ארכיטיפים

Contents
Articles
1 1
Archetype 1
2 5
Jungian archetypes 5
3 9
Archetypal literary criticism 9
4 13
Prototype 13
5 20
Individuation 20
6 24
Self (Jung) 24
7 25
Shadow (psychology) 25
8 27
Anima (Jung) 27
9 30
Animus (concept) 30
10 32
Persona 32
11 35
Child (archetype) 35
12 37
Hero 37
13 42
Great Mother 42
14 43
Wise old man 43
15 46
Sage 46
16 49
Wounded healer 49
17 50
Trickster 50
18 57
Devil 57
19 66
Lucifer 66
20 76
Scarecrow 76
21 82
Mentor 82
22 84
Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism 84
References
Article Sources and Contributors 86
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 90
Article Licenses
License 91
1
Archetype
An archetype (pronounced /ˈɑrkɪtaɪp/) is an original model of a person, ideal example, or a prototype upon which
others are copied, patterned, or emulated; a symbol universally recognized by all. In psychology, an archetype is a
model of a person, personality, or behavior.
In philosophy, archetypes since Plato at least, refer to ideal forms of the perceived or sensible things or types.
In the analysis of personality, the term archetype is often broadly used to refer to
1. a stereotype—personality type observed multiple times, especially an oversimplification of such a type; or
2. an epitome—personality type exemplified, especially the "greatest" such example.
3. a literary term to express details.
Archetype refers to a generic version of a personality. In this sense "mother figure" may be considered an archetype
and may be identified in various characters with otherwise distinct (non-generic) personalities.
Archetypes are likewise supposed to have been present in folklore and literature for thousands of years, including
prehistoric artwork. The use of archetypes to illuminate personality and literature was advanced by Carl Jung early in
the 20th century, who suggested the existence of universal contentless forms that channel experiences and emotions,
resulting in recognizable and typical patterns of behavior with certain probable outcomes. Archetypes are cited as
important to both ancient mythology and modern narratives, as argued by Joseph Campbell in works such as The
Hero With a Thousand Faces.
Etymology
The word archetype first appeared in European texts in 1545.[1] It derives from the Latin noun archetypum from the
Greek noun ἀρχέτυπον (archetypon) and adjective ἀρχέτυπος (archetypos), meaning "first-moulded". The Greek
roots are arkhe- ("first" or "original") and typos ("model," "type").
Pronunciation note: The "ch" in archetype is a transliteration of the Greek chi (χ) and is most commonly articulated
in English as a "k".[2]
Origins
The origins of the archetypal hypothesis date back as far as Plato. Jung himself compared archetypes to Platonic
ideas. Plato's ideas were pure mental forms, that were imprinted in the soul before it was born into the world. They
were collective in the sense that they embodied the fundamental characteristics of a thing rather than its specific
peculiarities.
Jungian archetypes
The concept of psychological archetypes was advanced by the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, c. 1919. In Jung's
psychological framework archetypes are innate, universal prototypes for ideas and may be used to interpret
observations. A group of memories and interpretations associated with an archetype is a complex, e.g. a mother
complex associated with the mother archetype. Jung treated the archetypes as psychological organs, analogous to
physical ones in that both are morphological constructs that arose through evolution.[3]
Jung outlined five main archetypes;
Archetype 2
• The Self, the regulating center of the psyche and facilitator of individuation
• The Shadow, the opposite of the ego image, often containing qualities that the ego does not identify with but
possesses nonetheless
• The Anima, the feminine image in a man's psyche; or:
• The Animus, the masculine image in a woman's psyche
• The Persona, how we present to the world, usually protects the Ego from negative images (acts like a mask)
Although the number of archetypes is limitless, there are a few particularly notable, recurring archetypal images:
• The Child
• The Hero
• The Great Mother
• The Wise old man or Sage
• The Trickster or Fox
• The Devil or Lucifer
• The Scarecrow
• The Mentor
In pedagogy
Clifford Mayes (born July 15, 1953), professor in the Brigham Young University McKay School of Education, has
developed what he has termed archetypal pedagogy, a theory of instruction which bears some similarities to the
pedagogical approach proposed by the French Jungian psychologist Frederic Fappani. Mayes' work also aims at
promoting what he calls archetypal reflectivity in teachers; this is a means of encouraging teachers to examine and
work with psychodynamic issues, images, and assumptions as those factors affect their pedagogical practices.
Archetypal reflectivity, which draws not only upon Jungian psychology but transpersonal psychology generally,
offers an avenue for teachers to probe the spiritual dimensions of teaching and learning in non-dogmatic terms.
In USA, Mayes' two most recent works, Inside Education: Depth Psychology in Teaching and Learning (2007) and
The Archetypal Hero's Journey in Teaching and Learning: A Study in Jungian Pedagogy (2008), incorporate the
psychoanalytic theories of Heinz Kohut (particularly Kohut's notion of the selfobject) and the object relations theory
of Ronald Fairbairn and D.W. Winnicott. Some of Mayes' work in curriculum theory, especially Seven Curricular
Landscapes: An Approach to the Holistic Curriculum (2003) and Understanding the Whole Student: Holistic
Multicultural Education (2007), is concerned with holistic education.
Frederic Fappani, French writer and Jungian psychologist, As a neo-Jungian scholar, has produced the first
book-length studies in French on the pedagogical implications and applications of Jungian and neo-Jungian
psychology, which is based on the work of Carl Gustav Jung (1875 - 1961). Jungian psychology is also called
analytical psychology. Trained at a Jung Institute, the Université de Paris 8, and la Sorbonne, Frederic Fappani has
developed what he has termed education jungienne, which bears some similarities to the archetypal pedagogy
proposed by the American Jungian educationist Clifford Mayes of Brigham Young University. In addition to being a
writer and international lecturer in education, Fappani is a psychologist in private practice.
In France, Fappani' two most recent works, La cabane aux paysages, «voyage en archetypal pedagogy», Paris,
Janvier; 2009 and Education and Archetypal Psychology, Ed.Cursus, 2008, Paris.
Archetype 3
In literature
Archetypes can be found in nearly all forms of literature, with their motifs being predominantly rooted in folklore.
William Shakespeare is known for creating many archetypal characters that hold great social importance in his
native land. Falstaff, the bawdy, rotund comic knight; Romeo and Juliet, the ill-fated ("star-crossed") lovers; Richard
II, the hero who dies with honor; and many others. Although Shakespeare based many of his characters on existing
archetypes from fables and myths (e.g., Romeo and Juliet on Arthur Brooke's Romeus and Juliet), Shakespeare's
characters stand out as original by their contrast against a complex, social literary landscape. For instance, in The
Tempest, Shakespeare borrowed from a manuscript by William Strachey that detailed an actual shipwreck of the
Virginia-bound 17th-century English sailing vessel Sea Venture in 1609 on the islands of Bermuda. Shakespeare also
borrowed heavily from a speech by Medea in Ovid's Metamorphoses in writing Prospero's renunciative speech;
nevertheless, the unique combination of these elements in the character of Prospero created a new interpretation of
the sage magician as that of a carefully plotting hero, quite distinct from the wizard-as-advisor archetype of Merlin
or Gandalf. Both of these are likely derived from priesthood authority archetypes, such as Celtic Druids, or perhaps
Biblical figures like Abraham, Moses, etc.; or in the case of Gandalf, the Norse figure Odin.
Certain common methods of character depiction employed in dramatic performance rely on the pre-existence of
literary archetypes. Stock characters used in theatre or film are based on highly generic literary archetypes. A
pastiche is an imitation of an archetype or prototype in order to pay homage to the original creator.
Sheri Tepper's novel Plague of Angels contains archetypical villages, essentially human zoos where a wide variety of
archetypal people are kept, including heroes, orphans, oracles, ingénues, bastards, young lovers, poets, princesses,
martyrs, and fools.
The superhero genre is also frequently cited as emblematic of archetypal literature.
The young, flawed, and brooding antihero [Spider-Man] became the most widely imitated archetype in
the superhero genre since the appearance of Superman.
—Bradford W. Wright, Comic Book Nation: The transformation of Youth Culture in America 212
—Superman on the Couch by Danny Fingeroth 151
See also
• Archetypal literary criticism
• Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism
• Character (arts)
• Cliché
• Jungian archetypes
• Perennial philosophy
• Persona
• Personification
• Prototype
• Simulacrum
• Stock character
• Stereotype
• Theory of Forms
• Wounded healer
• English Teacher
5
Jungian archetypes
Archetypes are, according to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, innate universal psychic dispositions that form the
substrate from which the basic themes of human life emerge. Each stage is mediated through a new set of archetypal
imperatives which seek fulfillment in action. These may include being parented, initiation, courtship, marriage and
preparation for death.[1]
Introduction
Virtually alone among the depth psychologists of the twentieth century, Jung rejected the tabula rasa theory of
human psychological development, believing instead that evolutionary pressures have individual predestinations. We
must therefore, think of these images as lacking in solid content, hence as unconscious. They only acquire solidity,
influence, and eventual consciousness in the encounter with empirical facts."[2]
The archetypes form a dynamic substratum common to all humanity, upon the foundation of which each individual
builds his own experience of life, developing a unique array of psychological characteristics. Thus, while archetypes
themselves may be conceived as a relative few innate nebulous forms, from these may arise innumerable images,
symbols and patterns of behavior. While the emerging images and forms are apprehended consciously, the
archetypes which inform them are elementary structures which are unconscious and impossible to apprehend. Being
unconscious, the existence of archetypes can only be deduced indirectly by examining behavior, images, art, myths,
etc. They are inherited potentials which are actualized when they enter consciousness as images or manifest in
behavior on interaction with the outside world.
The archetype is a crucial Jungian concept. Its significance to analytical psychology has been likened to that of
gravity for Newtonian physics.[3]
Chronology
The intuition that there was more to the psyche than individual experience could put there began in Jung's childhood.
The very first dream he could remember was that of an underground phallic god. His researches in schizophrenia
later confirmed his early intuition that universal psychic structures exist which underlie all human experience and
behavior. Jung first referred to these as "primordial images"—a term he borrowed from Jacob Burckhardt. Later in
1917 he called them "dominants of the collective unconscious." It was not until 1919 that he first used the term
"archetypes" in an essay titled Instinct and the unconscious.
Origins
The origins of the archetypal hypothesis date back as far as Plato. Jung himself compared archetypes to Platonic
ideas. Plato's ideas were pure mental forms, that were imprinted in the soul before it was born into the world. They
were collective in the sense that they embodied the fundamental characteristics of a thing rather than its specific
peculiarities. In fact many of Jung's Ideas were prevalent in Athenian philosophy. The archetype theory can be seen
as a psychological equivalent to the philosophical idea of forms and particulars.
Examples and conceptual difficulties

