1.

Introduction
Wisdom does not belong to any particular religion or community. It was existed in Northern
and Southern kingdom of Israel and also in Ancient West Asian context, which include countries
like Phoenicia, Egypt, Syria, Babylon, Mesopotamia, Decapolis etc. In the first part of this paper,
we will deal with the wisdom tradition in Israel, sages and sapiential discourses, worldviews of
Israel and AWA context. Second part of this paper will be dealing with problems related to
historical settings.

2. Definition
2.1. Wisdom
“Wisdom is the ability to make sensible decisions and give good advices because of the
experience and knowledge that a person or society or culture has gained over a long period of
time.”1

The term ‘wisdom’ in biblical studies refers to, A) a movement in the ancient world that was
associated with sages and educational purposes, B) biblical books such as Proverbs, Job,
Ecclesiastes, and the deutero-canonical books of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) and Wisdom of Solomon,
and C) a particular worldview or theological perspective. 2

2.2. Wisdom tradition

“Tradition is a belief, custom or way of doing something that has existed for a long time among a
particular group of people.” 3

“Tradition is a giving over, by word of mouth or in writing.” 4

Those who produced the Wisdom literature are often considered as wise men or sages. There is
a distinction between the process of writing down the wisdom material and the origin of the
material. It is a progressive work. Initially it was in the oral form and gradually the process of
writing took place. 5

1
A.S. Hornby, “wisdom,” Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, edited by Sally Wehmeier (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2000), 1485.
2
Wisdom in biblical studies/www.oxfordbibliographies.com/accessed on 27-6-18/9:10 p.m.
3
A.S. Hornby, “tradition,” Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, edited by Sally Wehmeier (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2000), 1379.
4
“Tradition,” New International Bible Dictionary, edited by J.D. Douglas and Merrill C. Tenney (Michigan:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1987), 1031.
5
Katharine J. Dell, “Wisdom Literature,” Old Testament Word Studies, edited by Leo G. Perdue (Malden: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd, 2001), 424.

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3. Wisdom Tradition in ancient Israel

3.1. Family and Clan

It is likely that much of the proverbs were circulated orally in the family or tribe. Proverbs 31
denotes the role of a mother in imparting wisdom to her son (vs.1-9) and Proverbs chapters 1-9
talks about the instruction of father and mother. 6 Murphy also emphasizes the book of Proverbs
provides evidences that for the primary education of children both mother and father were involved
(Prov. 4:1-5, 10:1, 15:20, 23:22, 25, 30:17, 31:1-9). The teaching of parents, though they are not
described as official sages, is clearly part of the wisdom tradition. 7 Katharine Dell cited Clement.
Clement describes that instruction of parents given to their children was a process that did not stop
when Wisdom literature was written in a more formal sense, and it went on throughout the Old
Testament period. According to Fontaine, there is evidence of traditional Wisdom sayings in older
material.8 Based on above evidences we can say that the Wisdom tradition is very old and roots of
this wisdom may be family and tribe.

3.2. Town Council or village Elders

The ‘elders’ or leaders in the local community were expected to exercise a kind of ‘wisdom’ in
rendering judgments and in mediating disputes (Deut. 25:7-8). It also seems that certain
individuals were known for their wisdom and people sought for their advice and counsel. The
book of 2 nd Samuel talks about two striking examples of such people and both of them are
women. 2 nd Samuel 20 tells the story of a “wise woman” in Abel, and in 2 nd Samuel 14, we find
how a “wise woman” of Tekoa assisted Joab, the commander of David’s army. 9

3.3. Scribes and the Scribal school

Ceresko describes the ‘scribal school’ as the most important context for the development of
wisdom and a wisdom ‘tradition’ in Israel, which was an important part of any royal court in
ancient times. Therefore, when Israel moved from tribal union to monarchy under the leadership
of David, they felt the need for more organized administration. David had a group of scribes and
bureaucrats. 2 nd Samuel 20 lists some of the chief officers of David’s administration (vs. 23-25).10

