HIGHWAY PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

3.1 Introduction to highway

Introduction to highway engineering teaches concept of highway planning and design.
Transportation by road system is the only mode which could give maximum flexibility of
service from origin to destination to one and all. Various class of vehicles such as car,
bus, truck, two-wheeler, etc. may be permitted to make uses of the roads. Apart from the
vehicle, pedestrian also make use of the facilities of the road system.

Limitation of road transport are of petroleum energy consumed is higher than for
transportation by railway and waterway. The rate of emission of pollutant is also higher
than the other modes of transportation.

The branch of transportation engineering that deals with the planning, design,
construction and maintenance of roadway facilities is termed Road engineering or
"Highway Engineering”

Road transport is one of the most common mode of transport

 Roads in the form of Track ways, Human pathways etc. were used even from the
pre-historic times

 By the invention of WHEEL many experiments were going on to make the riding
safe & comfort

 Thus road construction became an inspirable part of many civilizations and

empires

3.2 Highway alignment:

The positioning or the laying out of the center line of the highway on the ground is called
the alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal
deviations and curves. Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered under vertical
alignment of roads.

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Requirements:

The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are that is should
be:

Short

Easy

Safe

Economical

3.3 Survey work carried during highway project

The following steps are carried out while conducting highway project:

1. Map study:

All different possible alignment should be studied with the help of available topography
map of the area.

2. Reconnaissance survey:

To obtain a general idea of the topography and other featured, field identification of soils
and survey of construction of materials, by an on the spot inspection of soils.

3. Preliminary survey:

This helps in knowing topography details and soil survey along alternate alignment.
Considering the geometry design and other requirements of alignment preparation of plan
and comparison of alternate roads, economic analysis and selection of final alignment is
done.

4. Location of final alignment:

Here pegs are driven along center line finally chosen alignment setting out of geometric
design elements by location of tangent points, apex points, circular and transition curves,
elevation of center line and super elevation details.

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5. Detailed survey:

Detailed survey includes survey of highway, construction, work of preparation of

L-section & C-section. Computation of earth quantities and other construction checking
of details of geometric design elements.

6. Design:

Design details of all geometric elements, thickness of pavement layer etc.

7. Earth work:

Excavation for highway cutting and drainage system, construction of embankment.

8. Pavement construction:

Construction of sub base, base and surface course.

3.4 Introduction to site:

We are proposed to carry out a survey work for the alignment of new highway
near the Jamkhandi 22KM away from B G M I T College Mudhol .

The site was rolling terrain with red and black soil. The four different groups
carried out the alignment survey work in four different paths. Out of these four, we
selected one alignment, which is more beneficial to people and it is economical.\

Fig no.3.1 Topography of site:

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Fig no.3.2 Key map of site:

3.5 Objectives of highway project:

1) They provide more employment opportunities.

2) They serve as feeders for air ways, water ways and railways.
3) They help in the growth of trade and other economic activities in and outside the
villages and towns.
4) They provide to be comparatively cheaper and convenient mode of transport in
many cases.
5) They help in providing efficient distribution of agricultural products and the
natural resources all over the country.
6) They are help in enhancing the value of land.
7) They are essential for economic prosperity and over all development of the
country as a whole.

They help in growth of trade and other economical activities in and outside the villages
and towns by establishing contact between towns and villages

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3.6 Objectives of highway planning are as follows:

To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation with minimum cost.

The cost of the construction, maintenance and renewal of pavement layers and the
vehicle operation costs must be given due considerations.

To arrive at a road system and lengths of different categories of roads, which could
provide maximum utility and can be constructed within the available resources during the
plan period under consideration.

To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the
main criterion for phasing the road development program.

To plan future requirements and improvements of road in view of anticipated

developments.

To work out financing system.

3.7 Field work:

 Starting and end point are selected based on the topography and requirement.
 Select the different alternative alignment
 Carry out the reduced level to temporary bench mark (TBM) which is near to
starting points of alignment by permanent bench mark (PBM).
 Fix the initial point by taking the bearings and distance from the some 2 to 3
temporary structures.
 To fix the center line make the intervals of 10m at plain ground and 2m at sloping
ground by using ranging method
 For every interval mark the cross levels of three points 3, 6, 9 respectively on
either sides of the center line.
 By using auto level/theodlite, noted down the ground level values on every
interval of centre line or cross point.
 The same process is continued till up to the required length of road alignment.
 The reduced levels are calculated by height of instrument method.
 After computation of work the arithmetic check is applied
∑ 𝐵𝑆 − ∑ 𝐹𝑆 = 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝐿

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3.8 Cross section elements of highway:

 Camber
 Carriageway
 Width of roadway
 Kerbs
 Road margins
 Right of way
 Sight distance
a) Stopping sight distance
b) Overtaking sight distance
c) Intermediate sight distance
d) Head light sight distance

Fig.3.3 Highway cross section

Camber
Cross slope or camber is slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to
drain off the rain water from the road surface