Although the general idea of an archetype is well recognized, there is considerable confusion as regards to their exact
nature and the way they result in universal experiences. The confusion about the archetypes can partly be attributed
to Jung's own evolving ideas about them in his writings and his interchangeable use of the term "archetype" and
"primordial image." Strictly speaking, archetypal figures such as the hero, the goddess and the wise man are not
archetypes, but archetypal images which have crystallized out of the archetypes-as-such.
Jung described: archetypal events: birth, death, separation from parents, initiation, marriage, the union of opposites
etc., archetypal figures: mother, father, child, God, trickster, hero, wise old man, etc., and archetypal motifs: the
Apocalypse, the Deluge, the Creation, etc.
However the precise relationships between images such as, for example, "the fish" and its archetype were not
adequately explained by Jung. Here the image of the fish is not strictly speaking an archetype. However the
"archetype of the fish" points to the ubiquitous existence of an innate "fish archetype" which gives rise to the fish
image. In clarifying the contentious statement that fish archetypes are universal, Anthony Stevens explains that the
archetype-as-such is at once an innate predisposition to form such an image and a preparation to encounter and
respond appropriately to the creature per se. This would explain the existence of snake and spider phobias, for
example, in people living in urban environments where they have never encountered either creature.[4]
Jung also proposed the existence of the Self, the anima, the animus and the shadow as psychological structures
having an archetypal nature.
Actualization and complexes

Archetypes seek actualization within the context of an individual's environment and determine the degree of
individuation. Jung also used the terms 'evocation' and 'constellation' to explain the process of actualization. Thus for
example, the mother archetype is actualized in the mind of the child by the evoking of innate anticipations of the
maternal archetype when the child is in the proximity of a maternal figure who corresponds closely enough to its
archetypal template. This mother archetype is built into the personal unconscious of the child as a mother complex.
Complexes are functional units of the personal unconscious, in the same way that archetypes are units for the
collective unconscious.
Psychoid archetype
Jung proposed that the archetype had a dual nature: it exists both in the psyche and in the world at large. He called
this non-psychic aspect of the archetype the "psychoid" archetype. He illustrated this by drawing on the analogy of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The part of the spectrum which is visible to us corresponds to the conscious aspects of
the archetype. The invisible infra-red end of the spectrum corresponds to the unconscious biological aspects of the
archetype that merges with its chemical and physical conditions.[5] He suggested that not only do the archetypal
structures govern the behavior of all living organisms, but that they were contiguous with structures controlling the
behavior of organic matter as well. The archetype was not merely a psychic entity, but more fundamentally, a bridge
to matter in general.[6] Jung used the ancient term of unus mundus; to describe the unitary reality which he believed
underlay all manifest phenomena. He conceived archetypes to be the mediators of the unus mundus, organizing not
only ideas in the psyche, but also the fundamental principles of matter and energy in the physical world.
It was this psychoid aspect of the archetype that so impressed Nobel laureate physicist Wolfgang Pauli. Embracing
Jung's concept, Pauli believed that the archetype provided a link between physical events and the mind of the
scientist who studied them. In doing so he echoed the position adopted by German astronomer Johannes Kepler.
Thus the archetypes which ordered our perceptions and ideas are themselves the product of an objective order which
transcends both the human mind and the external world.[4]
Parallels and developments

Although the term "archetype" did not originate with Jung, its current use has largely been influenced by his
conception of it. The idea of innate psychic structures, at one time a relative novelty in the humanities and sciences
has now been widely adopted.
General developments
Related concepts arguably include the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss, an advocate of structuralism in anthropology,
the concept of 'social instincts' proposed by Charles Darwin, the 'faculties' of Henri Bergson and the isomorphs of
gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Kohler. In 1965 Noam Chomsky's ideas of human language acquisition being based
on an "innate acquisition device" became known to the world.
Melanie Klein's idea of unconscious phantasy is closely related to Jung's archetype, as both are composed of image
and affect and are a-priori patternings of psyche whose contents are built from experience.
Archetypal pedagogy
Archetypal pedagogy was developed by Clifford Mayes, which bears some similarities to the pedagogical
approach proposed by the French Jungian psychologist Frederic Fappani. Mayes' work also aims at promoting what
he calls archetypal reflectivity in teachers; this is a means of encouraging teachers to examine and work with
psychodynamic issues, images, and assumptions as those factors affect their pedagogical practices.
Archetypes and psychology

