
q ′s′ ro ⎡ 14 7⎤
Tm = 2⎢16 Kn 2 + Kn + ⎥ + g ( z ) (11.95)
k (1 + 8 Kn) ⎣ 3 24 ⎦
2q ′s′ q ′s′ro ⎡ 14 7⎤
g ( z ) = Tmi + z− ⎢16 Kn 2 + Kn + ⎥ (11.96)
ρ c p ro v z m k (1 + 8 Kn) ⎣ 2 3 24 ⎦
4q ′s′ro ⎡ 3 ⎤ 4γ q ′s′ro
Ts (ro , z ) = ⎢⎣ Kn + 16 ⎥⎦ + γ + 1 kPr Kn + g ( z ) (11.97)
k (1 + 8 Kn)
2
Nu = (11.98)
4 ⎡ 7 ⎤ 4γ 1
( Kn + 3 ) − 1
⎢
14
16 Kn 2 + Kn + ⎥ + Kn
(1 + 8 Kn) 16 2
(1 + 8 Kn) ⎣ 3 24 ⎦ γ + 1 Pr
• Nusselt number variation with Knudsen number for air, with γ = 1.4 and Pr = 0.7,
is plotted in Fig. 11.14.
• No-slip Nusselt number, Nu o , is obtained by setting Kn = 0 in (11.98)
48
Nu o = = 4.364 (11.99)
11
18
1 + 4 Kn − R 2 ∂θ 1 ∂ 2
= ( R ∂θ ) + 1 2 ∂ θ2 (11.101)
2(2 + 16 Kn) ∂ξ R ∂R ∂R (2 Pe) ∂ξ
∂θ (0.ξ ) 4.5
= 0 (11.102)
∂R Pe = 0
1
2γ Kn ∂θ (1, ξ ) 4.0 5 ∞
θ (1, ξ ) = − (11.103)
γ + 1 Pr ∂R
3.5
θ ( R,0) = 1 (11.104) Nu
θ ( R, ∞ ) = 0 (11.105) 3.0