4. Sages and Sapiential discourses

In the Book of Proverbs, “sayings of the wise” is a clear title in chapter 1: 6, 22: 17 and 24: 23.
The use of the term ‘the wise’ suggests that they were considered as a professional class but left
undefined. 11 According to Blenkinsopp, those who produced the Wisdom literature are often

6
Katharine J. Dell, “Wisdom Literature,” Old Testament Word Studies…426.
7
Roland E. Murphy, The Tree of Life (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 4.
8
Katharine J. Dell, “Wisdom Literature,” Old Testament Word Studies…426.
9
Anthony R. Ceresko, Introduction to Old Testament Wisdom (New York: Orbis Books, 2005), 32.
10
Ibid.
11
Roland E. Murphy, The Tree of Life (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 3.

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characterized as wise men or sages. 12The discourses of wise men or sages can be divided into four
categories_

4.1. Discourses with family

Wisdom has its starting point in the family. Instruction is given first by the parents (Prov. 13:1,
15:5, 23:22, 13:24, 19:18, 29:15, 17), because they are the one who are to direct their child in the
right path (Prov. 22:6). A sage makes this point with special force in a small unit of instruction,
which is found in Prov. 23:22-25 where the insertion of 23:23 into what is a call obedience to, and
reverence of parents connects the getting wisdom with filial respect for parents. So wisdom which
is equated with instruction and insight, is considered the product of filial obedience. Such
obedience makes children righteous and wise. 13

4.2. Discourses with disciples

Instruction is also given by other members of the community such as the wise men (Prov. 13:14,
20, 15:2, 7, 22:17-21), and righteous men (Prov. 10:31-32). Since they express their ideas and
impart wisdom (Prov. 10:13, 31, 13:14, 15:2, 7), the sensible students would seek their company
and follow their way of life so that they will become wise (Prov. 13:20). 14 Ecclesiastes 1:1
describes the author of the book as the “teacher.” This gives an idea that this author was a teacher
in a wisdom school. 15

4.3. Discourses in the royal court

Luther (cited by Katharine Dell) suggested that the book of Ecclesiastes shows Solomon in
dialogue with his political associates and the idea of dialogue is interesting.16

4.4. Sages as counsellors and advisers of kings

Counselors were associated with royal wisdom who are to provide “advice” to the ruler.
Ahitophel, David’s counselor, gave advice to Absalom, and it was regarded as a divine advice (2
Sam. 16: 20-23), though Absalom rejected his advice. Similarly, Rehoboam takes counsel with
advisers (1King 12:6). In the context of the royal court, the counseling role of the sage is clearly
visible.17

12
Blenkinsopp J., Sage, Priest and Prophet: Religious and Intellectual Leadership in Ancient Israel (Louisville: John
Knox Press, 1995), 13.
13
John W. Kleinig, “The Getting of Wisdom: A Study in the Theology of Proverbs” (M.Th. dissertation, University of
Cambridge, 1981). /www.johnkleinig.com/pdf.
14
Ibid.
15
Katharine J. Dell, “Wisdom Literature,” Old Testament Word Studies…425.
16
Ibid.
17
Ronald E. Murphy, The Tree of Life…5.

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5. Israelite Worldview

5.1. Creation and world-order

Wisdom literature’s most important and distinctive feature is an interest in the created order,
both as a source for human knowledge and as the context for human behaviour.18

5.1.1. Wisdom, religion and nation

One of characteristics of the biblical wisdom literature is its lack of interest in the national aspects
of Jewish religious thought. It does not present an analysis of history, clear covenantal theology or
anything, which is very exclusively Jewish beyond the use of the divine name. The book of Job
was intentionally written to symbolize Israel’s destruction and restoration. Proverb focuses on the
individual (sometimes in relation to their community) rather than on the community or nation. The
attitude of Ecclesiastes is very difficult to understand. On the one hand, Qoheleth shows no interest
at all in the nation but on the other hand, he refers several times on the past to make points (e.g.
9:13-16) and has a very clear interest in time itself. In Qoheleth’s monologue, nation may not be
important, but human life is very much played out against the surrounding of past, present and
future.19