Archetypal psychology was developed by James Hillman in the second half of the 20th century. It is in the Jungian
tradition and most directly related to Analytical psychology, yet departs radically. Archetypal psychology relativizes
and deliteralizes the ego and focuses on the psyche, or soul, itself and the archai, the deepest patterns of psychic
functioning, "the fundamental fantasies that animate all life" (Moore, in Hillman, 1991). Archetypal psychology is a
polytheistic psychology, in that it attempts to recognize the myriad fantasies and myths—gods, goddesses, demigods,
mortals and animals—that shape and are shaped by our psychological lives. The ego is but one psychological fantasy
within an assemblage of fantasies.
Hillman was trained at the Jung Institute and was its Director after graduation. The main influence on the
development of archetypal psychology is Carl Jung's analytical psychology. It is strongly influenced by Classical
Greek, Renaissance, and Romantic ideas and thought. Influential artists, poets, philosophers, alchemists, and
psychologists include: Nietzsche, Henry Corbin, Keats, Shelley, Petrarch, and Paracelsus. Though all different in
their theories and psychologies, they appear to be unified by their common concern for the psyche—the soul.
The Value of the Archetype

It is only possible to live the fullest life when we are in harmony with these symbols; wisdom is a return to them
(CW8:794).
[For the alchemists] they were seeds of light broadcast in the chaos…the seed plot of a world to come…One would
have to conclude from these alchemical visions that the archetypes have about them a certain effulgence or
quasi-consciousness, and that numinosity entails luminosity (CW8:388).
All the most powerful ideas in history go back to archetypes. This is particularly true of religious ideas, but the
central concepts of science, philosophy, and ethics are no exception to this rule. In their present form they are
variants of archetypal ideas created by consciously applying and adapting these ideas to reality. For it is the function
of consciousness not only to recognize and assimilate the external world through the gateway of the senses, but to
translate into visible reality the world within us (CW8, 342).
Articles on specific archetypes

• Anima and Animus
• Shadow (psychology)
• Wise old man
See also
• Archetypal psychology
• Archetype
• Evolutionary psychology
References
• Stevens, Anthony (2006), "Chapter 3", in Papadopoulos editor-first = Renos, The Handbook of Jungian
Psychology
• Jung, C. G. (1917, 1928), Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, Collected Works, 7 (2 ed.), London: Routledge
(published 1966)
• Jung, C. G. (1934–1954), The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, 9 (2 ed.), Princeton,
NJ: Bollingen (published 1981), ISBN 0-691-01833-2
References
[1] Stevens, Anthony in "The Archetypes" (Chapter 3). Papadopoulos, Renos ed. (2006). The Handbook of Jungian Psychology.
[2] Jung 1928:Par. 300
[3] Stevens, Anthony in "The Archetypes" (Chapter 3.) Ed. Papadopoulos, Renos. The Handbook of Jungian Psychology (2006).
[4] Stevens, Anthony in "The archetypes" (Chapter 3.) Ed. Papadopoulos, Renos. The Handbook of Jungian Psychology (2006)
[5] Jung, C.G. (1947/1954) par. 420 Collected Works.
[6] Jung, C.G. (1947/1954) par. 420 Collected Works
9
Archetypal literary criticism

Archetypal literary criticism is a type of critical theory that interprets a text by focusing on recurring myths and
archetypes (from the Greek archē, or beginning, and typos, or imprint) in the narrative, symbols, images, and
character types in a literary work. As a form of literary criticism, it dates back to 1934 when Maud Bodkin published
Archetypal Patterns in Poetry.
Archetypal literary criticism’s origins are rooted in two other academic disciplines, social anthropology and
psychoanalysis; each contributed to the literary criticism in separate ways, with the latter being a sub-branch of the
critical theory. Archetypal criticism was its most popular in the 1950’s and 1960’s, largely due to the work of
Canadian literary critic Northrop Frye. Though archetypal literary criticism is no longer widely practiced, nor have
there been any major developments in the field, it still has a place in the tradition of literary studies.
Origins
Frazer
The anthropological origins of archetypal criticism can pre-date its psychoanalytic origins by over thirty years. The
Golden Bough (1890-1915), written by the Scottish anthropologist James G. Frazer was the first influential text
dealing with cultural mythologies. Frazer was part of a group of comparative anthropologists working out of
Cambridge University who worked extensively on the topic. The Golden Bough was widely accepted as the seminal
text on myth that spawned numerous studies on the same subject. Eventually, the momentum of Frazer’s work
carried over into literary studies.
In The Golden Bough Frazer identifies shared practices and mythological beliefs between primitive religions and
modern religions. Frazer argues that the death-rebirth myth is present in almost all cultural mythologies, and is acted
out in terms of growing seasons and vegetation. The myth is symbolized by the death (i.e. final harvest) and rebirth
(i.e. spring) of the god of vegetation. As an example, Frazer cites the Greek myth of Persephone, who was taken to
the Underworld by Hades. Her mother Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, was so sad that she struck the world with
fall and winter. While in the underworld Persephone ate 6 of the 12 pomegranate seeds given to her by Hades.
Because of what she ate, she was forced to spend half the year, from then on, in the underworld, representative of
autumn and winter, or the death in the death-rebirth myth. The other half of the year Persephone was permitted to be
in the mortal realm with Demeter, which represents spring and summer, or the rebirth in the death-rebirth myth.
Jung
While Frazer’s work deals with mythology and archetypes in material terms, the work of Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss
born psychoanalyst, is, in contrast, immaterial in its focus. Jung’s work theorizes about myths and archetypes in
relation to the unconscious, an inaccessible part of the mind. From a Jungian perspective, myths are the “culturally
elaborated representations of the contents of the deepest recess of the human psyche: the world of the archetypes”
(Walker 4).
Jungian psychoanalysis distinguishes between the personal and collective unconscious, the latter being particularly
relevant to archetypal criticism. The collective unconscious, or the objective psyche as it is less frequently known, is
a number of innate thoughts, feelings, instincts, and memories that reside in the unconsciousness of all people. Jung’s
definition of the term is inconsistent in his many writings. At one time he calls the collective unconscious the “a
priori, inborn forms of intuition,” (Lietch 998) while in another instance it is a series of “experience(s) that come
upon us like fate” (998). Regardless of the many nuances between Jung’s definitions, the collective unconsciousness
is a shared part of the unconscious.
To Jung, an archetype in the collective unconscious, as quoted from Leitch et al., is “irrepresentable, but has effects
which make visualizations of it possible, namely, the archetypal images and ideas” (988), due to the fact they are at
an inaccessible part of the mind. The archetypes to which Jung refers are represented through primordial images, a
term he coined. Primordial images originate from the initial stages of humanity and have been part of the collective
unconscious ever since. It is through primordial images that universal archetypes are experienced, and more
importantly, that the unconscious is revealed.
With the same death-rebirth myth that Frazer sees as being representative of the growing seasons and agriculture as a
point of comparison, a Jungian analysis envisions the death-rebirth archetype as a “symbolic expression of a process
taking place not in the world but in the mind. That process is the return of the ego to the unconscious—a kind of
temporary death of the ego—and its re-emergence, or rebirth, from the unconscious” (Segal 4).
By itself, Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious accounts for a considerable share of writings in archetypal
literary criticism; it also pre-dates the height of archetypal literary criticism by over a decade. The Jungian archetypal
approach treats literary texts as an avenue in which primordial images are represented. It would not be until the
1950’s when the other branch of archetypal literary criticism developed.
Frye
Bodkin’s Archetypal Patterns in Poetry, the first work on the subject of archetypal literary criticism, applies Jung’s
theories about the collective unconscious, archetypes, and primordial images to literature. It was not until the work
of the Canadian literary critic Northrop Frye that archetypal criticism was theorized in purely literary terms. The
major work of Frye’s to deal with archetypes is Anatomy of Criticism but his essay “The Archetypes of Literature” is
a precursor to the book. Frye’s thesis in “The Archetypes of Literature” remains largely unchanged in Anatomy of
Criticism. Frye’s work helped displace New Criticism as the major mode of analyzing literary texts, before giving
way to structuralism and semiotics.
Frye’s work breaks from both Frazer and Jung in such a way that it is distinct from its anthropological and
psychoanalytical precursors. For Frye, the death-rebirth myth that Frazer sees manifest in agriculture and the harvest
is not ritualistic since it is involuntary, and therefore, must be done. As for Jung, Frye was uninterested about the
collective unconscious on the grounds of feeling it was unnecessary: since the unconscious is unknowable it cannot
be studied. How archetypes came to be was also of no concern to Frye; rather, the function and effect of archetypes
is his interest. For Frye, literary archetypes “play an essential role in refashioning the material universe into an
alternative verbal universe that is humanly intelligible and viable, because it is adapted to essential human needs and
concerns” (Abrams 224-225).
There are two basic categories in Frye’s framework, comedic and tragic. Each category is further subdivided into two
categories: comedy and romance for the comedic; tragedy and satire (or ironic) for the tragic. Though he is
dismissive of Frazer, Frye uses the seasons in his archetypal schema. Each season is aligned with a literary genre:
comedy with spring, romance with summer, tragedy with autumn, and satire with winter.
Comedy is aligned with spring because the genre of comedy is characterized by the birth of the hero, revival and
resurrection. Also, spring symbolizes the defeat of winter and darkness. Romance and summer are paired together
because summer is the culmination of life in the seasonal calendar, and the romance genre culminates with some sort
of triumph, usually a marriage. Autumn is the dying stage of the seasonal calendar, which parallels the tragedy genre
because it is, above all, known for the “fall” or demise of the protagonist. Satire is metonymized with winter on the
grounds that satire is a “dark” genre; satire is a disillusioned and mocking form of the three other genres. It is noted
for its darkness, dissolution, the return of chaos, and the defeat of the heroic figure.
The context of a genre determines how a symbol or image is to be interpreted. Frye outlines five different spheres in
his schema: human, animal, vegetation, mineral, and water. The comedic human world is representative of
wish-fulfillment and being community centred. In contrast, the tragic human world is of isolation, tyranny, and the
fallen hero. Animals in the comedic genres are docile and pastoral (e.g. sheep), while animals are predatory and
hunters in the tragic (e.g. wolves). For the realm of vegetation, the comedic is, again, pastoral but also represented by
gardens, parks, roses and lotuses. As for the tragic, vegetation is of a wild forest, or as being barren. Cities, a temple,
or precious stones represent the comedic mineral realm. The tragic mineral realm is noted for being a desert, ruins, or
“of sinister geometrical images” (Frye 1456). Lastly, the water realm is represented by rivers in the comedic. With
the tragic, the seas, and especially floods, signify the water sphere.
Frye admits that his schema in “The Archetypes of Literature” is simplistic, but makes room for exceptions by noting
that there are neutral archetypes. The example he cites are islands such as Circe’s or Prospero’s which cannot be
categorized under the tragic or comedic.
Critiques of Archetypal Criticism

