University of Wollongong

Research Online
Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences -
Faculty of Engineering and Information Sciences
Papers: Part A

2010

Geotechnical analysis of slopes and landslides -

achievements and challenges
R N. Chowdhury
University of Wollongong, robin@uow.edu.au

Phillip N. Flentje
University of Wollongong, pflentje@uow.edu.au

Publication Details
Chowdhury, R. N. & Flentje, P. N. (2010). Geotechnical analysis of slopes and landslides - achievements and challenges. In A. L.
Williams, G. M. Pinches, C. Y. Chin, T. J. McMorran & C. I. Massey (Eds.), 11th IAEG Congress of the International Association of
Engineering Geology and the Environment (pp. 1-6). United Kingdom: CRC Press (Taylor & Francis).

Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library:
research-pubs@uow.edu.au
Geotechnical analysis of slopes and landslides - achievements and
challenges
Abstract
This paper is concerned with the major achievements in geotechnical slope analysis and the challenges for
further advancement in the 21stcentury. New developments of great value have occurred over the past few
decades for carrying out both site-specific and regional studies. These include advanced limit equilibrium
methods, sophisticated stress deformation analysis, seismic analyses, applications of GIS, probabilistic
approaches, advanced geological modeling (2D and 3D) and knowledge-based methods of predicted
performance and decision-making. Outcomes of slope analysis are enhanced by advances in observational
methods including real-time or continuous field monitoring of slope performance. One of the challenges is to
further understand the causes and mechanisms of failure in order to minimize future losses through efficient
hazard and risk management of which slope analysis is a vital part. Climate change will present long-term
challenges associated with more unfavorable conditions for slope stability. Innovative engineering solutions
will be required for better risk management. In turn, such solutions will require substantial progress in slope
analysis in the context of multidisciplinary studies.

Keywords
analysis, geotechnical, slopes, landslides, achievements, challenges

Publication Details
Chowdhury, R. N. & Flentje, P. N. (2010). Geotechnical analysis of slopes and landslides - achievements and
challenges. In A. L. Williams, G. M. Pinches, C. Y. Chin, T. J. McMorran & C. I. Massey (Eds.), 11th IAEG
Congress of the International Association of Engineering Geology and the Environment (pp. 1-6). United
Kingdom: CRC Press (Taylor & Francis).

This conference paper is available at Research Online: http://ro.uow.edu.au/eispapers/1736

Geotechnical analysis of slopes and landslides - achievements and
challenges
R. Chowdhury and P. Flentje
University of Wollongong, Australia

ABSTRACT: This paper is concerned with the major achievements in geotechnical slope analysis and the
challenges for further advancement in the 21stcentury. New developments of great value have occurred over
the past few decades for carrying out both site-specific and regional studies. These include advanced limit
equilibrium methods, sophisticated stress deformation analysis, seismic analyses, applications of GIS, proba-
bilistic approaches, advanced geological modeling (2D and 3D) and knowledge-based methods of predicted
performance and decision-making. Outcomes of slope analysis are enhanced by advances in observational
methods including real-time or continuous field monitoring of slope performance. One of the challenges is to
further understand the causes and mechanisms of failure in order to minimize future losses through efficient
hazard and risk management of which slope analysis is a vital part. Climate change will present long-term
challenges associated with more unfavorable conditions for slope stability. Innovative engineering solutions
will be required for better risk management. In turn, such solutions will require substantial progress in slope
analysis in the context of multidisciplinary studies.

KEYWORDS: Slope Stability, Landslides, Pore-water Pressure, Probabilistic Analysis, Observational Ap-
proach, Risk Management

1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW pressure develops as a consequence of water infiltration