Cambers are provided to prevent the entry of surface water into the subgrade soil through
pavement and also prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers

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Table No 3.1 Recommended values of camber for different road surface are as follows

SL NO Type of road surface Range of camber in area of rainfall range

Heavy Low
1 Cement concrete and high type 1 in 50 (2.0%) 1 in 60 (1.7%)
bituminous surface
2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 50 (2.0%)
3 Water bound macadam and gravel 1 in 33 (3.0%) 1 in 40 (2.5%)
pavement
4 Earth 1 in 25 (4.0%) 1 in 33 (3.0%)

Carriageway
It depends on the width of traffic lane and the no of lanes. The carriageway intended for
one line traffic movement may be called a traffic lane. The lane width is determined on
the bases of the width of vehicle and the minimum side clearance which may be provided
for the safety.

Table No 3.2 Width of carriage way for different classes of roads

Sl No Class of roads Width of carriageway

s1 Single lane 3.75m
2 Two lanes, without raised kerbs 75.0m
3 Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.5m
4 Intermediate carriageway 5.5m
5 Multi lane pavements 3.5m per lane
Width of Roadway
Width of roadway is sum of the widths of pavement or carriageway including separators
and the shoulders. It is also the width of the highway embankment or the bottom width of
highway cutting excluding the side drains

Table No 3.3 Width of roadway for different classes of roads

Sl No Road classification Plane and rolling Mountainous and

terrain steep terrain
1 National & State highways
Single lane 12.0 6.25
Two lane 12.0 8.80
2 Major district road
Single lane 9.0 4.75
Two lane 9.0 -
3 Other district road
Single lane 7.5 4.75
Two lane 9.0 -
s4 Village roads – Single lane 7.5 4.00

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Kerbs
Kerb is the boundary between pavement and shoulder.In rural roads submerged
kerbs are some time provided at pavement edge between edge and shoulder. These kerbs
provide lateral confinement stability to the granular base course and flexible pavements.

Types of kerbs
 Low or mountable type kerb
 Semi-barrier type kerb
 Barrier type kerbs

Road margins
Elements included in road margins are shoulder, parking lane, frontage road, driver way,
cycle track, foot path, guard rail, and embankment slope

Table No 3.4 IRC Recommendations for various road margins are given below

Road margins IRC Recommendations

Shoulders Min -2.5m
Parking lane 3m
Cycle park Min-2m
Foot path Min-1.5m

Right of way
Right of way is an area of land acquired for the road, along its alignment for the future
widening of road. The total width of land acquired along the alignment of road is called
as the right of way.

Table No 3.5 Recommended land width for different classes of roads (m) is as follows

Sl no Road Plain &rolling terrain Mountainous & sleep

classification terrain
Open area Built up area Open Built up
area area
Normal Range Normal Range Normal Range
1 National & 45 30-60 30 30-60 24 20
state highway
2 Major district 25 25-30 20 15-25 18 15
road
3 Other district 15 15-25 15 15-20 15 12
road
4 Village roads 12 12-18 10 10-15 9 9

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Sight distance
Sight distance is the actual distance along the road surface, which a driver from a
specified height above the carriageway has a visibility of stationary or moving objects.

The sight distance situation considered in the design are as follows:

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot should of
sufficient length to stop a vehicle travelling at design speed, safely without collision with
any other obstruction. The absolute minimum sight distance is therefore equal to SSD
which is also sometimes called as non passing sight distance.

Table no 3.6Stopping sight distance for different speed is as follows:

Design speed kmph 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100

Safe stopping sight 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180
distance for design in m

Overtaking Sight distance

The minimum sight distance open to the vision of driver of vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known
as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or safe passing sight distance available.

Table no 3.7 Safe overtaking distance for different speed is s follows:

Speed kmph 40 50 60 65 80 100

Safe sight distance in m 165 235 300 340 470 640

Intermediate sight distance

On horizontal curves the overtaking sight distance requirement cannot always be fulfilled
in such cases intermediate sight distance is provided.

Head light sight distance

This is a distance the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the
illumination of vehicle headlights. This sight distance is critical at up gradient and at
ascending stretch of the valley curves.

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3.9 Geometrical Elements:

1) Horizontal curve.
a) Radius.
b) Super elevation.
c) Extra widening.
d) Sight Distance.
e) Transition curve.
f) Camber.
2) Vertical curve.
Geometric design of highway:
1. Horizontal curve:
It is a curve provided to achieve gradual change in direction of alignment of a
road in horizontal plane.

Table no3.8 Design speeds of different types of road

Design speed in kmph for various terrains

Road classification Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep

Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.

National &State 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30

Highways

Major District Roads 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20

Village Roads 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20

Village Roads 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20

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Table No.3.9 IRC recommended values for longitudinal coefficient of friction.

Speed kmph 20 to 40 50 60 65 80 100

30

Longitudinal co-efficient of 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35

friction (f)

Design speed v=80 kmph, for state Highway & Rolling terrain.