It has been argued that Frye’s version of archetypal criticism strictly categorizes works based on their genres, which
determines how an archetype is to be interpreted in a text. According to this argument the dilemma Frye’s archetypal
criticism faces with more contemporary literature, and that of post-modernism in general, is that genres and
categories are no longer distinctly separate and that the very concept of genres has become blurred, thus
problematizing Frye’s schema. For instance Beckett’s Waiting For Godot is considered a tragicomedy, a play with
elements of tragedy and satire, with the implication that interpreting textual elements in the play becomes difficult as
the two opposing seasons and conventions that Frye associated with genres are pitted against each other. But in fact
arguments about generic blends such as tragicomedy go back to the Renaissance, and Frye always conceived of
genres as fluid. Frye thought literary forms were part of a great circle and were capable of shading into other generic
forms. (He contemplated including a diagram of his wheel in Anatomy of Criticism but thought better of it.)
Examples of Archetypes in Literature

Femme Fatale: A female character type who brings upon catastrophic and disastrous events. Eve from the story of
Genesis or Pandora from Greek mythology are two such figures.
The Journey: A narrative archetype where the protagonist must overcome a series of obstacles before reaching his or
her goal. The quintessential journey archetype in Western culture is arguably Homer’s Odyssey.
Archetypal symbols vary more than archetype narratives or character types. The best archetypal pattern is any
symbol with deep roots in a culture's mythology, such as the forbidden fruit in Genesis or even the poison apple in
Snow White. These are examples of symbols that resonate with archetypal critics.
See also
• Comparative mythology
• Jungian archetypes
• Monomyth
• The Hero with a Thousand Faces
References
• Abrams, M. H. "Archetypal Criticism." A Glossary of Literary Terms. Fort Worth: HBJ, 1993. 223 - 225
• Bates, Roland. Northrop Frye. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1971.
• Frye, Northrop. "The Archetypes of Literature." The Norton Anthology: Theory and Criticism. Ed. Vincent B.
Leitch. New York: Norton, 2001. 1445 - 1457
• Knapp, Bettina L. "Introduction." A Jungian Approach to Literature. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern
Illinois University Press, 1984. ix - xvi
• Leitch, Vincent B. "Northrop Frye." The Norton Anthology: Theory and Criticism. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New
York: Norton, 2001. 1442 - 1445
• -- "Carl Gustav Jung." The Norton Anthology: Theory and Criticism. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New York: Norton,
2001. 987 - 990
• Segal, Robert A. "Introduction." Jung on Mythology. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998. 3 - 48
• Sugg, Richard P., ed. Jungian Literary Criticism. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1992. (439 pgs.)
• Walker, Steven F. Jung and the Jungians on Myth. New York: Garland Publishing, 1995. 3 - 15
13
Prototype
A prototype is a cat, form, or instance of something serving as a typical example, basis, or standard for other things
of the same category. The word derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον (prototypon), "primitive form", neutral of
πρωτότυπος (prototypos), "original, primitive", from πρῶτος (protos), "first" and τύπος (typos), "impression".[1]
Semantics
In semantics, prototypes or proto instances combine the most representative attributes of a category. Prototypes are
typical instances of a category that serve as benchmarks against which the surrounding, less representative instances
are categorized (see Prototype Theory).
In many fields, there is great uncertainty as to whether a new design will actually do what is desired. New designs
often have unexpected problems. A prototype is often used as part of the product design process to allow engineers
and designers the ability to explore design alternatives, test theories and confirm performance prior to starting
production of a new product. Engineers use their experience to tailor the prototype according to the specific
unknowns still present in the intended design. For example, some prototypes are used to confirm and verify
consumer interest in a proposed design whereas other prototypes will attempt to verify the performance or suitability
of a specific design approach.
In general, an iterative series of prototypes will be designed, constructed and tested as the final design emerges and is
prepared for production. With rare exceptions, multiple iterations of prototypes are used to progressively refine the
design. A common strategy is to design, test, evaluate and then modify the design based on analysis of the prototype.
In many products it is common to assign the prototype iterations Greek letters. For example, a first iteration
prototype may be called an "Alpha" prototype. Often this iteration is not expected to perform as intended and some
amount of failures or issues are anticipated. Subsequent prototyping iterations (Beta, Gamma, etc.) will be expected
to resolve issues and perform closer to the final production intent.
In many product development organizations, prototyping specialists are employed - individuals with specialized
skills and training in general fabrication techniques that can help bridge between theoretical designs and the
fabrication of prototypes.
Basic prototype categories