5.1.2. Wisdom and Creation

Among the biblical texts, there are clear references about God’s initial creation of the world in
Proverbs 1-9 and Job. Proverb is particularly concerned with the validity of wisdom, emphasizing
that God used it in his creation (Prov. 3:19-20). On the other hand, in Job, the main purpose of the
references is to demonstrate God’s power and independence (Job 9:4-10, 26:5-14, and divine
speeches in chapt. 38-41). According to Job 28:23-28, wisdom is not the key to all creation, but
almost an incidental discovery, made while God was creating stormy weather. Proverbs 10:1-22:16
contains a number of sayings about God’s creation of individual human beings or their attributes
(14:31, 16:4,11, 17:5, 20:12, 22:2). These references are not indicating towards the earliest creation
but to a continuing divine activity in the creation or shaping human lives. This idea is also present
in Ecclesiastes, which has God created events and assigned tasks or times (Eccl. 3:10-11, 7:14)
and portrays him as maker of everything (11:5) and everyone (12:1).20

5.1.3. World order

Qoheleth had strong belief in divine judgement and control (Eccl. 1:5-7). In Eccl. 11:3 he notes
that, ‘When clouds are full, they empty rain on the earth, whether a tree falls to the south or to the
north, in the place where the tree falls, there it will lie,’ and he follows this with advice not to waste
time by watching the clouds and wind. These observations are set in the context of human

18
Stuart Weeks, An Introduction to the Study of Wisdom Literature (New York: T&T Clark, 2010), 108-109.
19
Stuart Weeks, An Introduction to the Study of Wisdom …110-111.
20
Ibid.

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uncertainty about the future and about God’s activities, which lead him to advice, a cautious “belt
and braces” approach to life (Eccl. 11:1-2, 5-6). Proverbs is more confident about how one should
behave. It recognizes that certain consequences will be there because of certain actions but also
there are deeper principles or influences are at work, which is linked to divine activity. 21

5.2. God

Wisdom literature has a great interest in God and in divine action. Much of the literature seeks
also to understand the relationship between the human and the divine, in terms of both the influence
of God on human lives and the appropriate response of humans to the power of God over them. 22

5.2.1. God as Creator

One of the basic attribute of God in biblical wisdom is His creative power and activity (Job
28:23, 25-27, 38:4-39:30, Prov. 3:19-20, 8:22-34). Wisdom seeks to answer the existential
question, how did the world and human life came into existence? Why we are here? Rankin, an
Old Testament scholar observed that the ethical content of wisdom rests upon the doctrine that
God is the Creator of the world. It is the principle that human beings should consider what is right
behaviour towards their fellow human beings, since all are created by God. Wisdom emphasizes
God’s creative role in relation to the universe and therefore connects human beings to God to the
beginning of all things. 23

5.2.2. God the Originator of Wisdom

Wisdom literature represents God’s communicative function in terms of ‘wisdom.’ Wisdom is
the all-pervasive force created by God before the world (Prov. 2:1-15, 8:22). It is God’s Word
written in nature and human experience. Wisdom literature views God as the originator of this
dynamic force in history and nature (Job 9:4, 11:6, 12:13, 32:8, 37:16, Prov. 2:6, 8:22-31). It is so
intimately identified with Him that the individual’s attitude towards wisdom determines his/her
destiny (Prov. 8:32-36). In wisdom literature, one’s response to wisdom, the medium of divine
revelation, determines one’s happiness and well-being in life. A positive response to wisdom is
really a positive response to the Creator of wisdom. 24

