Pumps and Cooling Towers

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila

College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
PUMPS AND COOLING

TOWERS
Submitted by:
Saligue, Mikho Yves M.
Submitted to:
Dr. Denvert C. Pangayao
July 26, 2018
Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PUMPS .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Types of Pumps ..................................................................................................................................... 3
General Considerations for Pumps ................................................................................................. 8
PUMP SELECTION................................................................................................................................. 16
DESIGN OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ................................................................................................... 18
COOLING TOWERS ................................................................................................................................. 32
Heat Transfer Methods ...................................................................................................................... 35
Characterizations of Cooling Towers Based on Flow............................................................... 38
Types of Cooling Towers according to the use of Mechanical Devices............................ 40
COOLING TOWER CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................. 44
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 51

PUMPS
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids
or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical
action. Pumps operate by some mechanism
(typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume
energy to perform mechanical work for moving
the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources,
including manual operation, electricity, engines,
or wind power, come in many sizes, from
microscopic for use in medical applications to
large industrial pumps.
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping

water from wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry
for water-cooling and fuel injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and
natural gas or for operating cooling towers. In the medical industry, pumps are
used for biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing medicine, and
as artificial replacements for body parts, in particular the artificial heart and penile
prosthesis.
Types of Pumps
Pumps in which displacement is accomplished mechanically are called

positive displacement pumps. Kinetic pumps impart kinetic energy to the fluid by
means of a rapidly rotating impeller.
Positive Displacement Pumps
A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a

fixed amount and forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the
discharge pipe. Some positive displacement pumps use an expanding
cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side.
Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and
the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is
constant through each cycle of operation.

Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic

pumps, theoretically can produce the same flow at a given speed (RPM)
no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps
are constant flow machines. However, a slight increase in internal leakage
as the pressure increases prevents a truly constant flow rate.
A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed

valve on the discharge side of the pump, because it has no shutoff head
like centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump operating against a
closed discharge valve continues to produce flow and the pressure in the
discharge line increases until the line bursts, the pump is severely damaged,
or both.
A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the positive

displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief valve can be internal
or external. The pump manufacturer normally has the option to supply
internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve is usually used only as a
safety precaution. An external relief valve in the discharge line, with a return
line back to the suction line or supply tank provides increased safety.
Kinetic Pumps
Kinetic pumps can be divided into two classes, centrifugal and

regenerative. In kinetic pumps a velocity is imparted to the fluid. Most of this
velocity head is then converted to pressure head. Even though the first
centrifugal pump was introduced about 1680, kinetic pumps were little
used until the 20th century.

Centrifugal pumps include

radial, axial, and mixed flow units. A
radial flow pump is commonly referred
to as a straight centrifugal pump; the
most common type is the volute pump,
illustrated in the figure. Fluid enters the
pump near the axis of an impeller
rotating at high speed. The fluid is
thrown radially outward into the pump
casing. A partial vacuum is created
that continuously draws more fluid into
the pump.
Volute centrifugal pumps are robust and relatively inexpensive, quiet,

and dependable, and their performance is relatively unaffected by
corrosion and erosion. They are compact, simple in construction, and do
not require inlet and outlet check valves.
Another type of radial flow centrifugal pump is the diffuser pump, in

which, after the fluid has left the impeller, it is passed through a ring of fixed
vanes that diffuse the liquid, providing a more controlled flow and a more
efficient conversion of velocity head into pressure head.
In axial flow centrifugal pumps the

rotor is a propeller. Fluid flows parallel to
the axis as illustrated in the figure. Diffusion
vanes are in the discharge port of the
pump to eliminate the rotational velocity
of the fluid imparted by the propeller.
Axial flow compressors are also used to
pump gases. In mixed flow pumps, fluid is
discharged both radially and axially into
a volute-type casing.
A regenerative pump is also called a turbine, or peripheral, pump.

The impeller has vanes on both sides of the rim that rotate in a ringlike
channel in the pump’s casing. The fluid does not discharge freely from the

tip of the impeller but is recirculated back to a lower point on the impeller
diameter. This recirculation, or regeneration, increases the head
developed. Because of close clearances, regenerative pumps cannot be
used to pump liquids containing solid particles. They can pump liquids
containing vapours and gases, and in fact they can pump gases provided
that they contain sufficient liquid to seal the close clearances.
Regenerative pumps are suitable only for pumping mobile liquids.
Other Types
1. Electromagnetic pumps - can be used only to pump fluids that are good
electrical conductors. The pipe carrying the fluid is placed in a magnetic
field and a current passed crosswise through the fluid, so that it is
subjected to an electromagnetic force in the direction of the flow. The
current and the field can be produced in a variety of ways. The principle
of the electromagnetic pump is the same as that of the electric motor.
Electromagnetic pumps are used for pumping liquid metals, which are
used for cooling nuclear reactors.
2. Gas lifts - used to raise liquids from the bottoms of wells. Compressed gas
is introduced into the liquid near the bottom of the well as in the figure.
The resulting mixture of gas and liquid is lighter and more buoyant than
the liquid alone so that the mixture rises and is discharged. Gas lifts have
no moving parts, and they can be used to pump liquids containing solid
particles. Although air, or gas, lifts are now little-used, they were once
widely used for pumping water, brine, and oil.
3. Hydraulic ram pump - uses the energy of a downward-flowing stream of
water to lift a proportion of the water to a higher level. Flowing water in
the inlet pipe causes a check valve to close. As in a water hammer (in
which a flow of water is suddenly stopped, producing a hammering
action), kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy, and a second
check valve is opened to allow some water into the air chamber and
up the discharge pipe. The pressure falls in the inlet water pipe, and the
first check valve reopens. The compressed air closes the check valve to
the air chamber, and the whole cycle is repeated. Approximately 15
percent of the water flowing in the inlet pipe may be raised to a height
of five times the fall in the inlet pipe. Hydraulic ram pumps were

developed in the late 18th century and are still used in some domestic
water systems.
4. Vacuum pumps - are simply compressors that take in gas at a pressure
lower than atmospheric pressure, compress it, and discharge the gas at
atmospheric pressure. Since gas at low pressures has a large volume,
vacuum pumps tend to be bulky. Steam jet ejectors are extensively used
industrially for creating vacuum. Reciprocating piston and rotary-vane
pumps are also widely used for producing vacuum.
5. Jet ejector pump - fluid passes through a venturi nozzle (see venturi tube)
and develops a suction that causes a second stream of fluid to be
entrained. In the aspirator pump, water flows through a venturi nozzle
and develops a suction for drawing in air. Steam ejectors are widely
used for pumping large volumes of vapours and gases at low pressures.
Steam at high velocity enters the main body of the pump and transfers
some of its momentum to the gas, which is sucked in from the inlet line.
A mixture of steam and gas enters the main venturi nozzle known as the
diffuser. Kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy, and the mixture
of steam and gas is compressed. Thus, energy in the steam is used to
compress gas from a low to a higher pressure. Jet ejector pumps have
been used since about 1850.

Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 7th ed. p. 10-21
General Considerations for Pumps
Performance
The amount of useful work that any fluid-transport device performs is the
product of (1) the mass rate of fluid flow through it and (2) the total pressure
differential measured immediately before and after the device, usually
expressed in the height of column of fluid equivalent under adiabatic
conditions. The first of these quantities is normally referred to as capacity, and
the second is known as head.

Capacity
This quantity is expressed in the following units. In SI units capacity is

expressed in cubic meters per hour (m3 /h) for both liquids and gases. When
gases are being handled, capacity must be related to a pressure and a
temperature, usually the conditions prevailing at the machine inlet. It is
important to note that all heads and other terms in the following equations
are expressed in height of column of liquid.
Total Dynamic Head
The total dynamic head H of a pump is the total discharge head (hd)
minus the total suction head (hs).
Total Suction Head
This is the reading (hgs) of a gauge at the suction flange of a pump

(corrected to the pump centerline), plus the barometer reading and the
velocity head (hvs) at the point of gauge attachment:
ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑔𝑠 + 𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ𝑣𝑠
If the gauge pressure at the suction flange is less than atmospheric,

requiring use of a vacuum gauge, this reading is used for hgs in the previous
with a negative sign.
Before installation it is possible to estimate the total suction head as follows:
ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑠𝑠 − ℎ𝑓𝑠
where hss = static suction head and hfs = suction friction head
Static Suction Head
The static suction head hss is the vertical distance measured from the
free surface of the liquid source to the pump centerline plus the absolute
pressure at the liquid surface.
Total Discharge Head

The total discharge head hd is the reading hgd of a gauge at the

discharge flange of a pump (corrected to the pump centerline), plus the
barometer reading and the velocity head hvd at the point of gauge
attachment:
ℎ𝑑 = ℎ𝑔𝑑 + 𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ𝑣𝑑
Again, if the discharge gauge pressure is below atmospheric, the

vacuum-gauge reading is used for hgd in the previous equation with a
negative sign.
ℎ𝑑 = ℎ𝑠𝑑 − ℎ𝑓𝑑
Static Discharge Head
The static discharge head hsd is the vertical distance measured from
the free surface of the liquid in the receiver to the pump centerline, plus the
absolute pressure at the liquid surface. Total static head hts is the difference
between discharge and suction static heads.
Velocity
Since most liquids are practically incompressible, the relation

between the quantity flowing past a given point in a given time and the
velocity of flow is expressed as follows:
Q = Av
This relationship in SI units is as follows:
v (for circular conduits) = 3.54 Q/d2
where v = average velocity of flow, m/s; Q = quantity of flow, m3/h;

and d = inside diameter of conduit, cm.
This same relationship in U.S. customary units is
v (for circular conduits) = 0.409 Q/d2
where v = average velocity of flow, ft/s; Q = quantity of flow, gal/min;

and d = inside diameter of conduit, in.

Velocity Head
This is the vertical distance by which a body must fall to acquire the
velocity v.
hv = v2/2g
Viscosity
In flowing liquids the existence of internal friction or the internal

resistance to relative motion of the fluid particles must be considered. This
resistance is called viscosity. The viscosity of liquids usually decreases with
rising temperature. Viscous liquids tend to increase the power required by
a pump, to reduce pump efficiency, head, and capacity, and to increase
friction in pipe lines.
Friction Head
This is the pressure required to overcome the resistance to flow in pipe

and fittings.
Work Performed in Pumping
To cause liquid to flow, work must be expended. A pump may raise the
liquid to a higher elevation, force it into a vessel at higher pressure, provide the
head to overcome pipe friction, or perform any combination of these.
Regardless of the service required of a pump, all energy imparted to the liquid
in performing this service must be accounted for; consistent units for all
quantities must be employed in arriving at the work or power performed.
When arriving at the performance of a pump, it is customary to

calculate its power output, which is the product of (1) the total dynamic head
and (2) the mass of liquid pumped in a given time. In SI units power is expressed
in kilowatts; horsepower is the conventional unit used in the United States.
In SI units,
kW = HQρ/3.670 × 105

where kW is the pump power output, kW; H = total dynamic head,

N⋅m/kg (column of liquid); Q = capacity, m3 /h; and ρ = liquid density, kg/m3.
When the total dynamic head H is expressed in pascals, then
kW = HQ/3.599 × 106
In U.S. customary units,
hp = HQs/3.960 × 103
where hp is the pump-power output, hp; H = total dynamic head,

lbf⋅ft/lbm (column of liquid); Q = capacity, U.S. gal/min; and s = liquid specific
gravity.
When the total dynamic head H is expressed in pounds-force per square inch,
then
hp = HQ/1.714 × 103 (10-52)
The power input to a pump is greater than the power output because
of internal losses resulting from friction, leakage, etc. The efficiency of a pump
is therefore defined as
Pump efficiency = (power output)/(power input)
Suction Limitations of a Pump
Whenever the pressure in a liquid drops below the vapor pressure

corresponding to its temperature, the liquid will vaporize. When this happens
within an operating pump, the vapor bubbles will be carried along to a point
of higher pressure, where they suddenly collapse. This phenomenon is known
as cavitation. Cavitation in a pump should be avoided, as it is accompanied
by metal removal, vibration, reduced flow, loss in efficiency, and noise. When
the absolute suction pressure is low, cavitation may occur in the pump inlet
and damage result in the pump suction and on the impeller vanes near the
inlet edges. To avoid this phenomenon, it is necessary to maintain a required
net positive suction head (NPSH)R, which is the equivalent total head of liquid
at the pump centerline less the vapor pressure p. Each pump manufacturer
publishes curves relating (NPSH)R to capacity and speed for each pump.