There is no general agreement on what constitutes a "prototype" and the word is often used interchangeably with the
word "model" which can cause confusion. In general, “prototypes” fall into four basic categories:
Proof-of-Principle Prototype (Model) (also called a breadboard). This type of prototype is used to test some aspect
of the intended design without attempting to exactly simulate the visual appearance, choice of materials or intended
manufacturing process. Such prototypes can be used to “prove” out a potential design approach such as range of
motion, mechanics, sensors, architecture, etc. These types of models are often used to identify which design options
will not work, or where further development and testing is necessary.
Form Study Prototype (Model). This type of prototype will allow designers to explore the basic size, look and feel
of a product without simulating the actual function or exact visual appearance of the product. They can help assess
ergonomic factors and provide insight into visual aspects of the product's final form. Form Study Prototypes are
often hand-carved or machined models from easily sculpted, inexpensive materials (e.g., urethane foam), without
Prototype 14
representing the intended color, finish, or texture. Due to the materials used, these models are intended for internal
decision making and are generally not durable enough or suitable for use by representative users or consumers.
Visual Prototype (Model) will capture the intended design aesthetic and simulate the appearance, color and surface
textures of the intended product but will not actually embody the function(s) of the final product. These models will
be suitable for use in market research, executive reviews and approval, packaging mock-ups, and photo shoots for
sales literature.
Functional Prototype (Model) (also called a working prototype) will, to the greatest extent practical, attempt to
simulate the final design, aesthetics, materials and functionality of the intended design. The functional prototype may
be reduced in size (scaled down) in order to reduce costs. The construction of a fully working full-scale prototype
and the ultimate test of concept, is the engineers' final check for design flaws and allows last-minute improvements
to be made before larger production runs are ordered.
Differences between a prototype and a production design

In general, prototypes will differ from the final production variant in three fundamental ways:
Materials. Production materials may require manufacturing processes involving higher capital costs than what is
practical for prototyping. Instead, engineers or prototyping specialists will attempt to substitute materials with
properties that simulate the intended final material.
Processes. Often expensive and time consuming unique tooling is required to fabricate a custom design. Prototypes
will often compromise by using more flexible processes.
Lower fidelity. Final production designs often require extensive effort to capture high volume manufacturing detail.
Such detail is generally unwarranted for prototypes as some refinement to the design is to be expected. Often
prototypes are built using very limited engineering detail as compared to final production intent.
Characteristics and limitations of prototypes

Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the
characteristics of their intended design. A degree of skill and experience is necessary to effectively use prototyping
as a design verification tool.
It is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final
production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may
fail to perform acceptably whereas the production design may have been sound. A counter-intuitive idea is that
prototypes may actually perform acceptably whereas the production design may be flawed since prototyping
materials and processes may occasionally outperform their production counterparts.
In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be substantially greater than the final production
costs due to inefficiencies in materials and processes. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes
of reducing costs through optimization and refinement.
It is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform acceptably, however
prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. There are pragmatic and practical limitations to the ability of a
prototype to match the intended final performance of the product and some allowances and engineering judgement
are often required before moving forward with a production design.
Building the full design is often expensive and can be time-consuming, especially when repeated several
times—building the full design, figuring out what the problems are and how to solve them, then building another full
design. As an alternative, "rapid-prototyping" or "rapid application development" techniques are used for the initial
prototypes, which implement part, but not all, of the complete design. This allows designers and manufacturers to
rapidly and inexpensively test the parts of the design that are most likely to have problems, solve those problems,
Prototype 15
and then build the full design.

This counter-intuitive idea —that the quickest way to build something is, first to build something else— is shared by
scaffolding and the telescope rule.
Modern trends
With the recent advances in computer modeling it is becoming practical to eliminate the creation of a physical
prototype (except possibly at greatly reduced scales for promotional purposes), instead modeling all aspects of the
final product as a computer model. An example of such a development can be seen in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, in
which the first full sized physical realization is made on the series production line. Computer modeling is now being
extensively used in automotive design, both for form (in the styling and aerodynamics of the vehicle) and in function
— especially for improving vehicle crashworthiness and in weight reduction to improve mileage.
Mechanical and electrical engineering

The most common use of the word prototype is a functional, although
experimental, version of a non-military machine (e.g., automobiles,
domestic appliances, consumer electronics) whose designers would
like to have built by mass production means, as opposed to a mockup,
which is an inert representation of a machine's appearance, often made
of some non-durable substance.
An electronics designer often builds the first prototype from

breadboard or stripboard or perfboard, typically using "DIP" packages.
However, more and more often the first functional prototype is built on A prototype of the Polish economy hatchback car
a "prototype PCB" almost identical to the production PCB, as PCB Beskid 106 designed in the 1980s.
manufacturing prices fall and as many components are not available in

