CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Design Factors

After selection of the type of concrete pavement (plain pavement with or without
dowels, reinforced jointed pavement with dowels, or continuously reinforced pavement),
type of subbase if needed, and type of shoulder (with or without concrete shoulder, curb
and gutter or integral curb), thickness design is determined based on four design factors:
1. Flexural strength of the concrete (modulus of rupture, MR).
2. Strength of the subgrade, or subgrade and subbase P combination (k).
3. The weights, frequencies, and types of truck axle loads that the pavement will carry.
4. Design period, which in this and other pavement design procedures is usually taken at
20 years, but may be more or less.
3.1.1 Flexural Strength of Concrete
Consideration of the flexural strength of the concrete is applicable in the design
procedure for the fatigue criterion, which controls cracking of the pavement under
repetitive truck loadings.
Bending of a concrete pavement under axle loads produces both compressive and
flexural stresses. However, the ratios of compressive stresses to compressive strength are
too small to influence slab thickness design. Ratios of flexural stress to flexural strength
are much higher, often exceeding values of 0.5. As a result, flexural stresses and flexural
strength of the concrete are used in thickness design. Flexural strength is determined by
modulus of rupture.
 For specific projects, the concrete mix should be designed to give both adequate
durability and flexural strength at the lowest possible cost. Mix design procedures are
described in the Portland Cement Association publication Design and Control of
Concrete Admixtures.
The 28-day test results have been commonly used for thickness design of highway
sand streets and are recommended for use with this procedure; 90day results are used for
the design of airfields. These values are used because there are very few stress repetitions
during the first 28 or 90 days of pavement life as compared to the millions of stress
repetitions that occur later.
In this design procedure the effects of variations in concrete strength from point to
point in the pavement and gains in concrete strength with age are incorporated in the
design charts and tables. The designer does not directly apply these effects but simply
inputs the average 28-day strength value.
3.1.2 Subgrade and Subbaae Support
The support given to concrete pavements by the subgrade, and the subbase where
used, is the second factor in thickness design. Subgrade and subbase support is defined in
terms of the modulus of subgrade reaction (k). The k values are expressed as pounds per
square inch per inch (psi/ in,) or, more commonly, as pounds per cubic inch (pci).
Since the plate-loading test is time consuming and expensive, the k value is
usually estimated by correlation to simpler tests such as the California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) or R-value tests. The result is valid became exact determination of the k value is
not required; normal variations from an estimated value will not appreciably affect
pavement thickness requirements.
Subgrade k value, pci Subbase k value, pci
4 in 6 in 9 in 12 in
50 65 75 85 110
100 130 140 160 190
200 220 230 270 320
300 320 330 370 430
Table 3.1. Effect of untreated subbase on k values
Source: Robert G. Packard, Thickness Design for Concrete Highway and Street
Pavements , Portland Cement Association 1984, reprinted 1995.
3.1.3 Design Period
The term design period is used in this publication rather than pavement life, The
latter is not subject to precise definition. Some engineers and highway agencies consider
the life of a concrete pavement ended when the first overlay is placed. The life of
concrete pavements may vary from less than 20 years on some projects that have carried
more traffic than originally estimated or have had design. Since traffic can probably not
be predicted with much accuracy for a longer period, a design period of 20 years is
commonly used in pavement design procedures. However, there are often cases where
use of a shorter or longer design period may be economically justified. The design period
selected affects thickness design since it determines how many years, and thus how many
trucks, the pavement must serve. Selection of the design period for a specific project is
based on engineering judgment and economic analysis of pavement costs and service
provided throughout the entire period.
3.2 Yearly Growth Rate
For getting the traffic volume data (design ADT) needed is to use yearly rate of
traffic growth and traffic projection factor.
Yearly rate of traffic growth % Project factor, 20 years Project factor, 40 years
1 1.1 1.2
1½ 1.2 1.3
2 1.2 1.5
2½ 1.3 1.6
3 1.3 1.8
3½ 1.4 2.0
4 1.5 2.2
4½ 1.6 2.4
5 1.6 2.7
5½ 1.7 2.9
6 1.8 3.2
Table 3.2. Yearly rate of traffic growth and corresponding projection factors
Source: Robert G. Packard, Thickness Design for Concrete Highway and Street
Pavements , Portland Cement Association 1984, reprinted 1995.
For 20 and 40 years project design, annual growth rate will cause about 2%to 6%.
3.2.1 Traffic growth rate multiplier (G)
G=(1+r)Y/2 Equation 3.1
Where ,G=traffic growth rate multiplier
r=yearly rate of traffic growth (%)
Y=design period
3.3 Traffic
The numbers and weights of heavy axle loads expected during thedesign life are
major factors in the thickness design of concrete pavement. These are derived from
estimates of
1.ADT (average daily traffic in both directions, all
vehicles)
2.ADTT (average daily truck traffic in both directions)
3.Axle loads of trucks
3.3.1 Average daily traffic (ADT)
Average daily traffic is obtained from special traffic counts or from state, county,
or city traffic volume map.
Design ADT=G x ADT Equation 3.2
Where, G= traffic growth rate multiplier
ADT= average daily traffic
3.3.2 Average daily truck traffic (ADTT)
The average daily truck traffic in both directions (ADTT) is needed in the design
procedure. It may be expressed as a percentage of ADT or as an actual value. The ADTT
value includes only trucks with six tires or more and does not include panel and pickup
trucks and other four-tire vehicles.
The data from state, county, or city traffic-volume ~ maps may include, in
addition to ADT, the percentage of trucks from which ADTT can be computed.
ADTT=design ADT x trucks percent Equation 3.3
Where, ADTT= average daily truck traffic
3.3.3 Truck Directional Distribution
In most design problems, it is assumed that the weights and volumes of trucks
traveling in each direction are fairly equal 50-50 distribution, the design assumes that
pavement in each direction carries half the total ADTT.
3.3.4 Axle-Load Distribution
Data on the axle-load distribution of the truck traffic is needed to compute the
numbers of single and tandem axles of various weights expected during the design per-
iod. These data can be determined in one of three ways: (1) special traffic studies to
establish the loadometer data for the specific project; (2) data from the state highway
department’s loadometer weight stations or weigh-in-motion studies on routes
representing truck weights and types that are expected to be similar to the project under
design; (3) when axle-load distribution data are not available, methods described in table
3.3 and 3.4 based on categories of representative data for different types of pavement
facilities.
Axle-load Description Traffic Maximum axle-load
category ADT ADTT
% Per- Single Tandem
day axle axle
1 Residential streets, 200- 1-3 Up to 22 26
rural and secondary road. 800 25