Advances in geomechanics and engineering geology
have led to a variety of methods for designing, assessing
and managing natural slopes, embankments and excavat-
ed slopes. While new and sophisticated methods of ge-
otechnical analysis have been developed, steady im-
provement of conventional methods continues to occur.
Moreover, new perspectives concerning slope reliability
can be gained by using methods within a probabilistic
framework. It is important to distinguish between region-
al and site-specific studies and, in each case, to consider
carefully the requirements, suitability and limitations of
qualitative and quantitative approaches (Chowdhury and
Flentje, 2008).
The development of geotechnical analysis for slopes
of soil and rock has progressed as a consequence of im-
provement in the knowledge of basic geotechnical con-
cepts and an understanding of the causes, processes and
mechanisms associated with slope failures. Pore-water
pressure often plays an important role in slope stability
and it may determine how the factor of safety varies spa-
tially and over time. The effective stress principle is fun-
damental to an understanding of the short-term and long-
term behavior of soil and rock slopes in which pore-water
and seepage. Rainfall-induced slope failures occur gener-
ally, but not always, in saturated soils. Such failures are
caused by the increase of pore-water pressures to critical
values. Back-analyses of rainfall-induced slope failures
enable the estimation of critical pore-water pressures.
Concepts related to “excess” pore-water pressure are par-
ticularly important for behavior of soil slopes under un-
drained or partially drained conditions. It is of particular
interest to study the stability of constructed or excavated
slopes immediately after construction and to understand
the changes in stability of submerged slopes during draw-
down, complete or partial (Chowdhury et al, 2010).
Methods of analysis developed for saturated slopes of
soil and rock can be extended to slopes comprising un-
saturated soil zones as well. However, the relevant shear
strength equation (different from that applicable to satu-
rated soils) must used. In unsaturated soils, rainfall-
triggered failures are a consequence of the elimination of
negative pore-water pressures (soil suctions). Thus it is
necessary to estimate the distribution of suctions (nega-
tive pore pressures) within unsaturated soil zones.
Understanding the regional context of a site in terms
of topography, geology, groundwater flow and geomor-
phology is important. Knowledge about the location,
character, types, distribution and behavior of landslides in
a regional context can be very valuable. The development
of comprehensive databases including a landslide inven-
tory is most desirable if not essential especially for the
assessment of slope stability in a regional context. It is
important to study the occurrence and spatial distribution
of first-time slope failures as well as reactivated land-
slides (Flentje and Chowdhury, 2005a, Reeves and West,
2009). A successful knowledge-based approach for as-
sessment of landslide susceptibility and hazard has been
described by Flentje (2009).
Dealing with seismic slope stability requires consider-
ation of slope behavior under cyclic loading conditions. It
is important to estimate the decrease in the factor of safe-
ty of a slope or an earth structure as a consequence of a
design seismic event. For earth dams and other major
earth slopes, it is also important to estimate the cumula-
tive permanent deformation which might result as a con-
sequence of a design seismic event. Analyses after an
earthquake can be based on the actual recorded earth-
quake ground motion if such data are available. Moreo-
ver, geotechnical engineers have the task of assessing the
likelihood of liquefaction occurring within deposits of
loose saturated sand or zones or pockets of such sand
within cohesive soil deposits such as clays.
While analysis is important, its role should not be
considered in isolation. Therefore it is necessary to high-
light the importance of an observational approach. In par-
ticular, the monitoring of slope movement and subsurface
pore-water pressures can be critically important. Monitor-
ing of slope performance is often part and parcel of an
important geotechnical project such as an earth dam, a re-
inforced embankment or major excavation. However, it is
also desirable to monitor the performance of natural
slopes in urban areas because of the adverse economic
and safety consequences of urban landslides. Analysis of
data from such monitoring can help validate concepts
concerning causes and mechanisms of landsliding and fa-