DIP packages, but only available in SMT packages optimized for placing on a PCB.
Builders of military machines and aviation prefer the terms "experimental" and "service test".
Electronics prototyping
In electronics, prototyping means building an actual circuit to a theoretical design to verify that it works, and to
provide a physical platform for debugging it if it does not. The prototype is often constructed using techniques such
as wire wrap or using veroboard or breadboard, that create an electrically correct circuit, but one that is not
physically identical to the final product.
Open-source tools exist to document electronic prototypes (especially the breadboard-based ones) and move forward
toward production such as Fritzing and Arduino.
A technician can build a prototype (and make additions and modifications) much more quickly with these techniques
—however, it is much faster and usually cheaper to mass produce custom printed circuit boards than these other
kinds of prototype boards. This is for the same reasons that writing a poem is fastest by hand for one or two, but
faster by printing press if you need several thousand copies.
The proliferation of quick-turn pcb fab companies and quick-turn pcb assembly houses has enabled the concepts of
rapid prototyping to be applied to electronic circuit design. It is now possible, even with the smallest passive
components and largest fine-pitch packages, to have boards fabbed and parts assembled in a matter of days.
Prototype 18
Chevy has spawned many models), military equipment (such as M4 Shermans, a favorite among US Military
modelers), railroad equipment, motor trucks, motorcycles, and space-ships (real-world such as Apollo/Saturn Vs, or
the ISS).
There is debate whether 'fictional' or imaginary items can be considered prototypes (such as Star Wars or Star Trek
starships, since the feature ships themselves are models or CGI-artifacts); however, humans and other living items
are never called prototypes, even when they are the basis for models and dolls (especially - action figures).
As of 2005, conventional rapid prototype machines cost around £25,000.[3]
Metrology
In the science and practice of metrology, a prototype is a human-made object that is used as the standard of
measurement of some physical quantity to base all measurement of that physical quantity against. Sometimes this
standard object is called an artifact. In the International System of Units (SI), the only prototype remaining in
current use is the International Prototype Kilogram, a solid platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the Bureau
International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures) in Sèvres France (a suburb of
Paris) that by definition is the mass of exactly one kilogram. Copies of this prototype are fashioned and issued to
many nations to represent the national standard of the kilogram and are periodically compared to the Paris prototype.
Until 1960, the meter was defined by a platinum-iridium prototype bar with two scratch marks on it (that were, by
definition, spaced apart by one meter), the International Prototype Metre, and in 1983 the meter was redefined to be
the distance in free space covered by light in 1/299,792,458 of a second (thus defining the speed of light to be
299,792,458 meters per second).
It is widely believed that the kilogram prototype standard will be replaced by a definition of the kilogram that will
define another physical constant (likely either Planck's constant or the elementary charge) to a defined constant, thus
obviating the need for the prototype and removing the possibility of the prototype (and thus the standard and
definition of the kilogram) changing very slightly over the years because of loss or gain of atoms.
Pathology
In pathology, prototype refers to a disease, virus, etc which sets a good example for the whole category. For
example, the vaccina virus is regarded as the virus prototype of poxviridae.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages of prototyping
• May provide the proof of concept necessary to attract funding
• Early visibility of the prototype gives users an idea of what the final system looks like
• Encourages active participation among users and producer
• Enables a higher output for user
• Cost effective (Development costs reduced)
• Increases system development speed
• Assists to identify any problems with the efficacy of earlier design, requirements analysis and coding activities
• Helps to refine the potential risks associated with the delivery of the system being developed
• Various aspects can be tested and quicker feedback can be got from the user
• Helps to deliver the product in quality easily
• User interaction available during development cycle of prototype
Prototype 19
Disadvantages of prototyping
• Producer might produce a system inadequate for overall organization needs
• User can get too involved whereas the program can not be to a high standard
• Structure of system can be damaged since many changes could be made
• Producer might get too attached to it (might cause legal involvement)
• Not suitable for large applications
• Over long periods, can cause loss in consumer interest and subsequent cancellation due to a lack of a market (for
commercial products)
See also
• Archetype
• Boilerplate (rocketry)
• Car design
• Mock-up
• Modello
• Pilot (experiment)
• Proof of concept
• Fpga prototype
• Rapid prototyping
• Rapid Application Development
• Software Prototyping
• Show car
References
[1] Online Etymology Dictionary (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=prototype& searchmode=none)
[2] List of Agile Prototyping tools (http:/ / www. adaptivepath. com/ blog/ 2009/ 09/ 16/ rapid-prototyping-tools-revisited/ )
[3] http:/ / www. bath. ac. uk/ pr/ releases/ replicating-machines. htm
20
Individuation
Individuation (Latin: principium individuationis) is a concept which appears in numerous fields and may be
encountered in work by Carl Jung, Gilbert Simondon, Bernard Stiegler, Gilles Deleuze, Henri Bergson, David
Bohm, and Manuel De Landa. In very general terms, it is the name given to processes whereby the undifferentiated
tends to become individual, or to those processes through which differentiated components become integrated into
stable wholes.
In developmental psychology - particularly analytical psychology - individuation is the process through which a
person becomes his/her 'true self'. Hence it is the process whereby the innate elements of personality; the different
experiences of a person's life and the different aspects and components of the immature psyche become integrated
over time into a well-functioning whole. Individuation might thus be summarised as the stabilizing of the
personality.
In economics, individuation parallels specialization and increases the efficiency of the division of labor. It serves as a
means for individuals to find comparative advantage in the marketplace.
Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche offers an extensive discussion of the tension between impartial, chaotic fluidity and individuated
subjectivity in The Birth of Tragedy (1872), whereby Dionysian dismemberment and Apollonian individuation
respectively embody these dichotomous qualities. Nietzsche claims that the perpetual, irresolvable tension between
these two opposing aspects of nature fosters the conditions necessary for their uneasy synthesis in the creation of
tragic art.
Carl Jung
According to Jungian psychology, individuation is a process of psychological integration, having for its goal the
development of the individual personality. "In general, it is the process by which individual beings are formed and
differentiated [from other human beings]; in particular, it is the development of the psychological individual as a
being distinct from the general, collective psychology."[1]
In addition to Jung's theory of the Complexes, his theory of the individuation process forms conceptions of a
phylogenetically acquired unconscious filled with mythic type images, a non-sexual libido, the general types of
introversion and extroversion, the compensatory and prospective functions of dreams, and the synthetic and
constructive approaches to fantasy formation and utilization. [2]
Individuation is a process of transformation whereby the personal and collective unconscious is brought into
consciousness (by means of dreams, active imagination or free association to take some examples) to be assimilated
into the whole personality. It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take
place.[3] Individuation has a holistic healing effect on the person, both mentally and physically.[3]
Besides achieving physical and mental health,[3] people who have advanced towards individuation tend to be
harmonious, mature and responsible. They embody humane values such as freedom and justice and have a good
understanding about the workings of human nature and the universe.[4]
Individuation 21
Gilbert Simondon
In L'individuation psychique et collective, Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of individual and collective
individuation, in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation, rather than a cause. Thus
the individual atom is replaced by the neverending ontological process of individuation. Simondon also conceived of
"pre-individual fields" as the funds making individuation itself possible. Individuation is an always incomplete
process, always leaving a "pre-individual" left-over, itself making possible future individuations. Furthermore,
individuation always creates both an individual and a collective subject, which individuate themselves together.
Bernard Stiegler
The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies the work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation, as well
as similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. During a talk [5] given at the Tate Modern in 2004,
Stiegler summarized his understanding of individuation. The essential points are the following:
• The I, as a psychic individual, can only be thought in relationship to a we, which is a collective individual: the I is
constituted in adopting a collective tradition, which it inherits, and in which a plurality of Is acknowledge each
other’s existence.
• This inheritance is an adoption in that I can very well, as the French grandson of a German immigrant, recognize
myself in a past that was not the past of my ancestors, but that I can make my own; this process of adoption is
thus structurally factical.
• An I is essentially a process, and not a state, and this process is an in-dividuation (it is a process of psychic
individuation) as the tendency to become-one, that is, to become indivisible.
• This tendency never accomplishes itself because it runs into a counter-tendency with which it forms a metastable
equilibrium (it must be pointed out how close this conception of the dynamic of individuation is to the Freudian
theory of drives, but also to the thinking of Empedocles and of Nietzsche).
• A we is also such a process (the process of collective individuation); the individuation of the I is always inscribed
in that of the we, whereas conversely, the individuation of the we takes place only through those individuations,
polemical in nature, of the Is making it up.
• That which links the individuations of the I and the we is a pre-individual milieu possessing positive conditions of
effectiveness, belonging to what Stiegler calls retentional apparatuses. These retentional apparatuses arise from a
technical milieu which is the condition of the encounter of the I and the we: the individuation of the I and the we
is in this respect also the individuation of the technical system.
• The technical system is an apparatus which has a specific role (wherein all objects are inserted: a technical object
exists only insofar as it is disposed within such an apparatus with other technical objects: this is what Gilbert
Simondon calls the technical group): the rifle, for example, and more generally the technical becoming with
which it forms a system, are thus the possibility of the emergence of a disciplinary society, according to Michel
Foucault.
• The technical system is also that which founds the possibility of the constitution of retentional apparatuses,
springing from the processes of grammatization growing out of the process of individuation of the technical
system, and these retentional apparatuses are the basis for the dispositions between the individuation of the I and
the individuation of the we in a single process of psychic, collective and technical individuation (where
grammatization is a subset of technics) composed of three branches, each branching out into processual groups.
• This process of triple individuation is itself inscribed in a vital individuation which must be apprehended by a
general organology as the vital individuation of natural organs, the technological individuation of artificial organs,
and the psycho-social individuation of organizations linking them together.
• In the process of individuation constitutive of general organology wherein knowledge as such emerges, there are
individuations of mnemo-technological sub-systems which over-determine, qua specific organizations of what
Stiegler calls tertiary retentions, the organization, the transmission and the elaboration of knowledge stemming
Individuation 22
from the experience of the sensible.