When a pump installation is being designed, the available net positive

suction head (NPSH)A must be equal to or greater than the (NPSH)R for the
desired capacity. The (NPSH)A can be calculated as follows:
where NPSHavail = net positive suction head available at the pump

suction, m; P = the pressure above the liquid in the feed vessel, N/m2; H = the
height of liquid above the pump suction, m; Pf = the pressure loss in the suction
piping, N/m2; Pv = the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pump suction, N/m2;
ρ = the density of the liquid at the pump suction temperature, kg/m3; g = the
acceleration due to gravity, m/s2;
If (NPSH)A is to be checked on an existing installation, it can be

determined as follows:
(NPSH)A = atm + hgs − p + hvs
Practically, the NPSH required for operation without cavitation and

vibration in the pump is somewhat greater than the theoretical. The actual
(NPSH)R depends on the characteristics of the liquid, the total head, the pump
speed, the capacity, and impeller design. Any suction condition which
reduces (NPSH)A below that required to prevent cavitation at the desired
capacity will produce an unsatisfactory installation and can lead to
mechanical difficulty.
Sample NPSH Calculation 1: Liquid chlorine is unloaded from rail tankers

into a storage vessel. To provide the necessary NPSH, the transfer pump is
placed in a pit below ground level. Given the following information, calculate
the NPSH available at the inlet to the pump, at a maximum flow rate of 16,000
kg/h. The total length of the pipeline from the rail tanker outlet to the pump
inlet is 50 m. The vertical distance from the tank outlet to the pump inlet is 10
m. Commercial steel piping, 50 mm internal diameter, is used. Miscellaneous
friction losses due to the tanker outlet constriction and the pipe fittings in the
inlet piping are equivalent to 1000 equivalent pipe diameters. The vapor
pressure of chlorine at the maximum temperature reached at the pump is 685

kN/m2 and its density and viscosity, 1286 kg/m3 and 0.364 mNm−2 s. The
pressure in the tanker is 7 bara.
Solution:
Miscellaneous losses = 1000 × 50 × 10−3 = 50 m of pipe
Total length of inlet piping = 50 +50 = 100 m
Relative roughness, e/d = 0:046/50 = 0:001
Pipe cross-sectional area = (π/4)(50 × 10−3)2 = 1.96 × 10−3 m2
Velocity, u = (16,000/3600) × (1/(1.96 × 10−3))× (1/1286) = 1.76 m/s
Reynolds number = (1286 × 1.76 × 50 × 10−3)/(0.364 × 10−3) = 3.1 × 105
Friction factor from the moody diagram, f = 0.00225
ΔPf = 8 × 0.00225 × (100/(50 × 10−3)) × 1286 × 1.762/2 = 71,703 N/m2
7 × 105 71.703 685 × 103

𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = + 10 − −
1286 × 9.8 1286 × 9.8 1286 × 9.8

= 55.5 + 10 − 5.7 − 54.4
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = 5.4 𝑚
NPSH Requirements for Other Liquids
NPSH values depend on the fluid being pumped. Since water is

considered a standard fluid for pumping, various correction methods have
been developed to evaluate NPSH when pumping other fluids. The most
recent of these corrective methods has been developed by Hydraulic
Institute and is shown in the figure below.
NPSH reductions for pumps handling hydrocarbon liquids

Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 7th ed. p.10-23

The chart shown in the figure is for pure liquids. Extrapolation of data
beyond the ranges indicated in the graph may not produce accurate
results. The chart shows the variation of vapor pressure and NPSH reductions
for various hydrocarbons and hot water as a function of temperature.
Certain rules apply while using this chart. When using the chart for hot
water, if the NPSH reduction is greater than one-half of the NPSH required
for cold water, deduct one-half of cold water NPSH to obtain the corrected
NPSH required. On the other hand, if the value read on the chart is less than
one-half of cold water NPSH, deduct this chart value from the cold water
NPSH to obtain the corrected NPSH.
Sample NPSH Calculation 2: Suppose a selected pump requires a

minimum NPSH of 16 ft (4.9 m) when pumping cold water; What will be the
NPSH limitation to pump propane at 55°F (12.8°C) with a vapor pressure of
100 psi? Using the chart, NPSH reduction for propane gives 9.5 ft (2.9 m). This
is greater than one-half of cold water NPSH of 16 ft (4.9 m). The corrected
NPSH is therefore 8 ft (2.2 m) or one-half of cold water NPSH.
PUMP SELECTION
When selecting pumps for any service, it is necessary to know the liquid to
be handled, the total dynamic head, the suction and discharge heads, and, in
most cases, the temperature, viscosity, vapor pressure, and specific gravity. In the
chemical industry, the task of pump selection is frequently further complicated by
the presence of solids in the liquid and liquid corrosion characteristics requiring
special materials of construction. Solids may accelerate erosion and corrosion,
tend to agglomerate, or require delicate handling to prevent undesirable
degradation.
Range of Operation
Because of the wide variety of pump types and the number of

factors which determine the selection of any one type for a specific
installation, the designer must first eliminate all but those types of
reasonable possibility. Since range of operation is always an important
consideration, the chart should be of assistance. The boundaries shown for
each pump type are at best approximate, as unusual applications for

which the best selection contradicts the chart will arise. In most cases,
however, it will prove useful in limiting consideration to two or three types of
pumps.
Pump coverage chart based on normal ranges of operation of commercially

available types. Solid lines: use left ordinate, head scale. Broken lines: use right
ordinate, pressure scale. Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 7th ed.
p.10-24
Materials of Construction
In the chemical industry, these selection of pump materials of

construction is dictated by considerations of corrosion, erosion, personnel
safety, and liquid contamination. The experience of pump manufacturers
is often valuable in selecting materials.

