SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 1

Theory of Structures 1 – Determinate Structures (Lectures)

Course Outcomes

At the end of the course, the students must be able to:

1. Identify and classify various types of planar and spatial, structural systems and the
manner by which these are supported for stability;
2. Determine the state of static and kinematic determinacy and stability of structural
systems; externally and internally;
3. Apply the methods of structural analysis for external and internal actions on various
types of structural systems due to static and moving loads;
4. Develop intuition on deflected shapes of structures under loading.

Lectures

1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction to structural engineering;

Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing, and constructing safe and
economical structures that will serve their intended purposes. Structural analysis is an integral
part of any structural engineering project, its function being the prediction of the performance
of the proposed structure.

1.2 the analysis and design process;

A flowchart showing the various phases of typical structural engineering projects is presented
in Figure 1. As this diagram indicates, the process is an iterative one, and it generally consists of
the following steps:
1. Planning Phase. The planning phase usually involves the establishment of the
functional requirements of the proposed structure, the general layout and dimensions
of the structure, consideration of the possible types of structures (e.g. rigid frame or
truss) that may be feasible and types of materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or
reinforced concrete). This phase may also involve consideration of nonstructural
factors, such as aesthetics, environmental impact of the structure, and so on. The
outcome of this phase is usually a structural system that meets the functional
requirements and is expected to be the most economical. This phase is perhaps the
most crucial one of the entire project and requires experience and knowledge of
construction practices in addition to a thorough understanding of the behavior of
structures.
2. Preliminary Structural Design. In this phase, the sizes of the various members of the
structural system selected in the planning phase are estimated based on appropriate

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
 SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 2

analysis, past experience, and code requirements. The member sizes thus selected are
used in the next phase to estimate the weight of the structure.
3. Estimation of Loads. Estimation of loads involves determination of the all the loads
that can be expected to act on the structure.
4. Structural Analysis. In this phase, the values of the loads are used to carry out an
analysis of the structure in order to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the
members and the deflections at various points of the structure.
5. Safety and Serviceability Checks. The results of the analysis are used to determine
whether or not the structure satisfies the safety and serviceability requirements of the
design codes. If these requirements are satisfied, then the design drawings and the
construction specifications are prepared, and construction phase begins.
6. Revised Structural Design. If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member
sizes are revised, and phases 3 through 5 are repeated until all the safety and
serviceability requirements are satisfied.

Planning phase

Preliminary structural design

Estimation of loads

Structural analysis

Are the
safety and Revised
serviceability No structural
requirements design
satisfied?

Yes

Construction phase

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
 SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 3

1.3 structural forms,

1. Tension Structures
a. hangers
b. cables
c. struts, ties, purely for tension

2. Compression Structures
a. mainly columns
b. arches

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
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3. Trusses
a. roof
b. bridge
c. special purpose trusses

4. Shear Structures
a. shear walls – used to reduce lateral movements due to wind and earthquake

5. Bending Structures
a. beams
b. rigid frames
c. slabs
d. plates

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
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1.4 nature of loads;

1. Dead loads – gravity loads of constant magnitude and fixed positions (including self
weight).

Unit weight of common materials.

Example 1:

The floor system of a building consists of a 5-in. thick reinforced concrete slab on four steel
floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel girders shown below (diagram a). The
cross-sectional areas of the floor beams and the girders are 14.7 in2 and 52.3 in2, respectively.
Determine the dead loads acting on beam CG and DH and the girder AD – as shown in diagrams
b, c, and d.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
 SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 6

2. Live loads – usually specified as uniformly distributed surface loads (occupancy),

including loads for bridges.

Minimum floor live loads for buildings.

3. Impact – live loads that are applied rapidly to a structure, dynamic and can produce
large stress.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
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4. Wind loads – produced by the flow of wind around the structure.

5. Snow Loads

6. Earthquake loads – a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface.

F2

F1

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
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7. Hydrostatic and soil pressures – dams and tanks, coastal structures and affected by
hydrostatic and soil pressures.

8. Thermal and other effects – stresses due to temperature changes.

9. Load combinations - mainly govern by statistics and experience.

1.5 building materials

Early builders used:
Wood, stone, brick, and concrete
Later builders include:
John Smeaton and English Civil Engineer extensively used cast iron
Malleable iron is superior to cast iron.
Carbon steel is almost perfect structural material.
Reinforced concrete
Steel and other breakthrough materials.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
 SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 9

1.6 types of supports support reactions;

1.7 degrees of static and kinematic indeterminacy for planar and spatial structures;
conditions for instability, stability, and redundancy of structures;

The term rigid structure as used here implies that the structure offers significant resistance to
its change of shape, whereas a nonrigid structure offers negligible resistance to its change of
shape when detached from the supports and would often collapse under its own weight when
not supported externally.

Example of internally stable structures

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 10

Example of internally unstable structures

An internally stable structure is considered to be statically determinate externally if all its

support reactions can be determined by solving the equations of equilibrium.