2 Collector streets, rural and 700- 5- 40- 26 44

secondary road. 5000 18 1000
3 Arterial streets and primary 3000- 8- 500- 30 52
roads. 12000 30 5000
Expressway and urban and 3000-
rural interstate. 50000
4 Arterial streets and primary 3000- 8- 1500- 34 60
roads expressway. 20000 30 8000
Urban and rural interstate. 3000-
150000
 Table 3.3. Axle-Load Categories
Source: Robert G. Packard, Thickness Design for Concrete Highway and Street
Pavements , Portland Cement Association 1984, reprinted 1995.

Axle-Load, Axle per 1000 trucks

kips Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
Single axles
4 1693.31
6 732.28
8 483.10 233.6
10 204.96 142.7
12 124 116.76 182.02
14 56.11 47.76 47.73
16 38.02 23.88 31.82 57.07
18 15.81 16.61 25.15 58.27
20 4.23 6.63 16.33 41.82
22 0.95 2.6 7.85 9.69
24 1.6 5.21 4.16
26 0.07 1.78 3.52
28 0.85 1.78
30 0.45 0.63
32 0.54
34 0.19

Tandem axles
4 31.9
8 85.59 47.01
12 139.3 91.15
16 75.02 50.25 99.34
 20 57.1 45 85.94
24 39.18 30.74 72.54 71.16
28 58.48 44.43 121.22 95.79
32 69.59 54.76 103.63 109.54
36 4.19 38.79 56.25 78.19
40 7.76 21.31 20.31
44 1.16 8.01 3.52
48 2.91 3.03
52 1.19 1.79
56 1.07
60 0.57
Table 3.4. Axle-Load distributions used for preparing design
Source: Robert G. Packard, Thickness Design for Concrete Highway and Street
Pavements , Portland Cement Association 1984, reprinted 1995.
3.3.5 Design traffic volume
DTV=ADTxTruck percentxDxLxGx365xY Equation 3.4
Where, DTV=design traffic volume
ADT= average daily traffic
D=direction distribution factor (0.5)
L= lane distribution factor (from figure… )
G= traffic growth rate multiplier
Y= design period
3.4 Modulus of Rupture
Among the properties of concrete, compressive strength is the mostly
used. As concrete is very good in compression, there is only few amount of damage in
concrete pavement due to compression. The most important property is the flexural
strength. Flexural strength is defined by the value of modulus of rupture (MR). At least
40kg/cm2(4 MPa) of MR is needed for concrete pavement. It is necessary to get 300
kg/cm2 (30 MPa) of 28-day compressive strength in order to achieve the required value of
MR.
 Modulus of Rupture (MR) 28-day Compressive Strength
f՛c or fck
India practice 4 MPa (580 psi) 30MPa (4351 psi) or 37 MPa

USA practice 3.8-4.8 MPa (550-700 psi)

Table 3.5. Minimum flexural strength required for rigid pavement
Source: Guide for the design of New Jointed Plain Rigid Pavements for Highways, 2nd
Rev, The Indian Road Congress 2002
Note : 1 MPa=145 psi
MR, fcr= 0.7x√fck Equation 3.5
Where, fcr=flexural strength
fck=compressive tube strength
According to ACI, conversion of cylinder strength to tube strength is:
fck=compressive tube strength
fck= f՛c÷0.78 (f՛c≤ 3500 psi)
fck= f՛c÷0.8 (3500<f՛c≤ 5000 psi)
fck= f՛c÷0.81 (5000< f՛c≤6000 psi)
fck= f՛c÷0.83 (f՛c>6000 psi)