5.2.3. The fear of the Lord and wisdom

The dynamic relationship between human beings and wisdom takes the form of the “fear of the
Lord”. In wisdom literature, personal relationship with God is the description of human’s personal
encounter with God. Job equates the ‘fear of the Lord’ with wisdom (Job 28:28), whereas other
statements equate it with the ‘beginning of wisdom’ (Ps. 111:10, Prov. 9:10, 1:7, 15:33). The good
and successful life can be achieved only through it. It prolongs life (Prov. 10:27), is both the path

21
Ibid, 112-113.
22
Ibid, 117.
23
C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books (Chicago: Moody Press, 1979), 50-51.
24
Ibid, 52.

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to and the fountain of life (Prov. 14:27, 19:23), as well as the source of personal confidence and
human satisfaction (Prov. 14:26, 15:16). By it, one avoids evil (Prov. 16:6). The fear of the Lord
is a means for the good life lived in harmony with God, human beings and the world. 25

5.3. Human

5.3.1. Individualism

The potential of human being was explored and largely recognized by the wisdom writers. For
them, human beings were marvelous creature with reason, will and fully responsible for their
actions in the world. They are called to personal responsibility and how they accepted that
responsibility determined their destiny in life. Wisdom literature gives a call to humans to live up
to their potential. It does not allow them to escape responsibility. Wisdom writers emphasized on
individuals rather than on corporate responsibility. 26

5.3.2. Generic human

Though biblical wisdom is primarily individualistic, by any means the totality of the human race
does not fall out of attention. Book of Job provides a good illustration of this. Job moved from a
self-contemplative mood (Job chapter 3, 6-7, 9-10) to a disposition in which he began to apply the
implications of his personal dilemma to the whole humankind (Job 14:1-22). “A mortal born of
woman, few of days and full of trouble, comes up like a flower and withers, flees like a shadow
and does not last” (vs. 1-2). In Job 7:1-2 he had briefly compared the life of man to the hard service
of a hired laborer and then applied that metaphor to his own life (7:3-10). He began with his
individual tragedy and subsequently saw that it had wider implications for the whole humankind.
Likewise the book of Ecclesiastes had the wider dilemma of human being as author considered
that situation through his own personal experience. He began his inquiry by engaging the generic
term ‘people’- “What do people gain from all the toil at which they toil under the sun?” (Eccl. 1:3).
The worse thing that happens to human race was still in his mind when he closed his investigation
–“…all must go to their eternal home, and the mourners will go about the streets” (Eccl. 12:5).
Thus, biblical wisdom looks at human being in both way individually and corporately. 27

6. Wisdom tradition in AWA context

6.1. Egyptian Documents

Israel’s history shows that Egypt exerted primary influence on early Israelite wisdom. Egypt’s
commitment to wisdom activity began long before the time of Joseph. With the birth of writing, a
class of literary scholars arose. Didactic materials were used for the training of these scribes.
Schools of instruction in writing and training in general wisdom became common among the elites
in Egypt. To support these institutions, libraries developed. Some literatures were written between

25
Ibid.
26
Ibid, 53.
27
Ibid, 54.

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2500 and 2100 B.C.E. such as “The Instruction of Prince Hardjedef,” “The Instruction of
Kagemni,” and “The Instruction of Ptahhotep” contained proverbs, which separated them from the
Hebrew canon. Not all-Egyptian wisdom was related to the court. “The Instruction of Ani” (written
about 1000B.C.E.) recorded the teachings of a father to his son. Egypt’s “Pessimistic literature
reproduces Ecclesiastes’ questioning of meaning or Job’s challenge to the fairness of life. Among
these works is “A Dispute over Suicide,” also known as “The Sufferer and His Soul” (about
2000B.C.E.). This writing presents a person in dialogue with his eternal self over the topic of
suicide. In “Admonition of Ipuwer” (about 2000B.C.E.), the speaker, like Job communicates
dissatisfaction to the deity regarding social and cosmic injustice. “The Song of the Harper” (about
1250 B.C.E.) offers encouragements to enjoy life because of the certainty of death, which is a
theme repeated in Ecclesiastes. 28