[IRC Recommendation Table No. 3.8]

a) Ruling minimum radius of curve:-

 v2 
R (ruling) =  
 127  e  f  

Where R = Ruling Radius

V = Design Speed

e = Super elevation

f = Co-efficient of friction

 v2 
R (ruling) =  
 127  e  f   (Considering State highway, according to IRC design

speed V=80kmph for rolling terrains and f=0.15)

 (80) 2 
=  
 127  0.07  0.15  

R = 230m

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b) Design value of super elevation:-

The inward transverse inclination provided to the cross section of the carriage
way at a horizontal curved portion of a road is called super elevation
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and the tendency of the
vehicle to overturn or skid, the counter edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the
inner edge. Thus providing a transverse slope through the length of horizontal curve. This
transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as super elevation.

Fig 3.4 super elevation

Type of Road =Major District Road
Design Speed = 80kmph
No. Of Lanes =2
Width Of Road = 18m
W- Weight of Vehicle
R- Resultant Force
Fc- Centrifugal Force

 v2 
e =  
 225  R 

 80 2 
`=  
 225  230 

e = 0.124

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As the value is greater than maximum super elevation of 0.07, the actual super
elevation to be provided is restricted to 0.07

Check for coefficient of lateral friction developed for full speed:

 v2 
f =    0.07
 127  R 

 80 2 
=    0.07
 127  230 

= 0.15

As the value is equal to 0.15, the design is safe with a super elevation of 0.07.

c)Design of extra widening:-

The provision of extra pavement width at sharp horizontal curve.
Extra widening = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening

We = n*l²/(2R) + V/(9.5*√ (R))

Provide an extra wide of 0.657m and hence the total width of the Pavement

B = W + We

Here

No. of Lanes n=2

Length of Wheel base l = 6 m

Width of the Pavement W = 7.5 m

Extra widening = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening

 n  l²   v 
We =     
 2R   9.5  R 

 2  6²   80 
=    
 2  230   9.5  230 

= 0.71m

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Provide an extra wide of 0.9m(according to IRC) and hence the total width of
the pavement

B = W + We

B = 7.5+0.71

B = 8.21m

c) Sight distance.
The sufficient length required so that the driver may react to see the obstruction
and avoid accident.

Stopping sight distance:-

Here t = Total Reaction time of the Driver

t = 2.5 sec.

Table No.3.10 Stopping Sight Distance values for different speeds.

Design Speed kmph 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100

Safe stopping sight 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180

distance (m)

f =Longitudinal co- efficient of friction

f = 0.15 for V=80 kmph, [IRC Recommendation Table No. 3.9]

 v2 
SSD = 0.278  vt    
 254  f

 80 2 
= 0.278  80  2.5   
 254  0.15 

SSD = 223.58 m

[Min. value of SSD = 120m [IRC Recommendation Table No. 3.10]

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Over Taking Sight Distance:-

A1 A2 B1 B2 A3

C2 C1

s b s
d1 d2 d3

Fig no. 3.5 Over Taking Sight Distance

d1= Distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t sec. of the driver
from position A1 to A2.

d2= Distance traveled by the vehicle A from A2 to A3 during the actual Overtaking
operation in time T sec.

d3= Distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C from C1 to C2 during the Overtaking

operation of A i.e., T sec.

Overtaking sight distance = d1 + d2 + d3

Table No3.11 Maximum over taking acceleration at different speeds.

Speed Maximum over taking acceleration

V, kmph v, m/sec A, kmph/sec2 a, m/sec2

25 6.93 5.00 1.41

30 8.34 4.80 1.30

40 11.10 4.45 1.24

50 13.86 4.00 1.11

65 18.00 3.28 0.92

80 22.20 2.56 0.72

100 27.80 1.92 0.53

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Table No. 3.12 Overtaking sight distance on two lane highways for various speeds.

Speed Time component, seconds Safe over taking

kmph sight distance (m)
For over taking For opposing Total
manoeuvre vehicle

40 9.0 6.0 15 165

50 10.0 7.0 17 235

60 10.8 7.2 18 300

65 11.5 7.5 19 340

80 12.5 8.5 21 470

100 14.0 9.0 13 640

Here, Total reaction time of the Driver, t = 2 sec

Acceleration, A = 2.56 kmph / sec.

[IRC Recommendation Table No. 3.11]

S=spacing between vehicles

Overtaken Vehicle speed, V b = V - 16

= 80-16

= 64 kmph

S=(0.7× V b /3.6)+6

S = 0.2  Vb   6

= 0.2  64  6

= 18.8 m

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14.4  s
T=
A

14.4  18.80
=
2.56

= 10.28 sec

d1 = 0.28  Vb  t

= 0.28  64  2

= 35.84 m

d2 = 0.28  Vb  T   2  s

= 0.28  64  10.28  2  18.8

=221.82 m

d3 = 0.28  V  T 

= 0.28  80  510.28

= 230.27 m

OSD = d1+d2+d3

= 35.84+221.82+230.27

= 487.93 m

[IRC Recommendation Min. value of OSD = 470m. Table No.3.12]

As the OSD is more than curve length (l=487.93 m) at least we have to provide ISD

Intermediate sight distance:-

ISD = 2  SSD

= 2  223.58

= 447.16 m

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d) Set back distance:-

Since the length of the curve is greater than SSD, the minimum clearance or
setback distance needed M = CD & half the central angle α/2= Angle AOD as shown in
the following figure.

