Statistics is a branch

of science dealing
with the methods of
collecting, organizing,
presentation,
computation and
interpreting
quantitative data.
Stat 16 (Probability and Statistics) is a tough subject for me but I try my
best to overcome those difficulties and here I am writing of all I have
learned.

Probability distribution
is a table or an equation that links each outcome of a statistical
experiment with its probability of occurrence. To understand probability
distributions, it is important to understand variables.

Suppose you flip a coin two times. This simple statistical experiment can have
four possible outcomes: HH, HT, TH, and TT. Now, let the variable X represent
the number of Heads that result from this experiment. The variable X can take on
the values 0, 1, or 2. In this example, X is a random variable; because its value is
determined by the outcome of a statistical experiment.

Event

is one (or more) outcomes. subset of a sample space may include the
entire S or it may contain no elements , null set (∅).

Complement

of a set A refers to elements not in A. When all sets under consideration

are considered to be subsets of a given set U, the absolute
complement of A is the set of elements in U but not in A.

Relative complement

of A with respect to a set B, also termed the difference of sets A and B,

written B ∖ A, is the set of elements in B but not in A. intersection of two
events Consider (M and N)(M and N) are two events of a random
experiment.

The intersection of two events

(M and N)(M and N) is represented by (M∩N). Union of two events the the union
of A and B is represented by A ∪ B. Disjoint events cannot happen at the same
time. In other words, they are mutually exclusive.
Put in formal terms, events A and B are disjoint if their intersection is zero:
P(A∩B) = 0.
You’ll sometimes see this written as:
P(A and B) = 0.
The two terms are equivalent.
Tree diagram:
Calculating probabilities can be hard, sometimes we add them, sometimes we
multiply them, and often it is hard to figure out what do that’s why there is a tree
diagram.

Permutation
is an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects, with regard to the order
of the arrangement.

Formula:
nPr=n!(n−r)!

For example:

Suppose we have a set of three letters: A, B, and C. We might ask how many
ways we can arrange 2 letters from that set. Each possible arrangement would
be an example of a permutation. The complete list of possible permutations
would be: AB, AC, BA, BC, CA, and CB.

A computer scientist is trying to discover the keyword for a financial account. If

the keyword consists only of 10 lower case characters (e.g., 10 characters from
among the set: a, b, c... w, x, y, z) and no character can be repeated, how many
different unique arrangements of characters exist?
Solution:

Step 1: Determine whether the question pertains to permutations or combinations.

Since changing the order of the potential keywords would create a new possibility,
this is a permutations problem.

Step 2: Determine n and r

n = 26 since the computer scientist is choosing from 26 possibilities (e.g., a, b, c...

x, y, z).

r = 10 since the computer scientist is choosing 10 characters.

Step 2: Apply the formula

26P10=26!(26−10)! =26!16! =26(25)(24)...(11)(10)(9)...(1)(16)(15)...(1) =26(25)(2

4)...(17) =19275223968000

Combination
refer to the combination of n things taken c at a time without repetition.

Combination formula

A formula for a possible combination for r objects from a set of n objects.

Formula:
For example:
How many different committees of 4 students can be chosen from a group of 15?
Answer:

There are possible combinations of 4 students from a set of 15.

There are 1365 different committees.

Descriptive statistics
are numbers that are used to summarize and describe data.

Inferential statistics
Mathematical methods that employ probability theory for deducing
(inferring) the properties of a population from the analysis of the properties
of a data sample drawn from it. It is concerned also with
the precision and reliability of the inferences it helps to draw.

Population
Refers to the total set of observations that can be made.

Sample
refers to a set of observations drawn from a population. Often, it is
necessary to use samples for research, because it is impractical to study the
whole population.

Parameters
In statistics is a vital component of any statistical analysis. In simple words,
a parameter is any numerical quantity that characterizes a given
population or some aspect of it. This means the parameter tells us
something about the entire population.

Quantitative data
is numerical and acquired through counting or measuring
Two types of quantitative data
 Discrete if the values can be separated from each other. The main
example of this is the set of natural numbers. There is no way that a value
can be a fraction or between any of the whole numbers.

 Continuous data arises when individuals represented in the data set

can take on any real number in a range of values.

Collection of data:
Primary source
interview, observation, experimentation.

Secondary source

records of data previously gathered, newspaper, magazines, journals,

published materials.

1. A census is a survey of a whole population.

2. sample survey takes a fraction of the population. Sample surveys are
cheaper than censuses but are not as accurate. Bias can also be an issue.
3. An experiment is a controlled study of a group. Experiments are very
common in the medical fields. The researcher controls how members are
placed study groups and which treatment each group receives. Bias can be a
major issue with experiments.
4. An observational study is about the same as an experiment. However, the
researcher does not use control groups or assign treatments.

Types of Data Collection Methods

Interviews
are very structured for quantitative research. They are less structured for
qualitative research. In a structured interview, you would ask a series of
standard questions; in less-structured interview you might ask open-ended
questions.
Questionnaires
Paper and pencil questionnaires can be sent to a large group of people.
They have the advantage of respondents tending to be more truthful with
responses. A disadvantage is a very low response rate.

Determining the sample size

What is a “Sample Size”?
A sample size is a part of the population chosen for a survey or
experiment.

n = N/(1+Ne2)
where n is the sample size, N is the population size and e is the margin of error
to be decided by the researcher.

For example:
Suppose that you have a group of 1,000 city government employees and you
want to survey them to find out which tools are best suited to their jobs. You
decide that you are happy with a margin of error of 0.05.

Answer:
1,000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05 * 0.05) = 286

Probability sampling
is based on the fact that every member of a population has a known and
equal chance of being selected.

Types of Probability Sampling

 Simple random sampling is a completely random method of selecting
subjects. These can include assigning numbers to all subjects and then using
a random number generator to choose random numbers.
 Stratified Random Sampling involves splitting subjects into mutually
exclusive groups and then using simple random sampling to choose
members from groups.
 Systematic Sampling means that you choose every “nth” participant from a
complete list. For example, you could choose every 10th person listed.
 Cluster Random Sampling is a way to randomly select participants from a
list that is too large for simple random sampling.
 Multi-Stage Random sampling uses a combination of techniques.
Non-probability
sampling is a sampling technique where the odds of any member being
selected for a sample cannot be calculated.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

 Convenience Sampling: as the name suggests, this involves collecting a
sample from somewhere convenient to you: the mall, your local school, your
church. Sometimes called accidental sampling, opportunity sampling or grab
sampling.
 Haphazard Sampling: where a researcher chooses items haphazardly,
trying to simulate randomness. However, the result may not be random at all
and is often tainted by selection bias.
 Purposive Sampling: where the researcher chooses a sample based on
their knowledge about the population and the study itself. The study
participants are chosen based on the study’s purpose.
 Expert Sampling: in this method, the researcher draws the sample from a
list of experts in the field.
 Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling: a type of sampling where
you deliberately choose members so that all views are represented.
However, those views may or may not be represented proportionally.
 Modal Instance Sampling: The most “typical” members are chosen from a
set.
 Quota Sampling: where the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample are
proportional to the groups in the population.
 Snowball Sampling: where research participants recruit other members for
the study. This method is particularly useful when participants might be hard
to find. For example, a study on working prostitutes or current heroin users.
 Republic of the Philippines
Tacloban City
Eastern Visayas State University

Compilation
In
Probability and Statistics
(Stat16)
Submitted to:
Engr. Ramon Lim

Submitted By:
Rhea C. Creer