Stiegler is also concerned with the destructive consequences for psychic and collective individuation which may
result from consumerism and consumer capitalism (see, for example, Stiegler, The Disaffected Individual [6]).
Media industry
The term "individuation" has begun to be used within the media industries to denote new printing and online
technologies that permit the mass customization of the contents of a newspaper, a magazine, a broadcast program, or
a website so that the contents match each individual user's own unique mix of interests, unlike the mass media
practice of producing the same contents for each and every reader, viewer, listener, or online user.
See also
• Rationalization (sociology)
• Positive Disintegration
Bibliography
• Individuation [7], entry in the glossary of Ars Industrialis, Bernard Stiegler's political organization and website.
(French)
• Gilbert Simondon, Du mode d'existence des objets techniques (Méot, 1958; Paris: Aubier, 1989, second edition).
(French)
• Gilbert Simondon, On the Mode of Existence of Technical Objects, Part 1 [8], link to PDF file of 1980 translation.
• Gilbert Simondon, L'individu et sa genèse physico-biologique (l'individuation à la lumière des notions de forme et
d'information) (Paris: PUF, 1964; J.Millon, coll. Krisis, 1995, second edition). (French)
• Gilbert Simondon, The Individual and Its Physico-Biological Genesis, Part 1 [9], link to HTML file of
unpublished 2007 translation.
• Gilbert Simondon, The Individual and Its Physico-Biological Genesis, Part 2 [10], link to HTML file of
unpublished 2007 translation.
• Gilbert Simondon, L'Individuation psychique et collective (1964; Paris: Aubier, 1989). (French)
• Bernard Stiegler, Constitution and Individuation. [11]
• Bernard Stiegler, Desire and Knowledge: The Dead Seize the Living [5].
• Bernard Stiegler, Acting Out.
• Bernard Stiegler, Nanomutations, Hypomnemata, and Grammatisation. [12]
• Bernard Stiegler, Temps et individuation technique, psychique, et collective dans l’oeuvre de Simondon [13].
(French)
• Second Annual Global Conference on the Individuated Newspaper [14], Denver, June 26-27, 2008.
24
Self (Jung)
In Jungian theory, the Self is one of the archetypes. It signifies the coherent whole, unified consciousness and
unconscious of a person. The Self, according to Jung, is realised as the product of individuation, which in Jungian
view is the process of integrating one's personality. For Jung, the self is symbolised by the circle (especially when
divided in four quadrants), the square, or the mandala.
What distinguishes Jungian psychology is the idea that there are two centers of the personality. The ego is the center
of consciousness, whereas the Self is the center of the total personality, which includes consciousness, the
unconscious, and the ego. The Self is both the whole and the center. While the ego is a self-contained little circle off
the center contained within the whole, the Self can be understood as the greater circle.[1]
See also
• Self (psychology)
References
[1] Zweig, Connie (1991). Meeting the Shadow. Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher. ISBN 087477618X. p. 24.
25
Shadow (psychology)
In Jungian psychology, the shadow or "shadow aspect" is a part of the unconscious mind consisting of repressed
weaknesses, shortcomings, and instincts. It is one of the three most recognizable archetypes, the others being the
anima and animus and the persona. "Everyone carries a shadow," Jung wrote, "and the less it is embodied in the
individual's conscious life, the blacker and denser it is."[1] It may be (in part) one's link to more primitive animal
instincts,[2] which are superseded during early childhood by the conscious mind.
According to Jung, the shadow, in being instinctive and irrational, is prone to project: turning a personal inferiority
into a perceived moral deficiency in someone else. Jung writes that if these projections are unrecognized "The
projection-making factor (the Shadow archetype) then has a free hand and can realize its object--if it has one--or
bring about some other situation characteristic of its power." [3] These projections insulate and cripple individuals by
forming an ever thicker fog of illusion between the ego and the real world.
Jung also believed that "in spite of its function as a reservoir for human darkness—or perhaps because of this—the
shadow is the seat of creativity."[4]
Appearance
The shadow may appear in dreams and visions in various forms. It typically has the same apparent gender as one's
persona. It is possible that it might appear with dark features to a person of any race, since it represents a distant and
indiscriminate aspect of the mind. The shadow's appearance and role depend greatly on the living experience of the
individual, because much of the shadow develops in the individual's mind rather than simply being inherited in the
collective unconscious (but see description of layers below).
Interactions with the shadow in dreams may shed light on one's state of mind. A conversation with the shadow may
indicate that one is concerned with conflicting desires or intentions. Identification with a despised figure may mean
that one has an unacknowledged difference from the character; a difference which could point to a rejection of the
illuminating qualities of ego-consciousness. These examples refer to just two of many possible roles that the shadow
may adopt, and are not general guides to interpretation. Also, it can be difficult to identify characters in dreams, so
that a character who seems at first to be a shadow might represent some other complex instead.
Jung also made the suggestion of there being more than one layer making up the shadow. The top layers contain the
meaningful flow and manifestations of direct personal experiences. These are made unconscious in the individual by
such things as the change of attention from one thing to another, simple forgetfulness, or a repression. Underneath
these idiosyncratic layers, however, are the archetypes which form the psychic contents of all human experiences.
Jung described this deeper layer as "a psychic activity which goes on independently of the conscious mind and is not
dependent even on the upper layers of the unconscious—untouched, and perhaps untouchable—by personal
experience" (Campbell, 1971). This bottom layer of the shadow is also what Jung referred to as the collective
unconscious.
According to Jung, the shadow sometimes overwhelms a person's actions; for example, when the conscious mind is
shocked, confused, or paralyzed by indecision.
27
Anima (Jung)
The anima and animus in Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, are the two primary anthropomorphic
archetypes of the unconscious mind, as opposed to both the theriomorphic and 'inferior'-function of the shadow
archetypes, as well as the abstract symbol sets that formulate the archetype of the Self. The anima and animus are
described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that
transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality:
anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.
It can be identified as the totality of the unconscious feminine psychological qualities that a male possesses; or the
masculine ones possessed by the female. The anima is an archetype of the collective unconscious and not an
aggregate of a man's mother, sisters, aunts, and teachers though these aspects of the personal unconscious can
'influence for good or ill' the person.
Because sensitivity is often repressed, the anima is one of the most significant autonomous complexes of all. It
manifests itself by appearing as figures in dreams as well as by influencing a man's interactions with women and his
attitudes toward them, and vice versa for females and the animus. Jung said that confronting one's shadow self is an
"apprentice-piece," while confronting one's fears is the masterpiece. Jung viewed the anima process as being one of
the sources of creative ability.
Etymology
The Latin root of animus is cognate with Greek anemoi (wind), breath and Sanskrit aniti (he breathes). The root of
these and a related cluster of concepts affirms the declaration of Thales: "Everything is full of gods." See psyche,
zodiac.
The word anima may come from the Proto-Indo-European language root *ane- ("to breathe"), from which animal
and animation also originate.
In Italian, Spanish and Catalan, anima is most closely translated as "soul," while in Latin, animus and anima may
both be translated as "soul" or "mind," depending on context.
In the book The Invisible Partners it is said that the key to controlling one's anima (animus) is to recognize it when it
manifests and exercise our ability to discern the anima (animus) from reality.
Levels of anima development

Jung believed anima development has four distinct levels, which he named Eve, Helen, Mary, and Sophia. In broad
terms, the entire process of anima development in a male is about the male subject opening up to emotionality, and
in that way a broader spirituality, by creating a new conscious paradigm that includes intuitive processes, creativity
and imagination, and psychic sensitivity towards himself and others where it might not have existed previously.
Eve
The first is Eve, named for the Genesis account of Adam and Eve. It deals with the emergence of a male's object of
desire.
Anima (Jung) 28
Helen
The second is Helen, in allusion to Helen of Troy in Greek mythology. In this phase, women are viewed as capable
of worldly success and of being self-reliant, intelligent and insightful, even if not altogether virtuous. This second
phase is meant to show a strong schism in external talents (cultivated business and conventional skills) with lacking
internal qualities (inability for virtue, lacking faith or imagination).
Mary
The third phase is Mary, named for the Christian theological understanding of the Virgin Mary (Jesus' mother). At
this level, females can now seem to possess virtue by the perceiving male (even if in an esoteric and dogmatic way),
insomuch as certain activities deemed consciously unvirtuous cannot be applied to her.
Sophia
The fourth and final phase of anima development is Sophia, named for the Greek word for wisdom. Complete
integration has now occurred, which allows females to be seen and related to as particular individuals who possess
both positive and negative qualities. The most important aspect of this final level is that, as the personification
"Wisdom" suggests, the anima is now developed enough that no single object can fully and permanently contain the
images to which it is related.
Levels of animus development