Presence of Solids
When a pump is required to pump a liquid containing suspended

solids, there are unique requirements which must be considered. Adequate
clear-liquid hydraulic performance and the use of carefully selected
materials of construction may not be all that is required for satisfactory
pump selection. Dimensions of all internal passages are critical. Pockets
and dead spots, areas where solids can accumulate, must be avoided.
Close internal clearances are undesirable because of abrasion. Flushing
connections for continuous or intermittent use should be provided.
For installations in which suspended solids must be handled with a

minimum of solids breakage or degradation, such as pumps feeding filter
presses, special attention is required; either a low-shear positive-
displacement pump or a recessed-impeller centrifugal pump may be
called for.
Ease of maintenance is of increasing importance in today’s

economy. Chemical pump installations that require annual maintenance
costing 2 or 3 times the original investment are not uncommon. In most
cases this expense is the result of improper selection.
DESIGN OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The centrifugal pump is the

type most widely used in the
chemical industry for transferring
liquids of all types—raw materials,
materials in manufacture, and
finished products—as well as for
general services of water supply,
boiler feed, condenser circulation,
condensate return, etc. These pumps
are available through a vast range of
Schematic Diagram of Centrigugal Pump
sizes, in capacities from 0.5 m3/h to 2
× 104 m3/h (2gal/min to 105 gal/min),
and for discharge heads (pressures) from a few meters to approximately 48 MPa

(7000 lbf/in2). The size and type best suited to a particular application can be
determined only by an engineering study of the problem.
The primary advantages of a centrifugal pump are simplicity, low first cost,
uniform (no pulsating) flow, small floor space, low maintenance expense, quiet
operation, and adaptability for use with a motor or a turbine drive.
Parts of a Centrifugal Pump
A centrifugal pump, in its simplest form, consists of an impeller rotating within

a casing. The impeller consists of a number of blades, either open or shrouded,
mounted on a shaft that projects outside the casing. Its axis of rotation may be
either horizontal or vertical, to suit the work to be done.
A centrifugal pump consists of a shaped impeller with curved radial vanes,

which is housed inside a casing. A shaft connects the impeller to a power source
such as an electric motor or steam turbine, which causes the impeller to rotate at
high speed. Fluid enters the casing in the axial direction, towards the center of
the impeller, and is pushed out towards the edge of the casing by centrifugal
force. The high speed of the impeller gives the fluid a high kinetic energy, which
is then converted into higher pressure as the liquid decelerates to the tangential
discharge pipe.
There are a few components that virtually every centrifugal pump has in
common. These components can be subdivided into the wet end and the
mechanical end.
The wet end of the pump includes those parts that determine the hydraulic
performance of pump. The two primary wet ends are the impeller and casing. In
some cases, the first radial bearing can be water lubricated. In this case also
bearing can belongs to wet ends.

The mechanical end includes those parts that support the impeller within
the casing. The mechanical end of the pump includes the pump shaft, sealing,
bearings and shaft sleeve.
 Impeller. Impeller is a rotor used to increase the kinetic energy of the flow.
 Casing (Volute). The casing contains the liquid and acts as a pressure
containment vessel that directs the flow of liquid in and out of the
centrifugal pump. The volute is a curved funnel that increases in area as it
approaches the discharge port. The volute of a centrifugal pump is the
casing that receives the fluid being pumped by the impeller, slowing down
the fluid’s rate of flow. Therefore, according to Bernoulli’s principle, the
volute converts kinetic energy into pressure by reducing speed while
increasing pressure. Some centrifugal pumps contain diffusers. A diffuser is
a set of stationary vanes that surround the impeller. The diffuser directs the
flow, allows a more gradual expansion and therefore increases the
efficiency of the centrifugal pump.
 Shaft (Rotor). The impeller is mounted on a shaft. Shaft is a mechanical
component for transmitting torque from the motor to the impeller.

 Shaft sealing. Centrifugal pumps are provided with packing rings or

mechanical seal which helps prevent the leakage of the pumped liquid.
 Bearings. Bearings constrain relative motion of the shaft (rotor) and reduce
friction between the rotating shaft and the stator. There are at least 5
common types of bearing, each of which operates on different principles:
o Plain bearing
o Rolling-element bearing
o Jewel bearing
o Fluid bearing
o Magnetic bearing
Types of Impellers
Open impeller
Open impellers have the vanes free on both sides.

Open impellers are structurally weak. They are typically
used in small-diameter, inexpensive pumps and pumps
handling suspended solids.
Semi-open impeller
The vanes are free on one side and enclosed on the

other. The shroud adds mechanical strength. They also offer
higher efficiencies than open impellers. They can be used in
medium-diameter pumps and with liquids containing small
amounts of suspended solids. Because of minimization of
recirculation and other losses, it is very important that a small
clearance exists between the impeller vanes and the casing.
Closed impeller
The vanes are located between the two discs, all in a

single casting. They are used in large pumps with high
efficiencies and low required Net Positive Suction Head. The
centrifugal pumps with closed impeller are the most widely
used pumps handling clear liquids. They rely on close-
clearance wear rings on the impeller and on the pump

casing. The closed impeller is a more complicated and expensive design not only
because of the impeller, but the additional wear rings are needed.
The impeller blades can be:
 Backward-curved blade design (prefered design due to negative slope of

performance curve)
 Radial blade design
 Forward-curved blade design (due to positive slope conditions this design
can cause pump surge)
The impellers can also be designed to be:
 Single-suction. A single-suction
impeller allows liquid to enter the
center of the blades from only one
direction.
 Double-suction. A double-suction
impeller allows liquid to enter the
center of the impeller blades from
both sides simultaneously. This reduces forces exerted on the shaft.
Different types and sizes of impeller can be used with the same pump.
Specialized impellers are available for pumping slurries and suspensions.
Types of Casing
 Circular Casing – consists of an annular chamber around the impeller; no

attempt is made to overcome the losses that will arise from eddies and
shock when the liquid leaving the impeller at relatively high velocities enters
this chamber. Such casings are seldom used.
 Volute Casing – take the form of a spiral increasing uniformly in cross-
sectional area as the outlet is approached. The volute efficiently converts
the velocity energy imparted to the liquid by the impeller into pressure
energy.
 Diffuser Type – guide vanes or diffusers are interposed between the impeller
discharge and the casing chamber. Losses are kept to a minimum in a well-
designed pump of this type, and improved efficiency is obtained over a

wider range of capacities. This construction is often used in multistage high-

head pumps.
Calculations
The chart shown can be used to determine the type of centrifugal pump
required for a particular head and flow rate. This figure is based on one published
by Doolin (1977).
Centrifugal Pump Selection Guide