cilitate decisions concerning remedial measures and
warning systems (Flentje and Chowdhury, 2006).
2 DETERMINISTIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS
2.1 Limit Equilibrium and Stress deformation
Approaches
Broadly the deterministic methods can be categorized
as limit equilibrium methods and stress-deformation
methods. Starting from simple and approximate limit
equilibrium methods based on simplifying assumptions,
several advanced and relatively rigorous methods have
been developed. Advanced methods are versatile, ena-
bling the analysis of a slope with complex geometry,
formed in an anisotropic, non-homogeneous or reinforced
earth mass, assuming either linear or non-linear stress-
deformation characteristics. The history of slope for-
mation can also be taken into consideration. Two-
dimensional (2D) limit equilibrium analyses are, of
course, the most widely used. However, considerable
progress has been made in the development and use of
three-dimensional (3D) analyses. Post failure behavior
including the dynamics, mobility and travel distance of
landslides is often associated with significant uncertain-
ties (Chowdhury, 1980; Chowdhury et al, 2010).
The use of advanced numerical methods for stress-
deformation analysis is essential when the estimation of
strains and deformations within a slope is required. In
most cases, two-dimensional (2D) stress-deformation
analyses would suffice. However, there are significant
problems which need to be modeled and analyzed in
three-dimensions. Methods appropriate for 3D stress-
deformation analysis have been developed and used suc-
cessfully. Advanced stress-deformation approaches in-
clude the finite-difference method, the finite-element
method, the boundary element method, the distinct ele-
ment method, and the discontinuous deformation analysis
method.
2.2 Analysis of Progressive Failure
Progressive failure of natural slopes, embankment
dams and excavated slopes is a consequence of non-
uniform stress and strain distribution and the strain-
softening behavior of earth masses. Thus shear strength
of a soil element, or the shear resistance along a disconti-
nuity within a soil or rock mass, may decrease from a
peak to a residual value with increasing strain or increas-
ing deformation. Analysis and simulation of progressive
failure requires that strain-softening behavior be taken in-
to consideration within the context of changing stress or
strain fields. This may be done by using advanced stress-
deformation approaches. (See, for instance, Richards,
1982; Potts et al, 1990; Sitar et al, 2005) Other approach-
es which may also be used include initial stress approach
and shear-band approach and the reader will find an
overview of several methods with references and relevant
details in Chowdhury et al (2010).
Of the many historical landslides in which progressive
failure is known to have played an important part, per-
haps the most widely studied is the catastrophic Vaiont
slide which occurred in Italy in 1964. The causes and
mechanisms have not been fully explained by any one
study and there are still uncertainties concerning both the
statics and dynamics of the slide. Simulation of progres-
sive failure on the basis of an initial stress approach is
discussed fully elsewhere (Chowdhury et al, 2010). An
alternative approach based on limit equilibrium and the
assumption of high artesian pore-water pressures was
proposed by Hendron and Patton (1985).
2.3 Seismic Slope Analysis
For earthquake analysis, a pseudo-static method of
limit equilibrium analysis is used in which the effect of
earthquake shaking is simulated by a lateral force which
is a product of the gravitational force and a seismic coef-
ficient. This method can be successful if a reasonably ac-
curate value can be assigned to the lateral seismic coeffi-
cient based on past experience in the particular region.
An interesting approach for estimating permanent defor-
mation of an embankment under seismic conditions is
based on the Newmark model which considers the mo-
tion of the slope as a rigid block. Deformations are esti-
mated for those time intervals during an earthquake (rep-
resented by an acceleration-time record) for which the
disturbing forces exceed the resisting forces. The total of
these is the permanent deformation of a slope for that
particular earthquake event. Basic and advanced applica-
tions of a rigid-block displacement model have been
demonstrated by a number of authors such as Seed
(1979), Sarma (1988), Chowdhury (1996),and Jibson et
al (2000) while an overview is presented in Chowdhury
et al (2010).
Dynamic finite–element analysis offers an advanced