The distance d between the centre of the pavement & the center line of the inside lane
may be taken as ¼ the width of the pavement at the center (being a two lane)

Clearance
A B
Obstruction
Q 2 R
Q
o
Figure No.3.6 Sight Distance

d = 8.21/4 {Where Q= α}
= 2.1 m

∝/2 =(1800 × 𝑆𝑆𝐷)/(2 × 𝜋(𝑅 − 𝑑))

= (1800 × 223.53)/(2 × 𝜋(230 − 2.1))

= 28°6´18¨

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Setback distance = R  R  d   cos / 2

  
= 230  230  2.1  cos 28 0 6'18' '

=28.97 m.

Hence the minimum setback or clearance required to provide a clear vision for an SSD of
223.58 m is 28.97 m

e)Transition curve:

A curve which is provided to effect an easy change of direction of a pavement.

Length of transition curve:-

Length of the transition curve is design by calculating the values based on

 Rate of introduction of super elevation (e)

 Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
 By empirical formula
The highest of above three values is adopted as the design length Ls.

Figure No.3.6 Transition curve

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i. Length of transition curve by rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

80
C=
75  V 

80
=
75  80

= 0.52 m/sec³

The minimum and maximum values of C are limited to 0.5 to 0.8 respectively.

Therefore take C=0.52 m/sec³

 0.0215  V 3 
Ls1 =  
 CR 

 0.0215  80 3 
=  
 0.52  230 

= 92.04 m

ii. Length of transition curve by rate of introduction of super elevation

Amount of super elevation is the rising of the outer edge w.r.t inner edge

E=BXe

= 8.21 X 0.07

= 0.58m

As this is the rolling terrain is to be rotated about the center at the rate of 1 in 150

E
Ls2 = N
2

0..58
=  150
2

= 43.5 m

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iii. As per IRC

Ls3 =
2.7  V 
2

=
2.7  80 
2

230

= 75.13m

Adopt max value above three

Provide the length of transition curve Ls =92.04 m

Setting out of Combined curve

Rankine’s deflection angle method:

A deflection angle at any point on the curve is the angle at PC between

the back tangent and the chord from the PC to that point .

Rankine’s method is based on the principle that the deflection angle to

any point on a circular curve is measured by one half of the angle subtended by the arc
from PC to that point. It is assumed that length of arc is approximately equal to it’s chord.

Fig no.3.7 Rankine method curve

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First Transition curve;

∆= 30° R=230m Ls=92.04m Point of Intersection =540m

S=L^2/(24*R) =92.04^2/(24x230)= 1.53m

∆ 𝐿
Tangent length Tv = (R+S)tan (2) + (2)

30 92.04
= (230+1.53)tan (2)+( )
2

= 46.29𝑚

1. Chainage of point of intersection, PI = 540m

2. Chainage of the beginning of the 1st transition curve = 493.71m
3. Chainage of the junction of the transition curve with the circular curve =
585.75m
4. Chainage of the junction of the circular curve with the transition curve =
614.14m
5. Chainage of the end point of transition curve = 706.18m

𝐿
Spiral angle ∆𝑠 = 2∗𝑅 ∗ 180/𝜋

= (92.04/2x230)x180/𝜋

=11°27´50¨

∆𝑐 = ∆ − 2∆𝑠

=30°-2x11°27´50¨

=7°4´18¨

Length of circular arc =𝜋𝑅∆𝑐/180

= 𝜋 ∗ 230 ∗ 7°4´18¨/180

= 28.39m

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Length of Combined curve = 28.39+2x92.04

=212.47m

Chainage of point of intersection =540m

Tanget length= 46.29m

Chainage of beginning of the transition curve= point of intersection –tangent length

= 540-46.29

= 493.71m

End point of the transition curve=493.71+92.04

= 585.75m

Chainage of junction of circular curve with transition curve= 583.75+28.39

= 614.14m

Chainage of end of the transition curve =614.14+92.04

=706.18m

Deflection angle ∝ for the first transition curve

𝑙2
∝= 1800
𝜋 𝑅𝐿

= 1800 ∗ 𝑙 2 /(𝜋 ∗ 230 ∗ 92.04)