Source: Chemical Engineering Design by Sinnott and Towler 2nd ed. p. 1212
Centrifugal pumps are characterized by their specific speed. In the

dimensionless form, specific speed is given by

Where: N = rpm, Q is flow rate in gpm, and H is head in ft⋅lbf /lbm.
Specific speed is a parameter that defines the speed at which impellers of

geometrically similar design have to be run to discharge one gallon per minute
against a one-foot head. In general, pumps with a low specific speed have a low
capacity and high specific speed, high capacity. Specific speeds of different
types of pumps are shown in the table for comparison.
Another parameter that helps in evaluating the pump suction limitations,

such as cavitation, is suction specific speed.
Typically, for single-suction pumps, suction-specific speed above 11,000 is

considered excellent. Below 7000 is poor and 7000–9000 is of an average design.
Similarly, for double-suction pumps, suction specific speed above 14,000 is
considered excellent, below 7000 is poor, and 9000–11,000 is average.

Centrifugal Pump Characteristic Curves
Characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump operating at 3450 r/min.

The figure shows a typical characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump. It is

important to note that at any fixed speed the pump will operate along this curve
and at no other points. For instance, on the curve shown, at 45.5 m 3/h (200
gal/min) the pump will generate 26.5-m (87-ft) head. If the head is increased to
30.48 m (100 ft), 27.25 m3/h (120 gal/min) will be delivered. It is not possible to
reduce the capacity to 27.25 m3/h (120 gal/min) at 26.5-m (87-ft) head unless the
discharge is throttled so that 30.48 m (100 ft) is actually generated within the
pump. On pumps with variable-speed drivers such as steam turbines, it is possible
to change the characteristic curve, as shown in the figure below.

Characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump at various speeds.

Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 7th ed. p.10-25
When selecting a centrifugal pump for a given duty, it is important to match

the pump characteristic with the system curve. The operating point should be as
close as is practical to the point of maximum pump efficiency, allowing for the
range of flow rate over which the pump may be required to operate.
Sample Problem
A process liquid is pumped from a storage tank to a distillation

column, using a centrifugal pump. The pipeline is 80 mm internal diameter
commercial steel pipe, 100 m long. Miscellaneous losses are equivalent to 600

pipe diameters. The storage tank operates at atmospheric pressure and the
column at 1.7 bara. The lowest liquid level in the tank will be 1.5 m above the
pump inlet, and the feed point to the column is 3 m above the pump inlet. Plot
the system curve on the pump characteristic given in the figure and determine
the operating point and pump efficiency. Properties of the fluid: density 900
kg/m3, viscosity 1.36 mN m−2 s.
Static Head
Dynamic Head
As an initial value, take fluid velocity as 1m/s

To find the system curve the calculations were repeated for the velocities shown
in the table below:
Plotting these values on the pump characteristic gives the operating point as 18.5
m at 41 m3 /h and the pump efficiency as 79%.
For quick pump selection, manufacturers often give the most essential
performance details for a whole range of pump sizes. The following figure shows
typical performance data for a range of process pumps based on suction and
discharge pipes and impeller diameters. The performance data consists of pump
flow rate and head. Once a pump meets a required specification, then a more

detailed performance data for the particular pump can be easily found based
on the curve reference number.
Performance curves for a range of open impeller pumps.

The next figure shows a more detailed pump performance curve that
includes, in addition to pump head and flow, the break horsepower required,
NPSH required, number of vanes, and pump efficiency for a range of impeller
diameters.

Typical pump performance curve. The curve is shown for water at 85°F. If the specific
gravity of the fluid is other than unity, BHP must be corrected. Source: Perry’s Chemical
Engineers’ Handbook
If detailed manufacturer-specified performance curves are not available

for a different size of the pump or operating condition, a best estimate of the off-
design performance of pumps can be obtained through similarity relationship or
the affinity laws. These are:
1. Capacity (Q) is proportional to impeller rotational speed (N).
2. Head (h) varies as square of the impeller rotational speed.
3. Break horsepower (BHP) varies as the cube of the impeller rational speed.

Affinity Laws
In addition to the pump design, the operational performance of a pump

depends upon factors such as the downstream load characteristics, pipe friction,
and valve performance. Typically, head and flow follow the following relationship:
where the subscript 1 refers to the design condition and 2 to the actual
conditions. The above equation indicates that head will change as a square of
the water flow rate.
Variation of total head versus flow rate to overcome friction

Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook

The figure shows the schematic of specific-speed variation for different

types of pumps. The figure clearly indicates that, as the specific speed increases,
the ratio of the impeller outer diameter D1 to inlet or eye diameter D2 decreases,
tending to become unity for pumps of axial-flow type.
COOLING TOWERS
Cooling towers are a special type of heat exchanger that allows water and
air to come in contact with each other to lower the temperature of the hot water.
During the cooling tower working process, small volumes of water evaporate,
lowering the temperature of the water that’s being circulated throughout the
cooling tower. Cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to
the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature.
Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat
and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of
closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near
the dry-bulb air temperature.
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil

refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations and
HVAC systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air
induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and
induced draft cooling towers.

Cooling Tower Operations
There are many different types of cooling towers but the cooling tower
working principles stay pretty much the same. Most cooling towers work based on
the principle of “evaporative cooling“. Evaporative cooling is the process where
warm water from an industrial process is pumped up to the top of the cooling
tower where the water distribution system is. The water then gets distributed by
cooling tower nozzles to the wet deck. At the same time, air is being drawn
through the air-inlet louvers forcing water to evaporate. Evaporation causes the
heat to be removed from the makeup water. The hot air naturally rises out of the
tire.
A cooling tower cools water by a combination of heat and mass transfer.