approach for earthquake analysis. Such a sophisticated
approach must be used for important earth structures such
as earth dams. Understanding and assessing the potential
liquefaction of loose, saturated cohesionless soil materi-
als in slopes, dams and their foundations is often im-
portant. The first and foremost task is a very careful site
investigation. The second and related task is a careful in-
terpretation of such data in the light of empirical
knowledge gained through research over several decades.
If such investigation and interpretation reveals that lique-
faction can occur in particular zones and to what extent,
then advanced analysis can be justified. Even if a simpler
analysis is used, it should be modified in an appropriate
way to include the zones of potential liquefaction.
3 PROBABILISTIC APPROACHES AND
SIMULATION OF PROGRESSIVE FAILURE
The importance of uncertainties in geotechnical engi-
neering and engineering geology is now widely under-
stood. There are systematic uncertainties related to the es-
timation of geotechnical parameters because of the limits
to the extent and quality of investigation and testing. It is
also necessary to consider the natural variability of pa-
rameters, both spatial and temporal. For example, one
frequently encounters spatial variability of shear strength
parameters and pore-water pressures in natural slopes.
Consequently there are limitations to the conventional de-
terministic methods of analysis and the calculated factor
of safety, often designated by F, may not be a true reflec-
tion of the reliability of a slope. New approaches within
the framework of statistics and probability have, there-
fore, been developed. Estimation of the probability of
failure, often designated by pF, is feasible when the prob-
ability distribution of each significant geotechnical pa-
rameter is taken into consideration. There are, of course,
other uncertainties which must be included in a probabil-
istic analysis such as statistical uncertainty, bias and ge-
otechnical model uncertainty.
A probabilistic approach should not be seen simply as
the replacement of a calculated ‘factor of safety’ as a per-
formance index by a calculated ‘probability of failure’. It
is important to consider the broader perspective and
greater insight offered by adopting a probabilistic frame-
work (Chowdhury, 1984; 1988). It enables a better analy-
sis of observational data and enables the modeling of the
reliability of a system. Updating of reliability on the basis
of observation becomes feasible and innovative ap-
proaches can be used for the modeling of progressive
failure probability (Chowdhury, 1992) and for back-
analysis of failed slopes. Other innovative applications of
a probabilistic approach with pertinent details and refer-
ences are discussed by Chowdhury et al (2010)
An interesting approach for probabilistic seismic land-
slide analysis which incorporates the traditional infinite
slope limit equilibrium model as well as the rigid-block
displacement model has been demonstrated by Jibson et
al (1998; 2000).
A probabilistic approach also facilitates the communi-
cation of uncertainties concerning hazard assessment and
slope performance to a wide range of end-users including
planners, owners, clients and the general public.
Although the adoption of a probabilistic approach by
the geotechnical profession was initially a slow process,
the considerable benefits in doing so are now increasing-
ly recognized. Often there are difficulties in applying a
quantitative probabilistic approach because data concern-
ing one or more key parameters are insufficient or lack-
ing in quality. In such cases, a subjective approach, based
on expert judgment may be used. However, such an exer-
cise should be used with caution and with full recognition
of its inherent limitations.
In this regard it is pertinent to refer to a recent paper
(Silva et al., 2008) where the development of empirical
non-linear relationships between the factor of safety F
and annual probability of failure pF is outlined. Slope sta-
bility problems are classified into one of four types, cate-
gory I to category IV, depending on a number of factors
such as the extent of investigation, the reliability of shear
strength data and the quality of engineering including
construction supervision. For each category, there is a
different empirical curve relating factor of safety to prob-
ability of failure.
Adopting such an approach may prove useful in par-
ticular cases where a lot of previous experience is availa-
ble. On the other hand, such an approach discourages the
consideration of each problem as unique and inhibits an
understanding of the components of uncertainty and their