6.2. Canaanite Documents

From 1929-1976, excavations at Ugarit at ancient Syria discovered numerous documents
including several didactic texts. For Ugarit as well as Israel, the traditions arising in Sumer,
Babylon, and Assyria laid the foundation for later wisdom. Ugaritic poetic texts employed parallel
word pairs, some of which are similar to the parallel terms of Hebrew poetry. At times, these
parallel word pairs consist of wisdom vocabulary and are used in contexts, which is closer form of
the biblical proverb (masal). Ugaritic texts also contain challenges to traditional, orthodox teaching
regarding suffering such as present in Job. Though the date of its origin can only be guessed, the
tablets contain a story of a righteous sufferer who survived the destruction of Ugarit just after 1200
B.C.E.29

6.3. Mesopotamian Documents

Three distinct yet related civilizations in Mesopotamia also produced wisdom writings. The
earliest was Summer, which produced wisdom texts about 2500 B.C.E. Among these are proverbs.
These proverbs are classified in two major groups- those related to practical matters and those
dealing with contradictions of existence. Here in a small amount, two major aspects of Hebrew
wisdom is found which are shown in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. A Sumerian account of Job motif
bears the title “Man and His God”. In this work, a completely just person suffers and continually
cries to his deity until the deity responds and removes his suffering. It contains questions and
doubts much like Job.30

According to the evidence, Babylon possessed the richest tradition of wisdom in Ancient West
Asia. The Babylonian words of wisdom refer to abilities in divination and worship rites. One
writing “The Poem of Righteous Sufferer” (1500-1200 B.C. E.) shows some similarities with and
some differences from Job. “Counsel of Wisdom” (1500-1200 B.C.E.) presents multiple two-line

28
Donald K. Berry, An Introduction to Wisdom and Poetry of the Old Testament (Nashville: Broadman and Holman
Publishers, 1995), 31-33.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid, 34.

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proverbs, which are like biblical proverbs and relate similar themes. “Enuma Elish” described the
Babylonian god Ea as wise, omniscient, knowing all wisdom, and accepting all through his
knowledge. This is reminding the repeated “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom” in
Proverbs and Job’s description of God’s superior wisdom at the conclusion of the poetry of the
book (Job 28:28).31

In Assyria, didactic literature arose from two contexts- the court (nobility and advisors) and the
tablet house (scribe). Before 700 B.C.E., “wise” especially designated the Assyrian king. A
document from a later period known as “Ahiqar” is written as a tale rather than as a wisdom
writing. However, as Ahiqar, the main character of the book, defended himself, he offered proverbs
and metaphors. Ahiqar acted as counselor to Sennacherib (704-681) and to his son Esarhaddon
(680-669).32

The association of wisdom with the monarch involved both the king’s office and his activity.
The attribution of wisdom to King Sennacherib resulted from his building programs. Biblical
accounts imply that Solomon’s achievements were the result of his wisdom. His most important
achievements were his building projects- palace, stables, and temple. Merodach-baladan 2 nd ,
Babylonian king who captured the Assyrian throne in 721-710, also gained the designation “wise”
in Assyrian literature. 33

6.4. Greek Documents

Direct influence of Greek ideology on Hebrew wisdom literatures can be found in two latest
wisdom books- Sirach and The Wisdom of Solomon. On the other hand, Israel’s wisdom
strongly influenced Greek wisdom literatures. Greek literature contains numerous examples of
philosophical reflections on good and evil like those found in Job. 34

7. Problems related to historical settings (concerning wisdom/ Sapiential tradition)

7.1. Wisdom traditions in Ancient West Asia
Eckhard Schnabel, in ‘History, theology and Biblical Canon: an introduction to basic issues, calls
the evangelical approach to Biblical canon the weakest link in the evangelical doctrine of
Scripture.35

