Falling weight deflectometer

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A falling weight deflectometer(FWD) is a testing device used by civil

engineers to evaluate the physical properties of pavement. FWD data is
primarily used to estimate pavement structural capacity for 1) overlay design
and 2) to determine if a pavement is being overloaded. Use includes (but is not
limited to) highways, local roads, airport pavements, harbor areas and railway
tracks. The machine is usually contained within a trailer that can be towed to a
location by another vehicle. It can also be built on a pickup truck or inside a mini
van. There are also comprehensive units where a FWD device is mounted on a
heavy truck together with a GPR cart and a TMA protection to have a complete
road survey vehicle.
The FWD is designed to impart a load pulse to the pavement surface which
simulates the load produced by a rolling vehicle wheel. The load is produced by
dropping a large weight, and transmitted to the pavement through a circular
load plate - typically 300 mm diameter on roads and 450 mm on airports. A load
cell mounted on top of the load plate measures the load imparted to the
pavement surface. The load plate can be solid or segmented. The advantage of
a segmented load plate is that it adopts to the shape of the pavement, giving an
even distribution of the load on uneven surfaces. Typically, the load for road
testing is about 40 kN giving about 567 kPa pressure under the load plate
(50 kN / 707 kPa according to European standard).
Load impact system
There are two different types of load impact systems; single-mass (e.g.
Dynatest, Carl Bro, PaveTesting) and double-mass (KUAB).[1][2] In a single-
mass system, a weight is dropped onto a single buffer connected to a load
plate, which rests on the surface being tested. The load force is transferred
through the plate, and the plate creates a deflection that simulates a wheel load.
In the double-mass system, the weight drops onto a double-buffer system,
which includes a first buffer, a second weight, and a second buffer. The
principle is based on the law of conservation of momentum with an elastic
collision of two unequal masses. The double-mass system essentially produces
a longer loading duration that more precisely represents a wheel load. The
double-mass system has higher reproducibility and gives a more accurate result
on pavements built on soft soils.[3][4] The single-mass system may seriously
overestimate the capacity of pavements built on soft soils due to the mass
inertia of the pavement material.[5] However, single-mass FWDs are smaller,
cheaper and faster. Low-cost FWD:s for the Indian market are currently (2015)
being developed independently by Geotran, PaveTesting and KUAB.
Deflection sensors
Deflection sensors (geophones; force-balance seismometers) mounted radially
from the center of the load plate measure the deformation of the pavement in
response to the load. Some typical offsets are 0mm, 200mm, 300mm, 450mm,
600mm, 900mm, 1200mm 1500mm. The deflections measured at these
sensors are termed D0, D200, D300 etc. The advantages of seismometers
compared to geophones are built-in calibration devices and higher range (5 mm
vs 2 mm). Geophones are more sensitive to disturbance immediately before the
impact since the initial error is integrated. Geophones however are much
cheaper than seismometers. Dynatest, Carl Bro, Jils and PaveTesting use
geophones while KUAB have seismometers in their standard FWD's and
geophones in their low-cost models.

Sistema de impacto de carga

Hay dos tipos diferentes de sistemas de impacto de carga; una sola masa (por
ejemplo, Dynatest, Carl Bro, PaveTesting) y de doble masa (KUAB). [1] [2] En
un sistema de una sola masa, se deja caer un peso sobre un único buffer
conectado a una placa de carga, que descansa sobre la superficie que se está
probando. La fuerza de carga se transfiere a través de la placa, y la placa crea
una desviación que simula una carga de rueda. En el sistema de doble masa,
el peso cae en un sistema de doble amortiguación, que incluye un primer
buffer, un segundo peso y un segundo buffer. El principio se basa en la ley de
conservación del momento con una colisión elástica de dos masas desiguales.
El sistema de doble masa esencialmente produce una duración de carga más
larga que representa más precisamente una carga de rueda. El sistema de
doble masa tiene mayor reproducibilidad y brinda un resultado más preciso en
pavimentos construidos sobre suelos blandos. [3] [4] El sistema de una sola
masa puede sobreestimar seriamente la capacidad de los pavimentos
construidos sobre suelos blandos debido a la inercia de masa del material del
pavimento. [5] Sin embargo, los FWD de masa única son más pequeños, más
baratos y más rápidos. FWD de bajo costo: s para el mercado indio
actualmente (2015) están siendo desarrollados independientemente por
Geotran, PaveTesting y KUAB.
Sensores de deflexión
Los sensores de deflexión (geófonos, sismómetros de equilibrio de fuerza)
montados radialmente desde el centro de la placa de carga miden la
deformación del pavimento en respuesta a la carga. Algunos offsets típicos son
0 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm, 450 mm, 600 mm, 900 mm, 1200 mm y 1500 mm.
Las deflexiones medidas en estos sensores se denominan D0, D200, D300,
etc. Las ventajas de los sismómetros en comparación con los geófonos son los
dispositivos de calibración incorporados y el rango superior (5 mm frente a 2
mm). Los geófonos son más sensibles a las perturbaciones inmediatamente
antes del impacto ya que el error inicial está integrado. Los geófonos, sin
embargo, son mucho más baratos que los sismómetros. Dynatest, Carl Bro, Jils
y PaveTesting usan geófonos mientras que KUAB tiene sismómetros en sus
FWD y geófonos estándar en sus modelos de bajo costo.
Analysis
FWD data is most often used to calculate stiffness-related parameters of a
pavement structure. The process of calculating the elastic moduli of individual
layers in a multi-layer system (e.g. asphalt concrete on top of a base course on
top of the subgrade) based on surface deflections is known as
"backcalculation", as there is no closed-form solution. Instead, initial moduli are
assumed, surface deflections calculated, and then the moduli are adjusted in an
iterative fashion to converge on the measured deflections. This process is
computationally intensive although quick on modern computers. It can give
quite misleading results and requires an experienced analyst. Commonly used
backcalculation software are:

 BAKFAA (Federal Aviation Administration)

 Clevercalc (University of Washington)
 ELMOD (Dynatest)
 Evercalc (WSDOT)
 KGPBACK (Geotran)
 MichBack (Michigan DOT)
 Modulus (TxDOT)
 PVD (KUAB)

Many analysts use simplified methods to calculate related parameters that are
empirical in nature. The most common is maximum deflection under the centre
of the load plate (D0) which is related to empirical measures such as the
Benkelman Beam deflection (after minor adjustment for differences in the two
devices). Historically some used the radius of curvature (D0-D200) but this is
out of favour now because it is clear that the steel loading plate of 300mm
diameter affects the shape of the deflection bowl between the centre (D0) and
the D200 sensor at 200mm. However this means that a lot of useful information
about the shape of the deflected bowl is wasted. Horak and Emery have
published indices that use this information: BLI=D0-D300 and gives an
indication of the basecourse performance, MLI = D300-D600 and gives an
indication of the subbase performance, and LLI=D600-D900 and gives an
indication of subgrade performance. These and other similar indices are known
as shape factors. The FWD data can also be very useful in helping the engineer
divide the length of the pavement into homogeneous sections.
FWD data can also be used to calculate the degree of load transfer between
adjacent concrete slabs, and to detect voids under slabs.
Muchos analistas usan métodos simplificados para calcular parámetros
relacionados que son de naturaleza empírica. La más común es la deflexión
máxima debajo del centro de la placa de carga (D0) que está relacionada con
medidas empíricas como la deflexión de Benkelman Beam (después del ajuste
menor para las diferencias en los dos dispositivos). Históricamente, algunos
usaron el radio de curvatura (D0-D200) pero ahora está fuera de lugar porque
está claro que la placa de carga de acero de 300 mm de diámetro afecta la
forma del cuenco de deflexión entre el centro (D0) y el sensor D200 a 200 mm .
Sin embargo, esto significa que se desperdicia una gran cantidad de
información útil sobre la forma del recipiente desviado. Horak y Emery han
publicado índices que utilizan esta información: BLI = D0-D300 y dan una
indicación del rendimiento del curso de base, MLI = D300-D600 y dan una
indicación del rendimiento de la subbase, y LLI = D600-D900 y dan una
indicación de rendimiento de la subrasante Estos y otros índices similares se
conocen como factores de forma. Los datos de FWD también pueden ser muy
útiles para ayudar al ingeniero a dividir la longitud del pavimento en secciones
homogéneas.
Los datos de FWD también se pueden usar para calcular el grado de
transferencia de carga entre las losas de concreto adyacentes y para detectar
huecos debajo de las losas.
Other models
A Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) is a portable falling weight deflectometer. It
is used primarily to test insitu base and subgrade moduli during construction.
Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) is quicker than the isotope measuring
method and requires no reference measurements. The equipment has no
radioactive sources requiring safety courses and can be operated by one
operator, allowing for the analysis of collected data and printing out of data files
on site.[6] The most simple LWD's have no load cell but use only a nominal load
value while Dynatest and KUAB LWD's use a load cell for measurement. The
most common LWD's have only one geophone in the centre, while KUAB and
Dynatest LWD's can also have sensors at 300 and 600 mm positions.
A Heavy Weight Deflectometer (HWD) is a falling weight deflectometer that
uses higher loads, used primarily for testing airport pavements. Maximum load
for HWD:s are typically around 300 kN (Dynatest, Carl Bro and PaveTesting)
and 600 kN (KUAB).
A Rolling Weight Deflectometer (RWD) is a deflectometer that can gather data
at a much higher speed (as high as 55 mph) than the FWD, which allows the
data to be collected without traffic control and lane closure[7] . It is a specially
designed tractor-trailer with laser measuring devices mounted on a beam under
the trailer. Another advantage of the RWD over the FWD is that it can gather
continuous deflection data as opposed to discrete deflection data collected by
the FWD. RWD development has been carried out independently by Applied
Research Associates (ARA) since 2005 and KUAB Sweden since 1991.[8]
The test materials are described in ASTM D 4694, and the test method is
defined in ASTM D 4695.140
References

1. "KUAB two-mass FWD". Iowa State University. Retrieved 12 March 2014.

2. "KUAB two-mass FWD patent". Google patents. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
3. Meier, Roger W. "Backcalculation of Flexible Pavement Moduli from Falling
Weight Deflectometer Data Using Artificial Neural Networks". US Army
Corps of Engineers. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
4. Shahin, M.Y. (2007). Pavement Management for Airports, Roads, and
Parking Lots (2 ed.). US: Springer. ISBN 0387234659.
5. Crovetti, JA; Shahin, MY; Touma, BE. "Comparison of Two Falling Weight
Deflectometer Devices, Dynatest 8000 and KUAB 2M-FWD". ASTM
International. doi:10.1520/STP19799S.
6. "Light Weight Deflectometer YouTube Video". Cooper Technology.
Retrieved 3 March 2014.
7. Elbagalati, Omar; Elseifi, Mostafa A.; Gaspard, Kevin; Zhang, Zhongjie (16
June 2017). "DEVELOPMENT OF AN ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
MODEL TO PREDICT SUBGRADE RESILIENT MODULUS FROM
CONTINUOUS DEFLECTION TESTING". Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering. doi:10.1139/cjce-2017-0132.
8. "Megascale RWD patent". Google patents. Retrieved 29 October 2015.