relative influence on the results. For example, in prob-
lems of natural slope stability, variability of pore-water
pressure, spatial and temporal, is often a significant
source of uncertainty. Such variability can not be fully
understood on the basis of a simplistic empirical ap-
proach.
4 GEOTECHNICAL SLOPE ANALYSIS IN A
REGIONAL CONTEXT
Understanding geology, geomorphology and ground-
water flow is of key importance. Therefore judicious use
must be made of advanced methods of modeling in order
to gain the best possible understanding of the geological
framework and to minimize the role of uncertainties on
the outcome of analyses (Marker, 2009; Rees et al, 2009).
Variability of ground conditions, spatial and temporal,
is important in both regional and site-specific analysis.
Consequently probability concepts are very useful in both
cases although they may be applied in quite different
ways.
Spatial and temporal variability of triggering factors
such as rainfall have a marked influence on the occur-
rence and distribution of landslides in a region (Flentje,
2009; Flentje and Chowdhury, 2005b).
This context is important for understanding the uncer-
tainties in the development of critical pore-water pres-
sures. Consequently, it helps in the estimation of rainfall
threshold for on-set of landsliding. Regional and local
factors both would have a strong influence on the combi-
nations of rainfall magnitude and duration leading to crit-
ical conditions (Flentje and Chowdhury, 2001; Murray,
2001).
Since earthquakes trigger many landslides which can
have a devastating impact, it is important to understand
the causative and influencing factors. The occurrence,
reach, volume and distribution of earthquake-induced
landslides are related to earthquake magnitude and other
regional factors. Among the important studies published
on regional seismically-induced landsliding are those by
Keefer (1984) Rodriguez et al (1999) and Keefer (2007).
5 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
(GIS) AND OTHER POWERFUL TOOLS
GIS enables the collection, organization, processing,
managing and updating of spatial and temporal infor-
mation concerning geological, geotechnical, topograph-
ical, and other key parameters. The information can be
accessed and applied by a range of professionals such as
geotechnical engineers, engineering geologists, civil en-
gineers and planners for assessing hazard of landsliding
as well as for risk management. Traditional slope analysis
must, therefore be used within the context of a modern
framework which includes GIS. Amongst the other ad-
vantages of GIS are the ability to deal with multiple haz-
ards, the joining of disparate data and the ability to in-
clude decision support and warning systems (Gibson and
Chowdhury, 2009).
Papers concerning the application of basic, widely
available, GIS systems as well as about the development
of advanced GIS systems continue to be published. For
instance, Reeves and West (2009), covering a conference
session on ‘Geodata for the urban environment’, found
that 11 out of 30 papers were about the ‘Development of
Geographic Information Systems’ while Gibson and
Chowdhury (2009) pointed out that the input of engineer-
ing geologists (and, by implication, geotechnical engi-
neers) to urban geohazards management is increasingly
through the medium of GIS.
The linking of multiple datasets representing different
influencing factors for slope stability is a powerful basis
for hazard assessment. Knowledge-based approaches re-
quire spatial databases, advanced geological and ge-
otechnical models as well as GIS. Such approaches are
very powerful for assessment of landslide susceptibility,
hazard and risk as well as for decision-making under a
wide variety of scenarios.
Meeting future challenges will require continued ef-
forts for understanding changes in landslide hazard over
time caused by different factors including potential cli-
mate change. Regional modeling of geohazards change
will therefore be an important task for geoscientists and
geotechnical engineers. Consequently, 3D geological
models have been discussed by a number of authors such
as Rees et al (2009) who envisage that such models
should be the basis for 4D process modeling in which
temporal changes and factors can be taken into considera-
tion. They refer, in particular, to time-series data concern-
ing precipitation, groundwater, sea level and temperature.
Such data, if and when available, can be integrated with
3D spatial modeling.
6 CHOICE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND
ADVANCED METHODS OF ANALYSIS
The choice amongst limit equilibrium methods de-