=0.027 l2

Table no3.13 details of first transition curve

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Point Chainage in length in Deflection angle ∝

meter meter ° ´ ¨
T 493.71 0 - - -
1 493.8 0.09 0 0 0
2 503.8 10.09 0 2 45
3 513.8 20.09 0 10 53
4 523.8 30.09 0 24 26
5 533.8 40.09 0 43 23
6 543.8 50.09 1 7 44
7 553.8 60.09 1 37 29
8 563.8 70.09 2 12 38
9 573.8 80.09 2 53 11
10 583.8 90.09 3 39 8
D 585.75 92.07 3 48 52

Check; ∝ 𝑑 = ∆𝑠/3=(11°27´50¨/3)

= 3°49´16¨

Circular Curve

Tangential angle for the circular curve

𝜕= 1718.9*c/R

Length of the first sub chord = 590-585.75

= 4.25m

Length of Regular chord = 10m

Length of Last sub chord= 614.14-610

= 4.14m

Table no 3.14 details of circular curve

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Point Chainage Tangential angle 𝛿 Deflection angle ∆

° ´ ¨ ° ´ ¨
D 585.75 - - - - - -
1 590 0 31 45 0 31 45
2 600 1 14 44 1 46 29
3 610 1 14 44 3 1 13
D´ 614.14 0 30 56 3 32 9
Check:

∆𝑐
= (7°4´18¨/2)=3°32´9¨
2

Second Transition Curve

Deflection angle ∝ for the second transition curve

𝑙2
∝= 1800 ∗ 𝜋 𝑅𝐿= (1800𝑙^2)/(𝜋 ∗ 230 ∗ 92.04)= 0.027L^2 min

Table no 3.15 details of second transition curve

Point Chainage m l in meter Deflection angle ∝

° ´ ¨
D´ 614.14 92.04 3 48 43
1 615 91.18 3 44 28
2 625 81.18 2 57 56
3 635 71.18 2 16 47
4 645 61.18 1 41 3
5 655 51.18 1 10 43
6 665 41.18 0 45 47
7 675 31.18 0 26 15
8 685 21.18 0 12 6
9 695 11.18 0 3 22
10 705 1.18 0 0 2
T´ 706.18 0 0 0 0

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Design of Vertical curve;

The curve provided at change of gradient of a road.

Fig no.3.8 Vertical curve

Length of summit curve is designed on two criteria:

1) Length of summit curve for stopping sight distance(SSD)

2) Length of summit curve for safe over taking sight distance(OSD) or intermediate
sight distance (ISD)

CASE: 1: When L>SSD

Length of curve is greater than SSD(L>SSD)

L= NS^2/(√ 2H+√2h)^2
L= length of summit curve in m
S= stopping sight distance (SSD)
N= deviation angle , equal to algebraic difference in grades , radian or tangent of
the deviation angle.
H= height of eye level of driver above road surface , m
As per IRC standards,
H= 1.2 m h=0.15m
L= NS^2/4.4= 0.43 × ((223.58)^2)/4.4= 488m
Adopt L= 480m
L > SSD Hence assumption is correct
Setting of summit curve by tangent correction method :

Length of vertical curve =480m =24 chains

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Length of curve on either side of the apex = 24/2 = 12 chains =240m

Chainage of the point of intersection = 1205m

Chainage of 1st tangent point = 1205-240 =965m

Chainage of 2nd tangent point = 1205+240 =1445m

R L of point of intersection (A) = 528.17m

e1 per chord length of 20m =( 1/40)×20 =0.5m

R L of the beginning (O) of the curve = 528.17-(0.5×12) =522.17m

e2 per chord length of 20m = (1/55)×20

R L of the end (B) of the curve = 528.17-(0.36×12)=523.85m

R L of E =1/2 (R L of A +R L of E) =1/2(522.17+523.85)

=523.01m

Since F is midway between A and E,

R L of vertex F = 1/2(R L of A + R L of E)

= 1/2(528.17+523.01)

=525.59m

Difference in elevation between A and F = 528.17+525.59 =2.6m

Check;

AF = KN2

K=(e1 – e2)/4n

=(0.5-0.36)/(4×12)

=1/56

AF = KN2

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= (1/56) × 122

= 2.6m

Tangent correction at any point is calculated from the expression

h = KN2

or =N2 /56

For the 1st station having chainage = 965m N=1

h1 = 1/56 =0.018

Tangent elevation of 1st point = R L of O + e1

= 522.17+0.5 = 522.67m

R L of 1st station on the curve = tangent elevation – tangent correction

=522.67-0.018 =522.652m\

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Table no 3.16 details of Vertical curve