3.5 Bradbury’s Analysis

Bradbury’s analysis gives load transfer capacity of single dowel bar in shear,
bending and bearing as follows;

Ps = 0.785d2Fs Equation 3.6

2d3 Ff
Pf = Equation 3.7
Ld +8.8δ

Fb L2d d
Pb = Equation 3.8
12.5(Ld +1.5δ)

Where; Ps = the load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in shear

Pf = the load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in bending

 Pb = the load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in bearing

d = the diameter of the bar in centimeter

Ld = the length of the embedment of dowel bar in centimeter

𝛿 = the joint width in centimeter

Fs = the permissible stress in shear (1000kg/cm2)

Ff = the permissible stress in bending (1400kg/cm2)

Fb = the permissible stress in bearing (100kg/cm2)

3.6 Dowel bars

The purpose of the dowel bar is to effectively transfer the load between two
concrete slabs and to keep the two slabs in same height. The dowel bars are provided in
the direction of the traffic (longitudinal). The design considerations are;

1. Mild steel rounded bars,

2. Bounded on one side and free on other side.

3.6.1 Design procedure of dowel bars

Step 1 Find the length of the dowel bar embedded in slab Ld by equating
Ff (Ld +1.5δ)
Ld = 5d √ Equation 3.9
Fb (Ld +8.8δ)

Where, Ld=the length of the embedment of dowel bar in centimeter

Ff = the permissible stress in bending (1400kg/cm2)

Fb = the permissible stress in bearing (100kg/cm2)

d = the diameter of the bar in centimeter

𝛿 = the joint width in centimeter

Step 2 Find the load transfer capacities Ps, Pf , and Pb of single dowel bar with the Ld
Step 3 Assume load capacity of dowel bar is 40 percent wheel load, find the load capacity
factor f as,
0.4P 0.4P 0.4P
f max: = { , , } Equation 3.10
Ps Pf Pb
where, f=load capacity factor
P=Standard wheel load (8200kg)
Ps = the load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in shear

Pf = the load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in bending

Pb = the load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in bearing

Step 4 Spacing of the dowel bars.

(1) Effective distance up to which effective load transfer take place is given by 1:8 l,
where l is the radius of relative stiffness.
(2) Assume a linear variation of capacity factor of 1.0 under load to 0 at 1:8 l.
(3) Assume a dowel spacing and find the capacity factor of the above spacing.
(4) Actual capacity factor should be greater than the required capacity factor.
(5) If not, do one more iteration with new spacing.

3.6.2 Dowel bar design details

Slab Dowel bar details
thickness,cm Diameter, mm Length, mm Spacing, mm
20 25 500 250
25 25 500 300
30 32 500 300
35 32 500 300
Table 3.6. Design details of dowel bars
Source: Design details of dowel bars for rigid pavements as IRC: 58-2002
3.6.3 Relative stiffness of slab to sub-grade
A certain degree of resistance to slab deflection is offered by the sub-grade. The
sub-grade deformation is same as the slab deflection. Hence the slab deflection is direct
measurement of the magnitude of the sub-grade pressure. This pressure deformation
characteristics of rigid pavement lead Westergaard to the define the term radius of
relative stiffness l in cm is given by the equation 3.10.
Eh3
I=∜ Equation 3.10
12K(1−μ2 )

Where, I=relative stiffness

E= the modulus of elasticity of cement concrete in kg/cm2 (3.0x105)

μ= Poisson's ratio of concrete (0.15)

K= the modulus of sub-grade reaction

3.7 Tie Bars

In contrast to dowel bars, tie bars are not load transfer devices, but serve as a
means to tie two slabs. Hence, tie bars must be deformed or hooked and must be firmly
anchored into the concrete to function properly. They are smaller than dowel bars and
placed at large intervals. They are provided across longitudinal joints.

3.7.1 Design procedure of tie bars

Step 1 Diameter and spacing: The diameter and the spacing is first found out by equating
the total sub-grade friction to the total tensile stress for a unit length (one meter). Hence
the area of steel per one meter in cm2 is given by:
bhWf
As = Equation 3.11
100Ss

Where, As= the area of steel per one meter in (cm2)

b= the width of the pavement panel in (m)

h= the depth of the pavement in(cm)

 W= the unit weight of the concrete (2400 kg/cm2)
f= the coefficient of friction (1:5)
Ss= the allowable working tensile stress in steel (1750 kg/cm2)

Step 2 Length of the tie bar: Length of the tie bar is twice the length needed to develop
bond stress equal to the working tensile stress and is given by:
dS
Lt = 2S s Equation 3.12
b

Where, Lt= Length of the tie bar

d= the diameter of the bar

Ss= the allowable working tensile stress in steel (1750 kg/cm2)

Sb= the allowable bond stress (24.6 kg/cm2)
3.7.2 Dowel bar design details
Slab Tie bar details, cm
thickness, cm Diameter, cm Maximum Length of tie bar
spacing,cm
15 0.8 38 30
1.0 60 35
20 1.0 45 35
1.2 64 40
25 1.0 30 35
1.2 55 40
1.4 62 46
Table 3.6. Design details of tie bars
Source: Design details of dowel bars for rigid pavements as IRC:58-2002