Water to be cooled is distributed in the tower by spray nozzles, splash bars, or film-
type fill, which exposes a very large water surface area to atmospheric air.

Atmospheric air is circulated by (1) fans, (2) convective currents, (3) natural wind
currents, or (4) induction effect from sprays. A portion of the water absorbs heat
to change from a liquid to a vapor at constant pressure. This heat of vaporization
at atmospheric pressure is transferred from the water remaining in the liquid state
into the airstream.
Thermal performance of a cooling tower depends principally on the

entering air wet-bulb temperature. The entering air dry-bulb temperature and
relative humidity, taken independently, have an insignificant effect on thermal
performance of mechanical-draft " cooling towers, but do affect the rate of
water evaporation in the cooling tower.
Air enters at the ambient

condition Point A, absorbs heat and
mass (moisture) from the water and
exits at Point B in a saturated
condition (at very light loads, the
discharge air may not be fully
saturated). Coollng Towers and
heat transferred from the water to
the air is proportional to the
difference in enthalpy of the air
between the entering and leaving
conditions (hB - hA). Because lines of
constant enthalpy correspond almost exactly to lines of constant wet-bulb
temperature, the change in enthalpy of the air may be determined by the
change in wet-bulb temperature of the air.
The evaporation rate at typical design conditions is approximately 1% of

the water flow rate for each 12.5"F of water temperature range; however, the
average evaporation rate over the operating season is less than the design rate
because the sensible component of total heat transfer increases as entering air
temperature decreases.

Industrial Cooling Towers
Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources
such as machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial
cooling towers is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water
systems used in power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural
gas processing plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for
other industrial facilities such as in condensers of distillation columns, for cooling
liquid in crystallization, etc.
Heat Transfer Methods
Dry Cooling Tower
Dry cooling towers operate by heat transfer through a surface that

separates the working fluid from ambient air, such as in a tube to air heat
exchanger, utilizing convective heat transfer. They do not use evaporation.

Wet Cooling Towers
Wet cooling towers (or open circuit cooling towers) operate on the
principle of evaporative cooling. The working fluid and the evaporated fluid
(usually water) are one and the same. In a wet cooling tower (or open circuit
cooling tower), the warm water can be cooled to a temperature lower than the
ambient air dry-bulb temperature, if the air is relatively dry (see dew point and
psychrometrics).
As ambient air is drawn past a flow of water, a small portion of the water
evaporates, and the energy required to evaporate that portion of the water is
taken from the remaining mass of water, thus reducing its temperature.
Evaporation results in saturated air conditions, lowering the temperature of the
water processed by the tower to a value close to wet-bulb temperature, which is
lower than the ambient dry-bulb temperature, the difference determined by the
initial humidity of the ambient air.
Of the direct-contact devices, the most rudimentary is a spray- filled tower

that exposes water to the air without any heat transfer medium or fill. In this
device, the amount of water surface exposed to the air depends on the spray
efficiency, and the time of contact depends on the elevation aid pressure of
the water distribution system.
To increase contact surfaces as well as time of exposure, a heat transfer

medium, or fill, is installed below the water distribution system, in the path of the
air. The two types of fill in use are splash- type and film-type. Splash-type fill

maximizes contact area and time by forcing the water to cascade through
successive elevations of splash bars arranged in staggered rows. Film-type fill
achieves the same effect by causing the water to flow in a thin layer over closely
spaced sheets, principally polyvinyl chloride (PVC), that are arranged vertically.
Fluid Coolers
Fluid coolers (or closed circuit cooling towers) are hybrids that pass the
working fluid through a tube bundle, upon which clean water is sprayed and a
fan-induced draft applied. The resulting heat transfer performance is much closer
to that of a wet cooling tower, with the advantage provided by a dry cooler of
protecting the working fluid from environmental exposure and contamination.
Indirect-contact (closed-circuit) cooling towers contain two separate fluid

circuits: (1) an external circuit, in which water is exposed to the atmosphere as it
cascades over the tubes of a coil bundle, and (2) an internal circuit, in which the
fluid to be cooled circulates inside the tubes of the coil bundle.
Closed- circuit cooling towers, which are similar to evaporative condensers,

are used extensively on water-source heat pump systems and screw compressor
oil pump systems, and wherever the reduced maintenance and greater reliability
of a closed-loop system are desired. Closed-circuit cooling towers also provide

cooling for multiple heat loads on a centralized closed-loop system. Indirect-

contact towers) require a closed-circuit heat exchanger (usually tubular
serpentine coil bundles) that is exposed to air water cascades similar to the fill of
a cooling tower. Some types include supplemental film or splash fill sections to
augment the external heat exchange surface area In Figure 6, for instance, air
flows down over the coil, parallel to the recirculating water, and exits horizontally
into the fan plenum. Recirculating water then flows over cooling tower fill, where
it is further cooled by a second airstream before being reintroduced over the coil.
In operation, heat flows from the internal fluid circuit, through the tube walls
of the coil, to the external water circuit and then, by heat and mass transfer, to
atmospheric air. As the internal fluid circuit never contacts the atmosphere, this
unit can be used to cool fluids other than water and/or to prevent contamination
of the primary cooling circuit with airborne dirt and impurities. Some closed-circuit
cooling tower designs include cooling tower fill to augment heat exchange in the
coil.
Characterizations of Cooling Towers Based on Flow
Counterflow Towers
Air moves vertically upward through the fill, counter to the downward
fall of water. Because of the need for extended intake and discharge plenums;
the use of high pressure spray systems; and the typically high pressure losses, some
of the smaller counterflow towers are physically higher, require more pump head,
and utilize more fan power that their crossflow counterparts. The enclosed nature

of counterflow tower also restrict exposure of water to direct sunlight, thereby

retarding the growth of algae.
Crossflow Towers
Crossflow towers have fill configuration through which the air flows
horizontally across the downward fall of water. Water to be cooled is delivered to
hot water basin located atop the fill areas and is delivered to the fill by gravity
through metering orifices on the floor of the basins.
Crossflows are sub-classified by the number of fill banks and air inlets
served by each fan. Double flow tower induces air through two air inlets and
across the two bank fills. Single flow towers having one inlet and one fill bank are
customary used in locations where an unrestricted air path to the the tower is
available from only one direction.