Example of externally statically determinate structures

Structures supported by more than three reactions, which cannot be solved by the three
equilibrium equations are called externally statically indeterminate structures.

The reaction in excess of those necessary for equilibrium are called external redundants, and
the number of redundants is referred to as the degree of external indeterminacy.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 11

ic = r – 3
where
r = number of reactions
ic = degree of internal indeterminacy

Example of externally statically indeterminate structures

Example of externally statically unstable plane structure

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
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Static determinacy of internally unstable structures

and equations of conditions of and beams

We can say that if there are ec equations of condition (one equation for each internal hinge and
two equations for each internal roller) for an internally unstable structure, which is supported
by r external reactions, then we have:

For an externally indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy is expressed as:

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 13

Internal Stability of Trusses

A simple truss is formed by enlarging the basic truss element, which contains three members
and three joints, by adding two additional members for each additional joint, so the total
number of members m in a simple truss is given by m = 2j – 3 in which j is the total number of
joints.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 14

Static determinacy of internally unstable structures

and equations of conditions of trusses

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 15

Space Trusses

A simple space truss is formed by enlarging the basic tetrahedron element containing six
members and four joints by adding three additional members for each additional joint, so the
total number of members m in a simple space truss is given by m = 3j – 6, in which j = total
number of joints (including those attached to the supports).

In order for an internally stab le space structure to be in equilibrium under general system of
three-dimensional forces, it must be supported by at least six reactions that satisfy the six
equations of equilibrium below:

Thus, if

where r = number of reactions.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 16

Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Space Trusses

Space trusses containing more unknowns that the available equilibrium equations (m + r > 3j)
are statically indeterminate, and those with fewer unknowns than the equilibrium equations (m
+ r < 3j) are statically unstable. Thus, the conditions of static instability, determinacy, and
indeterminacy of space trusses can be summarized as follows:

Analysis of Member Forces of a Space Trusses

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 17

The analysis of space trusses can be expedited by identifying the zero-force members first by
inspection. Two common types of member arrangements that result in zero-force members are
the following:

1. If all but one of the members connected to a joint lie in a single plane and no external
loads or reactions are applied to the join, then the force in the member that is not
coplanar is zero (consider the above diagram).
2. If all but two of the members connected to a joint have zero force and no external loads
or reactions are applied to the joint, then unless the two remaining members are
collinear, the force in each of them is also zero.

Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Structural Plane Frames

A frame is considered to be statically determinate if the bending moments, shears, and axial
forces in all its members, as well as all the external reactions, can be determined by using the
equations of equilibrium and condition. The excess members and reactions are called
redundants, and the number of excess members forces and reactions is referred to as the
degree of static indeterminacy, i, which can be expressed as:

The conditions for static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of plane frames can be
summarized as follows:

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 18

The procedure for determining the number of equations of condition remains the same as
discussed earlier. Recall that an internal hinge provides one equation of condition, and an
internal roller provides two such equations. When several members of a frame are connected
at a hinged joint, the number of equations of condition at the joint is equal to the number of
members meeting at the joint minus one (see the above diagram).

Example 2:

Classify each of the structures shown in the figures below as externally unstable, statically
determinate or statically indeterminate. If the structure is statically indeterminate externally,
then determine the degree of external indeterminacy.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 19

Solution:

Example 3:

Verify each of the plane trusses shown below as internally stable or unstable.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 20

Solution:

Example 4:

Classify each of the plane trusses shown below as unstable, statically determinate, or statically
indeterminate. If the truss is statically indeterminate, then determine the degree of static
indeterminacy.

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 21

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 22

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
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Example 5:

Determine the static determinacy and zero force member of the space truss as shown below:

Analysis is on Chapter 2 (see Example 9).

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
SJA – DCE – Theory of Structures 1 24

Example 6:

Determine each of the plane frames below as statically determinate or indeterminate.

Verify also the degree of static indeterminacy.

Analysis is on Chapter 2 (see Example 14).

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
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1.8 degrees of freedom of joint translation and rotation;

Degrees of freedom relates to freedom of movements of a node or point in consideration with

respect to horizontal, (x, z) and vertical (y) axes.

Degrees of freedom: a) axial deformation included, 18 DOFs;

b) axial deformation neglected, 8 DOFs.

Single degree of freedom (SDOF): a) idealized slab

b) idealized water tank or second floor of a building

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DCE, CENCOM, USM
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1.9 concepts of axial, shear, torsional, flexural rigidities and stiffness of structural members

Axial

Shear

Torsional

Flexural (Bending)

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The effects produced by internal forces:

Stiffness

Stiffness is usually associated with bending of a material. The bending stiffness, K, of a member
is defined as the moment that must be applied at an end of the member to cause a unit
rotation (θ) of that end.

Next stop is finding reactions and shear and moment diagrams… Chapter 2…

Saque J. Amilbahar
DCE, CENCOM, USM