pends on the type of slope (e.g., soil, rock), the shape of
the slip surface (e.g., planar, multi-planar, circular, non-
circular) and other aspects. Even so, more than one meth-
od may be suitable and many available software packages
do include several alternative methods and options. Simi-
larly there are several sophisticated methods of analysis
for determining stresses and deformations and there is a
corresponding choice of software packages.
The use of one or more limit equilibrium methods is
sufficient in most slope problems where the aim is to de-
termine values of factor of safety F as the main perfor-
mance indicator. Moreover, one of these methods can
serve as a useful geotechnical basis for probabilistic
modeling and analysis. On the other hand, if slope de-
formations need to be calculated and if detailed
knowledge of stress and strain distributions is important,
the use of advanced stress–deformation methods is desir-
able and, in fact, may be necessary. However, the re-
quired input data must be available and, in fact, the moni-
toring of deformations in the field would be desirable in
order to validate the results based on the input data. Us-
ing a finite element solution simply to calculate the factor
of safety offers little or no advantage over a limit equilib-
rium approach.
7 OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH
Slope analysis cannot be considered in isolation since
a good understanding of site conditions and field perfor-
mance is essential. Thus observation and monitoring of
slopes are very important for understanding all aspects of
performance; from increases in pore-water pressures to
the evidence of excessive stress and strain, from the de-
velopment of tension cracks and small shear movements
to initiation of progressive failure, and from the devel-
opment of a complete landslide to the post-failure dis-
placement of the landslide mass.
Observation and monitoring also facilitate an under-
standing of the occurrence of multiple slope failures
within a region after a significant triggering factor such
as a rainfall event (Flentje and Chowdhury, 2005b; Flent-
je and Chowdhury, 2006; Flentje et al, 2007; Flentje,
2009). Most importantly, observational approaches help
in the back-analyses of slope failures and landslides.
From the beginning of soil mechanics as a discipline,
back-analyses have been very useful in understanding the
mobilization of shear strength, the development of stress-
es and deformations and several other aspects of slope
behavior. Whether considering new or existing slopes or
the strengthening of slopes, a well designed program of
observation and monitoring can be useful for validating
geotechnical analyses. Moreover, data for slope analysis,
such as pore-water pressure and shear strength can be up-
dated as more observational data become available. The
availability of real-time data will contribute to more ac-
curate assessments and to more accurate back-analyses.
Consequently, real-time monitoring will lead to further
advancement in the understanding of slope behavior.
8 EMERGING CHALLENGES
First and foremost we must consider the challenge of
the increasing numbers of slope failures and their increas-
ingly adverse consequences. These trends have developed
in spite of significant progress in our understanding of
natural processes and in spite of the successful develop-
ment of experimental, analytical and design tools.
Often catastrophic landslides are caused by high mag-
nitude natural events such as rainstorms and earthquakes.
It is also important to consider the contribution of hu-
man activities such as indiscriminate deforestation and
rapid urbanization to landslide hazard. There is an in-
creasing realization that poor planning of land and infra-
structure development has increased the potential for
slope instability in many regions of the world.
Issues concerned with increasing hazard and vulnera-
bility are very complex and cannot be tackled by ge-
otechnical engineers alone. Therefore, the importance of
working in interdisciplinary teams must again be empha-
sized. Reference has already been made to the use of geo-
logical modeling (2D, 3D and potentially 4D) and to
powerful tools such as GIS which can be used in combi-
nation with geotechnical and geological models.
At the level of analysis methods and techniques, one
of the important challenges for the future is to use slope
deformation (or slip movement) as a performance indica-
tor rather than the conventional factor of safety. Also at
the level of analysis, attention needs to be given to better
description of uncertainties related to construction of
slopes including the quality of supervision.