Station Chainage Tangent Tangent Curve Remarks

In M Elevation Correction Elevation
(-Ve)
0 945 522.17 0.00 522.17 Beginning of
1 965 522.67 0.018 522.652 the curve
2 985 523.17 0.07 523.10
3 1005 523.67 0.16 523.51
4 1025 524.17 0.29 523.88
5 1045 524.67 0.45 524.22
6 1065 525.17 0.64 524.53
7 1085 525.67 0.88 524.79
8 1105 526.17 1.14 525.03
9 1125 526.67 1.45 525.22
10 1145 527.17 1.79 525.38
11 1165 527.67 2.16 525.51
12 1185 528.17 2.57 525.60
13 1205 528.67 3.02 525.65
14 1225 529.17 3.50 525.67
Highest
15 1245 529.67 4.02 525.65
point of apex
16 1265 530.17 4.57 525.60
17 1285 530.67 5.16 525.51
18 1305 531.17 5.79 525.38
19 1325 531.67 6.45 525.22
20 1345 532.17 7.14 525.03
21 1365 532.67 7.88 524.74
22 1385 533.17 8.64 524.53
23 1405 533.67 9.45 524.22
24 1425 534.17 10.29 523.88
25 1445 534.67 11.16 523.51
26 1465 535.17 12.07 522.11

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3.10 Test on soil

1) OMC (proctars method)

2) CBR test
Optimum Moisture Content Test:

Laboratory compaction tests:

1) Standard Proctar Test

Object: To determine the optimum moisture content and MDD of soil sample.

Apparatus:

1. Cylindrical metal mould of internal diameter 10cm with effective

height of 12.7cm.
2. Detachable base plate
3. Collar
4. Rammer of 2.6kg with drop of 31cm.

Fig no.3.9 Standard proctors instrument

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Procedure:

1) About 2.5kg of soil passing through 4.75mm sieve is mixed with some quantity of
water.

2) The empty mould attached to the base is weight without collar.

3) The wet soil sample is placed in mould in three layers by giving 25 blows for each
layer.

4) Before putting the second and third layer of soil, the soil surface is scratched with
sharp edge.

5) After putting the last layer is removed and excess soil is trimmed off and it is weighed.

6) Then representative sample is taken for water content determination by putting sample
in oven for 24 hours at 110°c.

7) Then bulk density and corresponding dry density is calculated.

8) This procedure is repeated by adding different quantity of water.

9) Plot the graph dry density vs water content.

10) The water content which we will get maximum dry density that is taken as OMC.

Table 3.18 OMC and MDD details

wt of
empty wt wet
of empty wt soil +
container+ of contain wt of
wet container er dry soil density=M/ dry
%WC soil(KG) (gms) (gms) (gms) WC % wet soil V density
10 3.94 4.98 13.68 11.89 15.48 1.904 1.90 1.35
12 4.035 5.65 12.88 11.45 15.65 2.007 2.013 1.43
14 4.043 5.49 13.68 12.53 16.34 2.031 2.04 1.5
16 4.073 6.85 14.18 13.01 18.99 2.061 2.07 1.49
18 4.062 6.18 12.44 11.39 20.15 2.05 2.06 1.41
20 4.006 6.65 16.99 15.02 23.54 1.994 1.99 1.38

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1.52

1.5

1.48

1.46

1.44

1.42 Series1

1.4

1.38

1.36

1.34
0 5 10 15 20 25

Optimum moisture content=14%

Maximum dry density=1.5 kg/m3

CBR Test:

Aim: To evaluate the stability of soil grade and other flexible pavement materials.

Apparatus: Mould, surcharge, plunger, dial gauge, stop watch, ramming rod.

Fig 3.10 CBR instrument

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Procedure:

 The CBR test was conducted in the laboratory on the prepared specimen in the
mould or in situ field.
 The laboratory apparatus consist of mould of 150mm dia with base plate and
collar, a loading frame with cylindrical plunger of 50mm dia. And dial gauge for
the measuring penetration values.
 The penetration test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger of 50mm dia. To
penetrate a pavement component material at 1.25mm per minute. The load values
to cause 2.5 to 5mm are recorded.
 The specimen in the mould was subjected to 4 days soaking and swelling. The
surcharge weight was placed on the top of specimen in the mould and the
assembly was placed under the plunger of loading frame. The load values were
noted corresponding penetrates values of 0.0, 2.5 and 5mm etc. The load
penetration graph was plotted against penetration values. The CBR value at
2.5mm penetration, which is higher than that 5mm, is reported as the CBR value.
If the CBR value obtained from the test at 5mm penetration is higher than 2.5mm,
then test should be repeated for checking. If check test again give similar results
then higher value obtained at 5mm penetration is reported as the CBR value

Determination of CBR value of soil

Weight of soil sample = 2.5kg

Amount of water added = 14%

No of layers = 3

No of blows =56per layer

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Table no 3.19 CBR Test details