Types of Cooling Towers according to the use of Mechanical Devices
a. Atmospheric or Non-Mechanical-Draft Towers.
Aspirated by sprays or a differential in air density, these towers do not

contain fill and do not use a mechanical air-moving device. The aspirating effect
of the water spray, either vertical or horizontal, induces air- flow through the tower
in a parallel flow pattern.
Because air velocities for the vertical spray tower (both entering and
leaving) are relatively low, such towers are susceptible to adverse wind effects
and, therefore, are normally used to satisfy a low-cost requirement when
operating temperatures are not critical to the system. Some horizontal spray
towers use high- pressure sprays to induce large air quantities and improve air
water contact. Multispeed or staged pumping systems are normally
recommended to reduce energy use in periods of reduced load and ambient
conditions.

Chimney (hyperbolic) towers have been used primarily for large power
installations, but may be of generic interest. The heat transfer mode may be
counterflow, cross-flow, or parallel flow. Air is induced through the tower by the
air density differentials that exist between the lighter, heat-humidified chimney air
and the outside atmosphere. Fill can be splash or film type. Primary justification of
these high first-cost products comes through reduction in auxiliary power
requirements (elimination of fan energy), reduced property area, and elimination
of recirculation and or vapor plume interference. Materials used in chimney
construction have been primarily steel-reinforced concrete; early-day timber
structures had size limitations.
Although hyperbolic towers are more expensive than other normal tower
types, they are used extensively in the field of electric power generation, where
large unified heat loads exist. Natural draft towers operate most effectively in
areas of higher relative humidity.
b. Mechanical-Draft Towers.

Fans may be on the inlet air side (forced-draft) or the exit air side (induced-
draft). The type of fan selected, either centrifugal or axial, depends on external
pressure needs, permissible sound levels, and energy usage requirements. Water
is downflow; the air may be upflow (counterflow heat transfer) or horizontal flow
(cross-flow heat transfer). Air entry may be through one, two, three, or all four sides
of the tower. All four combinations (i.e., forced-draft counterflow, induced-draft
counterflow, forced-draft cross-flow, and induced-draft cross-flow) have been
produced in various sizes and configurations.
Forced draft towers are characterized by high air entrance velocities and
low exit velocities. Accordingly, they are extremely suspectible to circulation and
are therefore considered to have less performance stability than the induced
draft.
Usually, forced draft towers, are equipped with centrifugal blower type fans
which, although requiring considerably more horsepower than propeller type
fans, have the advantage of being able to operate against the high static
pressures associated with ductwork. The low exiting velocity is much more
susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more
susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is
that a forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an
equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability
to work with high static pressure. Such setups can be installed in more-confined
spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fin geometry is also known as
blow-through.

Induced draft towers have an air discharge velocity of from 3 to 4 times

higher that their air entrance velocity, with the entrance velocity approximating
that of a 5mph wind. Therefore, there is a little tendency for a reduced pressure
zone to be created at the air inlets by the action of the fan alone. The potential
for recirculation on an induced draft tower is not self-initiating and can be more
easily quantified purely on the basis of ambient wind conditions.
c. Hybrid Draft
It can give the outward appearance of being natural draft towers with relatively
short stacks. They are also equipped with mechanical draft fans to augment air
flow. The intent is to minimize the horsepower requirement for air movement, but
to do so with the least possible stack cost impact. The fans may need to be
operated only during periods of high ambient and peak loads.

COOLING TOWER CALCULATIONS
Water Makeup
Makeup requirements for a cooling tower consist of the summation of

evaporation loss, drift loss, and blowdown. Therefore,
where Wm = makeup water, Wd = drift loss, and Wb = blowdown [consistent

units, m3/(h⋅gal⋅min)].
Evaporation loss can be estimated by the following equation:
where Wc = circulating-water flow, gal/min at tower inlet; T1 − T2 = inlet-

water temperature minus outlet-water temperature, °F
Drift is entrained water in the tower discharge vapors. Drift loss is a function
of the drift-eliminator design, which typically varies between 0.1 and 0.2 percent
of the water supplied to the tower. New developments in eliminator design make
it possible to reduce drift loss well below 0.1 percent.
Blowdown discards a portion of the concentrated circulating water due to

the evaporation process in order to lower the system solids concentration. The
amount of blowdown can be calculated according to the number of cycles of
concentration required to limit scale formation. Cycles of concentration are the
ratio of dissolved solids in the recirculating water to dissolved solids in the makeup
water. Since chlorides remain soluble on concentration, cycles of concentration
are best expressed as the ratio of the chloride content of the circulating and
makeup waters. Thus, the blowdown quantities required are determined from:

Cycles of concentration involved with cooling-tower operation normally

range from three to five cycles. Below three cycles of concentration, excessive
blowdown quantities are required and the addition of acid to limit scale
formation should be considered.
Sample Calculation
Determine the amount of makeup required for a cooling tower with the following
conditions:

Fan Horsepower
In evaluating cooling-tower owning and operating costs, fan-horsepower

requirements can be a significant factor. Large air quantities are circulated
through cooling towers at exit velocities of about 10.2 m/s (2000 ft/min) maximum
for induced-draft towers. Fan air-flow quantities depend upon tower-design
factors, including such items as type of fill, tower configuration, and
thermalperformance conditions.
The effective output of the fan is static air horsepower (SAHP), which is
obtained by the following equation:
where Q = air volume, ft3 /min; hs = static head, in of water; and d = density of
water at ambient temperature, lb/ft3.
Cooling-tower fan horsepower can be reduced substantially as the

ambient wet-bulb temperature decreases if two-speed fan motors are used.
Theoretically, operating at half speed will reduce air flow by 50 percent while
decreasing horsepower to one-eighth of full-speed operation. However, actual
half-speed operation will require about 17 percent of the horsepower at full speed
as a result of the inherent motor losses at lighter loads.
The figure below shows a typical plot of outlet-water temperatures when a

cooling tower is operated (1) in the fan-off position, (2) with the fan at half speed,
and (3) with the fan at full speed. Note that at decreasing wet-bulb temperatures
the water leaving the tower during half-speed operation could meet design
water-temperature requirements of, say, 85°F. For example, for a 60°F wet-bulb,
20°F range, a leaving-water temperature slightly below 85°F is obtained with
design water flow over the tower. If the fan had a 100-hp motor, 83 hp would be
saved when operating it at half speed. In calculating savings, one should not
overlook the advantage of having colder tower water available for the overall
water-circulating system.