At first glance and as with most instances of history, the biggest issue with the historical settings
with reference to wisdom tradition in the Old Testament is that it is historically and culturally
removed from our current time and place given that wisdom literature can be dated as far back as
2600 B.C. Thus, to understand said history one should remember the paradigmatic framework

31
Ibid, 35.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.
35
Schnabel, Eckhard, History, theology and Biblical Canon: an introduction to basic issues, Themelios 20.2 (1995)
16-24

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within which the Old Testament operated, i.e. the Old Testament assumes patriarchy, slavery,
war, and monarchy to be the way of life.

The next issue is one of uniqueness, i.e. once similarities between the biblical texts and those of
surrounding cultures36 are established; the biblical material is no longer distinctive. This leads to
the conclusion that the Old Testament is simply a culturally specific expression of a shared
religious tradition shared across cultures. What sets the Hebrew wisdom literature apart,
however, is its moral content. 3738 Reinforcing this distinction is the fact that except one (known)
instance, the Babylonian word for wisdom 39 does not have the Hebraic connotation of the word,
i.e., ‘wise conduct before God’. 40 We notice this distinction (again) in the Egyptian wisdom
literature, whose primary purpose was instruction for success in public affairs. The closest
Egyptian literature comes to Hebraic wisdom literature is in the Instruction of Amenemope. 41

7.2. Problems related to historical settings

The historic setting of wisdom literature is an issue because there is a lot of speculation on its
origins and channels by which it was handed down 42. Before we talk about problems related to
the historical settings in which the Hebraic wisdom literature was birthed we need to remember
the context and their worldview. We need to be aware of an ideological and cultural chasm
between our modern culture and that of Ancient West Asian cultures (which includes but is not
limited to Israel). 43

The problem then can be grouped (albeit loosely) into various categories viz. disagreements with
respect to authorship, date of authorship, composition and most importantly content.

7.2.1. Proverbs
Gunkel was skeptic of the origin of the wisdom literature in the Old Testament. He specifically
singled out the book of Proverbs saying it could have been original because it could not be
derived from prophecy or law due to its distinct nature. Thus it had to be secondary and
derivative.44 Compared to Ancient West Asian literature, however, the size and scope of

36
Wisdom literature is found in several major culture in Ancient West Asia: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria and Israel.
37
Graeme Goldsworthy in his article, Wisdom and its literature in Biblical-Theological context talks uses the
popularity of Solomon’s wisdom as it is written in 1 Kings to show that what established the superiority of
Solomon’s wisdom was the fear of the Lord.
38
Lambert, Wilfred, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (Oxford: 1963) 19
39
Mesopotamian and Egyptian wisdom corpus usually encouraged loyalty to the established order and blind faith.
40
Day, Gordon and Williamson, Wisdom in Ancient Israel – Essays in honor of J.A. Emerton, (Cambridge: New York,
1995) 2
41
Day, Gordon and Williamson, 2
42
Murphy, Roland, Wisdom Literature (William B. Erdmans: Michigan: 1983) 6-7
43
Bartholomew, Craig and O’Dowd P. Old Testament Wisdom Literature: A Theological Introduction, (Downer’s
Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2011) 33
44
Firth, David, ed. Firth and Wilson, Exploring Old Testament Wisdom (IVP: London, 2016) 17

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Proverbs is impressive. 45 Murphy substantiates this view of Proverbs by referring to the different
sections in Proverbs viz. The words of Agur, Lemuel, etc.46

During the course of the 19 th century, the authorship of Solomon was rejected because analysis
showed it to be a collection from three different epochs. 4748 In its defense, however; Old
Testament wisdom had its roots in Israelite oral tradition (Hugo Gressman). Gunkel holds that in
its original form Israelite wisdom tradition was a brief didactic which later developed into
written forms with styles of their own. He also adds that the earlier wisdom was pragmatic as
opposed to the religious nature of the later wisdom.