Division Load, kg
Displacement, sample sample
mm sample 1 sample 2 3 1 sample 2 sample 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 30 32 33 34.35 36.64 37.785
1 33 35 34 37.785 40.075 38.93
1.5 38 38 36 43.51 43.51 41.22
2 45 45 40 51.525 51.525 45.8
2.5 50 48 49 57.25 54.96 56.105
3 56 52 55 64.12 59.54 62.975
3.5 58 53 58 66.41 60.685 66.41
4 60 58 60 68.7 66.41 68.7
4.5 64 62 62 73.28 70.99 70.99
5 70 68 72 80.15 77.86 82.44
5.5 72 70 74 82.44 80.15 84.73
6 75 73 76 85.875 83.585 87.02
6.5 78 75 79 89.31 85.875 90.455
7 79 78 81 90.455 89.31 92.745
7.5 80 80 84 91.6 91.6 96.18
8 82 83 85 93.89 95.035 97.325
8.5 85 86 89 97.325 98.47 101.905
9 87 89 90 99.615 101.905 103.05
9.5 88 90 91 100.76 103.05 104.195
10 90 92 93 103.05 105.34 106.485
10.5 90 92 94 103.05 105.34 107.63
11 90 92 94 103.05 105.34 107.63
11.5 90 92 94 103.05 105.34 107.63
12 92 93 95 105.34 106.485 108.775
12.5 94 94 96 107.63 107.63 109.92

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Sample 1

120

100

80
Load (KG)

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
DIisplacement (mm)

Sample 2

120

100

80
Load (KG)

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Displacement (mm)

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Sample 3

120

100

80
Load (KG)

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Displacement(mm)

Sample 1;

a) For 2.5mm penetration

(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 2.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

CBR= × 100
(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 2.5𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

57.25
= 3170 × 100

= 4.2%

b) For 5mm penetration

(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
CBR= × 100
(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 5𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

80.15
=
2055
× 100
= 3.9%

Sample 2;

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a) For 2.5mm penetration

(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 2.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

CBR= × 100
(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 2.5𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

54.96
= 3170 × 100

= 4%

b) For 5mm penetration

(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
CBR= × 100
(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 5𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

77.86
= 2055 × 100

= 3.8%

Sample 3;

a) For 2.5mm penetration

(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 2.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

CBR= × 100
(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 2.5𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

56.105
= 3170
× 100

= 4%

b) For 5mm penetration

(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
CBR= × 100
(𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 5𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

82.44
= 2055 × 100

= 4%

Average CBR value = 4%

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3.11 PAVEMENT DESIGN.

Recommended thickness of pavement component layers

General guide lines

1) Using design CBR value of the subgrade soil, the total thickness of the flexible
pavement is determined using one of the two appropriate design charts ,(a) for the
CSA value of 1.0 to 10 msa given in fig 3.11 or (b) for CSA values of 10 to
150msa given in fig 3.12
2) The critical value of vertical compressive strain on the sub grade on the top of the
sub grade or layer 3 and the rut depth are determine eq (Nr=4.1656(1/єz)4.5337×10-
8
).The critical value of horizontal strain at bottom of bituminous layers or layer 1
and the thickness requirement of this layer are determined using Eq (Nf=2.21(1/
єf)3.89 (1/E1)0.854×10-4)
3) The thickness requirements of various pavement component layers such as, (a)
granular sub-base course (b) granular base course (c) bituminous binder course
and (d) bituminous surface course have been determined and recommended by the
Indian Road Congress (vide IRC:37-2001 ‘Guidelines for the design of flexible
pavements’, second revision). In this analysis the permissible values of strains at
the critical locations have been taken into the account. The critical locations
4) and determination of permissible values of strains have already been discussed
under ‘design criteria’.
5) For selected few subgrade CBR values and CSA values the composition of
pavement component layers as per the recommendation of the above IRC
guidelines are given. The pavement composition for more set of subgrade CBR
values and for CSA values 1 to 10 msa are presented in table 3.20 and for CSA
values 10 to 150 msa are presented in table 3.21.

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Fig 3.11 CSA Value of Design Traffic

Fig 3.12 CSA Value of Design Traffic, msa

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Table no 3.20 Pavement design with recommended component layers for cumulative
traffic range 1-10 msa

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Table no 3.21Pavement design with recommended component layers for cumulative

traffic range 10-150 msa

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Flexible Pavement Design;

365{𝑁𝐹𝐷[1+𝑟]𝑛 −1}
CSA=
𝑟

r = Average growth rate = 6%

N = initial traffic on completion of construction = 300 cv per day

F=vehicle damage factor value (VDF) = 2.5

D= lane distribution factor =0.75

n =Design life =10 years

365{300×2.5×0.75[1+0.06]10 −1}
CSA=
0.06

= 6 msa

Total pavement thickness = 620mm

Granular sub base course = 285mm

Granular base course =250mm

Binder course = 60 BM

Surface course =25 SDBC

Granular sub base course, 2.85m

6.2000

Granular base course,2.5m

Binder course, 0.6

surface course,0.25m

Fig 3.13 Details of pavement thickness

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3.12 Estimation Of Earth-Work

Quantity Estimation

On the Longitudinal and Cross sections along the alignment of the road which is
to be constructed. It is generally necessary to consider the quantities of material to be
excavated or generally used in the highway excavation process. This information can be
useful in the development of a preliminary cost estimate for the work to be undertaken. It
can also be used as part of the design process in the selection of the final cross-section
and alignment characteristics of the roadway.