Typical plot of cooling-tower performance at varying fan speeds

Pumping Horsepower
Another important factor in analyzing cooling-tower selections, especially

in medium to large sizes, is the portion of pump horsepower directly attributed to
the cooling tower. A counterflow type of tower with spray nozzles will have a
pumping head equal to static lift plus nozzle pressure loss. A cross-flow type of
tower with gravity flow enables a pumping head to equal static lift. A reduction
in tower height therefore reduces static lift, thus reducing pump horsepower:
Where ht= total head, ft.

Duty Coefficient and Tower Height
Data for determining the size of natural-draft towers have been presented
by Chilton and Rish and Steel. Chilton showed that the duty coefficient Dt of a
tower is approximately constant over its normal range of operation and is related
to tower size by an efficiency factor or performance coefficient Ct as follows:
Where A= base of the tower, ft2, measured at pond sill level, and Zt = height
of tower, ft, measured above sill level. The duty coefficient may be determined
from the formula:
where ∆h = change in total heat of the air passing through the tower, Btu/lb;
∆T = change of water temperature passing through tower, °F; ∆t = difference
between air temperature leaving the packing and inlet dry-bulb temperature, °F;
and WL = water load in the tower, lb/h. The air leaving the packing inside the
tower is assumed to be saturated at a temperature halfway between the inlet-
and outlet-water temperatures.
For the tower height and diameter, a ratio of height to base diameter of 3:2
is normally employed.
Sample Calculation for Duty Coefficient and Tower Size
Determine the duty coefficient and tower height for a hyperbolic tower operating
with
 Temperature of water to tower, °F = 82

 Leaving (recooled) water temperature, °F = 70
 Temperature range ∆T, °F = 12
 Dry-bulb air temperature t2, °F = 57
 Aspirated (ambient) wet-bulb air temperature tw2, °F = 51.7
 Water loading to tower WL, lb/h = 38,200,000
 Performance coefficient Ct = 5.0

Solution:
t1 = (82° + 70°)/2 = 76°F
t2 = 57°F
∆t = 19°F
h1=39.5 Btu/lb (from figure 12.2 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 7th ed.)
h2= 21.5 Btu/lb
∆h=18 Btu/lb
38200000
𝐷𝑡 =
18
90.59 (12) × √19 + (0.3124 × 18)

𝐷𝑡 = 56652.5676ft
𝜋𝐷2
𝐴=
4
3𝐷 = 2𝑍
2𝑍 2
𝜋( 3 ) 𝜋𝑍 2
𝐴= =
4 9
0.4 0.4
9𝐷𝑡 𝐶𝑡 1.5 9(56652.5676)(5.01.5 )
𝑍=( ) =( )
𝜋 𝜋
𝑍 = 318.79𝑓𝑡
2𝑍
𝐴= = 212.53𝑓𝑡
3

REFERENCES
1. Geankoplis, Christie J. (1993). Transport Processes and Unit Operations 3rd

Edition.
2. Green, D., Maloney, J., & Perry, R. (1997). Perry's Chemical Engineers'
Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
3. Sinnott, R., & Towler, G. (2013). Chemical Engineering Design. Elsevier.

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

University of the City of Manila

PUMPS AND COOLING

Saligue, Mikho Yves M.

Dr. Denvert C. Pangayao

July 26, 2018

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 1

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 2

Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping

Pumps in which displacement is accomplished mechanically are called

Positive Displacement Pumps

A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 3

Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic

A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed

A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the positive

Kinetic pumps can be divided into two classes, centrifugal and

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 4

Centrifugal pumps include

Volute centrifugal pumps are robust and relatively inexpensive, quiet,

Another type of radial flow centrifugal pump is the diffuser pump, in

In axial flow centrifugal pumps the

A regenerative pump is also called a turbine, or peripheral, pump.

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 5

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 6

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 7

Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 7th ed. p. 10-21

General Considerations for Pumps

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 8

This quantity is expressed in the following units. In SI units capacity is

Total Dynamic Head

Total Suction Head

This is the reading (hgs) of a gauge at the suction flange of a pump

ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑔𝑠 + 𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ𝑣𝑠

If the gauge pressure at the suction flange is less than atmospheric,

Before installation it is possible to estimate the total suction head as follows:

Static Suction Head

Total Discharge Head

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 9

The total discharge head hd is the reading hgd of a gauge at the

ℎ𝑑 = ℎ𝑔𝑑 + 𝑎𝑡𝑚 + ℎ𝑣𝑑

Again, if the discharge gauge pressure is below atmospheric, the

Static Discharge Head

Since most liquids are practically incompressible, the relation

This relationship in SI units is as follows:

v (for circular conduits) = 3.54 Q/d2

where v = average velocity of flow, m/s; Q = quantity of flow, m3/h;

This same relationship in U.S. customary units is

v (for circular conduits) = 0.409 Q/d2

where v = average velocity of flow, ft/s; Q = quantity of flow, gal/min;

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 10

In flowing liquids the existence of internal friction or the internal

This is the pressure required to overcome the resistance to flow in pipe

Work Performed in Pumping

When arriving at the performance of a pump, it is customary to

Pumps, Cooling Towers and Condensers 11

where kW is the pump power output, kW; H = total dynamic head,

When the total dynamic head H is expressed in pascals, then

In U.S. customary units,

where hp is the pump-power output, hp; H = total dynamic head,

hp = HQ/1.714 × 103 (10-52)

Pump efficiency = (power output)/(power input)

Suction Limitations of a Pump

Whenever the pressure in a liquid drops below the vapor pressure