7.2.2. Job
The same is said of the book of Job (initially Richard Simon, followed by Karl Budde, Bernard
Duhm, and Marvin Pope). This view is rejected by Polzin saying it seems to destroy the message
of the book and undermines how it has helped people through the ages. 49 Job is dated around
sixth-seventh century based on the spelling used, however, on the basis of the understanding of
(attributes of) God in it; a later date makes a stronger argument. 50 This is based on the theodicy
that is shown by Job i.e. he believes that the suffering he goes through serves a purpose, an
understanding which developed at a later stage. Carr notices a link between Psalm 107 and Job
38-39 and consequently dates it in the post-exilic era.51 However, there are no convincing
arguments for a fixed date. 52

In Job’s case, however, another issue is that Job was an Edomite, but everything in his story
reflects Israelite convictions (Ernst Nicholson). 53

7.2.3. Ecclesiastes
John Day asserts that Ecclesiastes has been influenced by the Epic of Gilgamesh.54 The primary
issue with this book is the content and not the dating of it, i.e., while there are reasonable debates
on when and by whom it was written – the content of it offers a better answer to that question.
There is a reasonable consensus that this book was not the work of one person, or two redactors

45
Clifford, Richard, The Wisdom Literature (Abingdon: Nashville, 1998) 43
46
Murphy, The tree of life: An exploration in Biblical Wisdom, 15
47
Different sections can be traced to different time periods i.e. 30:1-9 is foreign in origin, chapters 10-29 can be
dated to the seventh of eighth century and chapters 1-9 are from the fifth or fourth century.
48
Fox, Michael V., Religious Compass: Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom Literature (Volume 5. Issue 1: Blackwell, 2011)
4
49
Firth, 22
50
Freedman, D.N. Orthographic Peculiarities in the Book of Job, Eretz-Israel Vol. 9 (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration
Society, 1969), 35-44.
51
Carr, David The Formation of the Hebrew Bible: The Formation of the Hebrew Bible: A New Reconstruction
(Oxford, 2011), 355-385
52
Murphy, 20
53
Day, Gordon and Williamson, 4
54
Day, Gordon and Williamson, 2

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(Galling, Zimmerli, Braun, and Kroeber) or three redactors (Hertzberg) 55. The primary theme of
this book seems to be that everything is meaningless – this is identified as an intrusion to the text
because if that and all similar text is removed, the remaining text can be dated to Solomon’s time
with a degree of certainty. 56

7.2.4. Others
Songs of Solomon could be based on a wedding since most of the songs here are love songs but
scholars such as Krinetzki (among others) disagree due to the lack of any mention of marriage
rituals. Murphy quotes Wurthwein saying twenty-four of the thirty nice units in the book refer to
aspects of an Israelite wedding. Krinetzki finds twice as many whereas Gerleman dismisses the
wedding setting completely.57 Murphy alludes to J.P.Audet saying the literary work were
attributed to Solomon due to his harem in the postexilic period.

8. Conclusion
Historical and literary criticism of the Bible has led to the shift away from reading the Bible to
discern the voice of God – which is counterproductive to the purpose of the Bible (for teaching,
for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness 1 Timothy 3.16, NRSV). This
approach to wisdom tradition in the Bible, one that in principle, does not view wisdom literature
as Scripture is detrimental to the core message of said literature.

However, our hermeneutic regarding the Bible holds teaching (for reproof, for correction, and
for training in righteousness 1 Timothy 3.16, NRSV) and not the historical-critical research as
the final word in the interpretation of Scripture.

55
Murphy, 131
56
James R. Davila, Ooheleth and Northern Hebrew: Sopher Mahir: Northwest Semitic Studies Presented to Stanislav
Segert (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990) 75
57
Murphy, 103

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