Estimation of Earth work is based

Quantity estimates are often part of the information given to the contractors
bidding to complete the work.

Embankment

An embankment refers to a volume of earthen material i.e. placed compacted for

the purpose of raising the grade of road way above the level of the existing surrounding
ground surface.

It may be raised due to following reasons…….

 To keep the sub grade above the high ground water table.
 To prevent damage to pavement due to surface & capillary water.
 To maintain the design standards of highway with respect to vertical alignment.
Cross-section of Earthwork of road in banking or in cutting is usually in the form of
Trapezium, and the quantity of earthwork is calculated using formula…..

Quantity (or volume) = Sectional area  Length

If B = Formation width

S = Slope

d = Depth of section.

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L = Chasinage interval

Filling…

Figure No. 1.6

Cutting…

Figure No. 1.7

Quantity (or volume) = Total Sectional area  Chainage Interval

(Central rectangular Area)

= s +  Chainage Interval

(2  Triangular Area)

= b  d   s  d  L
2

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Calculation Of Earth Work.

Chainage in m gradient

0-300m 1 in 100 (Upward) L = 10 m

310 - 550m 1 in 145 (upward) b = 10 m

560-1190m 1 in 40 (Upward)

1205-1150m 1 in 55 (down ward) s = 1 for Banking

= 1.5 for Cutting

Construction Procedure For Bituminous Macadam

1. Preparation of existing layer:

The existing layer is prepared to a proper profile. Pot holes are patched and
irregularities are made even. The surface is properly cleaned.

2. Tack coat or prime coat application:

A track is applied of thin layer of bitumen binder on the existing layer either using
the sprayer or pouring can. The quantity of application is 4.0 to 7.5 kg per 10 m2 for black

top layer and 7.5 to 10 kg per m2 for untreated WBM layer.

3. Premix preparation:

The bitumen binder and aggregates as per recommended grading are separately
heated to the specified temperatures and are then placed in the mixer chosen for the job.
The mixing temperature for each grading and the bitumen binder is also specified based
on laboratory results. A tolerance of +-10 C is allowed. The mixing is done till a
homogeneous mixture is obtained. The mixture is then carried to the site for its placement
through a transporter or a wheelbarrow.

4. Placement:

The bituminous paving mixture is then immediately placed on the desired location
and is spread with rakes to pre-determined thickness. The camber profile is checked with

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a template. It may be stated here that a compacting temperature also influences the
strength characteristics of the resulting pavement structure. It is therefore required that the
minimum time is spent between the placement of the mix and the rolling operations

5. Rolling and finishing the paving mix:

The rolling is done with 8 to 10 tones tandem roller. The rolling is commenced
from the edges of the pavement construction towards the center, and uniform overlapping
is provided. The finished surface should not show separate lines of markings due to
defective or improper rolling. The rollers wheels are kept damp, otherwise the paving mix
may partly stick to the wheels and finishing may not be good. A variation of 6 mm to 3 m
length is allowed in the cross profile. The number of undulations exceeding 10 mm
should be less than 30 in 300 m length of pavement.

3.13 Conclusion:

A. Combined curve
 Horizontal curve
PI= 540m PCC= 585.75m PTC= 614.14m
R=230m,e=0.07,f=0.15,We=0.71,B=8.21m,SSD=223.58m,
OSD=487.93m, ISD=447.16m, SBD=28.97m
 Transition curve
Ls1=92.04m, ∆s=11°27´ 50¨ , ∆c=7° 4´ 18¨PCT1 = 493.71m
PTT2= 706.18m
B. Vertical curve
L=480m, PI=1205m, PC=244.26m, PT=1450m,
C. Test on soil
OMC=14%, MDD=1.5kg/m3 ,CBR=4%,
D. Pavement design
Adopt IRC; 37-2001 for the pavement design
Total pavement Thickness=620mm
E. Earth work
Cutting= 74521.704
Filling=72527.684

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Drawing required:

Longitudinal section

Cross section

REFERENCES:

1.S.K. Khanna, C.E.G. Justo, A. Veeraragavan, “Highway Engineering”, Nem Chand &
Bros., Roorkee, India

2.Dr. L.R. Kadiyali, Dr. N.B. Lal, “Highway Engineering”, Khanna Publications. New
Delhi.

3. Dr. B.C. Punmia, Ashok K. Jain, Arun K. Jain, “Surveying Vol.II”, Laxmi Publication
(P) LTD.

4. Specification and Standard Committee, “Widths of Highway Pavements”, Journal,

Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XI-I and 4. 1946-47.

5. IRC, “Geometric Design Standards for Urban Roads in Plains”, IRC: 86-1983, Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi.

6. IRC “Recommended Practice for Site Distance on Rural Highways”, IRC:66-1976,

Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

7. IRC, “Design Tables for Horizontal Curves for Highways”, Indian Roads Congress,
IRC 38-1970, Nov. 1970

8. IRC, “Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements”, (Second Revision) IRC:37-
2001, Indian Road congress, New Delhi.

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