Research into the effects of climate change and, in
particular its implications for geotechnical engineering is
urgently needed (Rees et al 2009; Nathanail and Banks,
2009). The variability of influencing factors such as rain-
fall and pore-water pressure can be expected to increase.
However, there will be significant uncertainties associat-
ed with estimates of variability in geotechnical parame-
ters and other temporal and spatial factors. Consequently
geotechnical engineers need to be equipped with better
tools for dealing with variability and uncertainty. There
may also be other changes in the rate at which natural
processes like weathering and erosion occur. Sea level
rise is another important projected consequence of global
warming and climate change and it would have adverse
effects on the stability of coastal slopes.
9 CONCLUSIONS
A wide range of methods, from the simplest to the
most sophisticated are available for the geotechnical
analysis of slopes. This includes both static and dynamic
conditions and a variety of conditions relating to the infil-
tration, seepage and drainage of water. Considering re-
gional slope stability, comprehensive databases and pow-
erful geological models can be combined within a GIS
framework to assess and use information and data rele-
vant to the analysis of slopes and the assessment of the
hazard of landsliding. The use of knowledge-based sys-
tems for assessment of failure susceptibility, hazard or
performance can be facilitated by these powerful tools.
It is important to understand the changes in geo-
hazards with time. In particular, geotechnical engi-
neers and engineering geologists will face long-term
challenges due to climate change. Research is re-
quired to learn about the effects of climate change in
greater detail so that methods of analysis and inter-
pretation can be improved and extended. Exploration
of such issues will be facilitated by a proper under-
standing of the basic concepts of geotechnical slope
analysis and the fundamental principles on which the
available methods of analysis are based.
REFERENCES
Chowdhury, R., 1980. Landslides as natural hazards – mecha-
nisms and uncertainties, Geotechnical Engineering, Vol.
11,135-180.
Chowdhury, R., 1984. Recent Developments in Landslide
Studies-Probabilistic Methods, State of the Art Report,
Proc. International Symposium on Landslides, Toronto,
Vol. 1, 209-229.
Chowdhury, R. 1988. Special Lecture: Analysis Methods For
Assessing Landslide Risk-Recent Developments, Proc.
Fifth International Symposium on Landslides, Laussane ,
515-524.
Chowdhury R., 1992. Simulation of Risk of Progressive Slope
Failure, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 29, Number1,
94-102.
Chowdhury, R., 1996. Evaluation of the seismic performance
of earth structures, Proceedings of the Eleventh World Con-
ference on Earthquake Engineering, Acupulco, Mexico, Pa-
per No. 549, ISBN 0 08 042822.
Chowdhury, R. and Flentje, P. 2008. Strategic Approaches for
the Management of Risk in Geomechanics, Theme Paper,
Proc. 12 IACMAG conference, Goa, India, CD-ROM,
3031-3042.
Chowdhury,R., Flentje,P. and Bhattacharya, G. 2010. Geotech-
nical Slope Analysis, CRC Press, Balkema, Taylor and
Francis Group, 746 p.
Flentje, P. 2009. Landslide Inventory Development and Land-
slide Susceptibility Zoning in The Wollongong City Coun-
cil Local Government Area, Unpublished Report to Indus-
try Partners-Wollongong City Council, RailCorp and the
Roads and Traffic Authority, University of Wollongong,
Australia, 73pp.
Flentje, P. and Chowdhury, R. 2001. Aspects of Risk Man-
agement for Rainfall - Triggered Landsliding. Proceedings
of the Engineering and Development in Hazardous Terrain
Symposium, New Zealand Geotechnical Society Inc. Uni-
versity of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. The In-
stitution of Professional Engineers New Zealand. August
24-25, pp 143-150.
Flentje, P. and Chowdhury, R. 2005a. Managing landslide haz-
ards on the Illawarra escarpment. Proceedings of the
GeoQuest Symposium entitled ‘Planning for Natural Haz-
ards – How can we mitigate the impacts?’ Editor: Associate
Professor John Morrison. University of Wollongong, 2-5
February 2005. Published by GeoQuest Research Centre,
University of Wollongong 2005, p 65 – 78.
Flentje, P. and Chowdhury, R. 2005b Towards real-time land-
slide risk management in an urban area., Proc. of Confer-
ence on Landslide Risk Management, Vancouver May 31-
June 3, Hungr, Fell, Couture and Eberhardt (eds),Taylor
and Francis Group, London, 741-751.
Flentje, P. and Chowdhury, R. 2006. Observational Approach
for Urban Landslide Management, Engineering geology
for tomorrow's cities. The 10th International Association
of Engineering Geology and the Environment (IAEG)
Congress, Nottingham, United Kingdom, 6-10 Sep-
tember 2006.
Flentje, P., Stirling, D. and Chowdhury, R. 2007 Landslide
Susceptibility and Hazard derived from a Landslide Inven-
tory using Data Mining – An Australian Case Study. Pro-
ceedings of the First North American Landslide Confer-
ence, Landslides and Society: Integrated Science,
Engineering, Management, and Mitigation. Vail, Colorado
June 3-8, 2007. CD, Paper number 17823-024, 10 pages.
Gibson, A.D.and Chowdhury, R. 2009. Planning and geohaz-
ards, In Engineering Geology For Tomorrow’s Cities, Cul-
shaw, M.G, Reeves, H.J., Jefferson, I., and Spink, T.W.,
(eds.), Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology
Special Publication ,Vol.22,113-123.
Hendron, A.J. Jr. and Patton, F.D., 1985. The Vaiont Slide, A
geotechnical Analysis Based on New Geologic Observa-
tions on the Failure Surface, Vols. I and II, Final Report
prepared for the Department of The Army, US Army Corps
of Engineers, Washington, DC, Monitored by Geotechnical
Laboratory, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg , Mississippi, USA.
Jibson, R.W., 2007. Regression models for estimating coseis-
mic landslide displacement, Engineering Geology, Volume
91,209-218.
Jibson, R.W., Harp, E.L. and Michael, J.A., 1998. A method
for producing digital probabilistic seismic landslide hazard
maps: an example from the Los Angeles, California area.
Open-file report 98-113, 1998, 17 pp + 2 maps, USGS,
Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO, USA.
Jibson, R.W., Harp, E.L. and Michael, J.A., 2000. A method
for producing digital probabilistic seismic landslide hazard
maps, Engineering Geology 58 (3-4): 271-289 Dec 2000.
Keefer, D.K., 1984. Landslides caused by earthquakes, Geol.
Soc. Annual Bulletin, 95, 1984, 406-421.
Keefer, D.K., 2007. Landslides caused by recent earthquakes:
Anomalies and relations to general trends, First North
American landslide Conference, Vail Colorado, USA, June
3-10, 2007, CD-ROM, 2007, pp876-883.
Marker, B.R.,2009. Geology of mega-cities and urban areas,
In, Engineering Geology For Tomorrow’s Cities, Culshaw,
M.G, Reeves, H.J., Jefferson ,I.,and Spink,T.W.,(eds.), Ge-
ological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special
Publication ,Vol.22,33-48.
Murray, E, 2001. Rainfall Thresholds for Landslide Initiation
in the Wollongong Region, Internal report to Australian
Geological Survey Organisation and SPIRT Project Team
at the University of Wollongong.
Nathanail, J.and Banks, V. 2009 Climate Change: implications
for engineering geology practice 2009, In, Engineering Ge-
ology For Tomorrow’s Cities, Culshaw, M.G, Reeves,
H.J., Jefferson, I.,and Spink, T.W.,(eds.), Geological Socie-
ty, London, Engineering Geology Special Publication
,Vol.22,65-82.
Potts,D.M., Kovacevic, N. and Vaughan, P.R. 1990. Finite el-
ement analysis of progressive failure of Carsington em-
bankment, Geotechnique,Vol 40, No.1, 79-101.
Rees, J.G,, Gibson, A.D., Harrison, M., Hughes, A. and
Walsby, J.C., 2009. Regional modeling of geohazards
change, In ,Engineering Geology For Tomorrow’s Cities,
Culshaw, M.G., Reeves, H.J., Jefferson, I.,and Spink, T.W.,
(eds.), Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology
Special Publication ,Vol.22,49-64.
Reeves, H.J. and West, T.R., 2009. Geodata for the urban envi-
ronment, In ,Engineering Geology For Tomorrow’s Cities,
Culshaw, M.G., Reeves, H.J., Jefferson, ,I., and Spink,
T.W., (eds.), Geological Society, London, Engineering Ge-
ology Special Publication ,Vol.22,209-213.
Richards, B.G., 1982. The finite Element Analysis of Mine
Spoil Piles Using Slip Elements to Simulate Strain-
softening Yield Behaviour. Civil Engineering Transactions,
Institution of Engineers, Australia, Vol. CE 24, 69-76.
Rodrigquez, C.E., Bommer, J.J., and Chandler, R.J., 1999.
Earthquake-induced landslides: 1980-1997, SDEE, 8, 1999,
326-346.
Sarma S.K., 1988. Seismic response and stability of earth
dams. Seismic Risk Assessment and Design of Building
Structures, Ed A. Koridze, Omega Scientific, 143-160,
1988.
Seed, H.B., 1979. Considerations in the earthquake-resistant
design of earth and rockfill dams, Nineteenth Rankine Lec-
ture, Geotechnique, 29(3),13-41.
Silva, F., Lambe, T.W. and Marr, W.A., 2008. Probability and
Risk of Slope Failure, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoen-
vironmental Engineering, Vol. 134, No.12, 1691-1699.
Sitar, N., MacLaughlin, M. M. and Doolin. D.M., 2005. Influ-
ence of kinematics on landslide mobility and failure mode,
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineer-
ing, Vol 131, No. 6, 716-728.