Jung focused more on the male's anima and wrote less about the female's animus. Jung believed that every woman
has an analogous animus within her psyche, this being a set of unconscious masculine attributes and potentials. He
viewed the animus as being more complex than the anima, postulating that women have a host of animus images
while the male anima consists only of one dominant image.
Jung stated that there are four parallel levels of Animus development in a female,[1] but only named stage one and
three of the animus individuation process: the athlete/muscleman/thug and the professor/cleric — "the planner" and
"the guide" are used here for the convenience of the reader. For the former, due to Jung's explanation that "[it]
provides a woman with initiative and the capacity for planned action"; and the latter, by him noting that "[i]n
mythology, this aspect of the animus appears as Hermes, messenger of the gods; in dreams he is a helpful guide."
The athlete
Also referred to as the thug or the muscleman, Jung described it as the embodiment of physical power.
The planner
This stage embodies the capacity for independence, planned action, and initiative.
The professor
Also referred to as the cleric, it embodies "the Word."
The guide
Like "Sophia," this is highest level of mediation between the unconscious and conscious mind.
Anima and animus compared

The four roles are not identical with genders reversed. Jung believed that while the anima tended to appear as a
relatively singular female personality, the animus may consist of a conjunction of multiple male personalities. The
Anima (Jung) 29
process of Animus development deals with cultivating an independent and non-socially subjugated idea of self by
embodying a deeper word (as per a specific existential outlook) and manifesting this word. To clarify, this does not
mean that a female subject becomes more set in her ways (as this word is steeped in emotionality, subjectivity, and a
dynamicism just as a well developed Anima is) but that she is more internally aware of what she believes and feels,
and is more capable of expressing these beliefs and feelings.
Both final stages of Animus and Anima development have dynamic qualities (related to the motion and flux of this
continual developmental process), open-ended qualities (there is no static perfected ideal or manifestation of the
quality in question), and pluralistic qualities (which transcend the need for a singular image, as any subject or object
can contain multiple archetypes or even seemingly antithetical roles).
Further reading
• The Invisible Partners: How the Male and Female in Each of Us Affects Our Relationships by John A. Sanford
(Paperback – Jan 1, 1979)
External links
• Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism website [2]
• Sample image with scholarly commentary: Hall of the Bulls at Lascaux [3]
• Jung on the anima [4] and animus [5]
References
[1] Jung, Carl. The Psychology of the Unconscious, Dvir Co., Ltd., Tel-Aviv, 1973 (originally 1917)
[2] http:/ / aras. org/
[3] http:/ / search. aras. org/ record. aspx?ARASNUM=1Cb. 501
[4] http:/ / psikoloji. fisek. com. tr/ jung/ anima. htm
[5] http:/ / psikoloji. fisek. com. tr/ jung/ animus. htm
30
Animus (concept)
Animus may refer to:
Psychology
• Anima and animus, Jungian concepts
Music
• Animus, the junior studio album, by Aaliyah
• Animus (American ensemble), an American music group
• "Animus", a track on the album Music of the Spheres by Mike Oldfield
Television
• Animus (Encantadia), fictional character in Etheria
• Animus, a character from the Doctor Who serial The Web Planet.
• Animus, the god-like Megazord from Power Rangers Wild Force.
• Animus (Hate-Monger), character in the Marvel Universe
Games
• Animus (Dungeons and Dragons), a human transformed into a powerful undead creature.
• The Animus, a device in the video game Assassin's Creed which allows the retrieval of genetic memory
• Animus Vitae, substance in Legendary video game
• Animus elemental, weapon in Neverwinter Nights 2 video game
• Animus, name for a Human or Daedric soul in The Elder Scrolls series
• Animus[1], a union in the server "W19" in the game "empire craft" of the company "hithere.com"
Law
• Animus nocendi, an intent to do harm to another
• Animus revertendi, "with intention to return", in connection with animals and property rights
See also
• Anima Animus, 1999 album by The Creatures
• All pages beginning with "Animus"
• All pages with titles containing "Animus"
32
10
Persona
A persona, in the word's everyday usage, is
a social role or a character played by an
actor. This is an Italian word that derives
from the Latin for a kind of mask made to
resonate with the voice of the actor
(per-sonar meaning loosely "to resonate by
side" or "to sound through").[1]
The latin word derived from the Etruscan

word "phersu", with the same meaning, and
its meaning in the latter Roman period
changed to indicate a "character" of a
theatrical performance.
In communication studies
Persona literally means "mask", although it does not usually refer to a literal mask
In the study of communication, persona is a
but to the "social masks" all humans supposedly wear.
term given to describe the versions of self
that all individuals possess. Behaviours are
selected according to the desired impression an individual wishes to create when interacting with other people.
Therefore, personae presented to other people vary according to the social environment the person is engaged in, in
particular the persona presented before others will differ from the persona an individual will present when he/she
happens to be alone.
In design
As used in the design field, the Persona is an artifact that consists of a narrative relating to a desired user or
customer's daily behavior patterns, using specific details, not generalities. A very popular artifact is the 'persona
poster' that is usually presented in an 18 inch format with photo and text. For more details see Persona (marketing).
In literature
Criticism of poetry and fiction refers to a "second self" created by the author and through whom the narrative is
related. Importantly, attributes and attitudes associated with the persona are understood to be separate from authorial
intentions, per se, though there may in fact be some overlap between the two. For instance, in Dostoevsky's novel,
Notes from Underground (generally considered to be the first existentialist novel), the narrator ought not to be
conflated with Dostoevsky himself, despite the fact that Dostoevsky and his narrator may or may not have shared
much in common. In this sense, the persona is basically a mouthpiece for a particular worldview. Another instance of
this phenomenon can be found in Brett Easton Ellis' novel, American Psycho, the story of a sociopathic murderer
living in New York City, who is a successful, if very troubled, Wall Street executive by day. The work is one of
social satire, and as such may well reflect a good deal of authorial intention, but the persona of Patrick Bateman (the
novel's first-person narrator) ought not to be conflated with the novel's author.
Persona 34
development cycle in which they were used. In addition, the use of personas significantly improved corporate cohesiveness, focus and
decision making at every level."
35
11
Child (archetype)
The Child archetype, is an important Jungian archetype in Jungian psychology, first suggested by Swiss
psychologist, Carl Jung. Recently, author Caroline Myss suggested Child, amongst four the Survival Archetypes
(Victim, Prostitute, and Saboteur), present in all of us. It ranges from "childish to childlike longing for the innocent,
regardless of age", as mentioned in her work, Sacred Contracts, which talk of the presence many aspects of the Child
archetype, ranging from the Wounded Child, Abandoned or Orphan Child, Dependent Child, Magical/Innocent
Child, Nature Child, to the Divine Child and Eternal Child [1] [2] [3]
Child archetype in literature and media

The child archetype is portrayed in literature in various ways. It can take the form of a child who displays adult-like
qualities giving, for example, wise advice to their friends or vice-versa (like the character Raymond in the film Rain
Man).
Examples
• Calvin from Calvin and Hobbes
• Linus van Pelt from Peanuts
• Tommy Pickles from Rugrats
• Corwin from Roger Zelazny's The Chronicles of Amber novels (Corwin actually evolves through several child
archetypes, from wounded child through divine.)
• Butters Stotch from South Park
• Andrew "Ender" Wiggin from Ender's Game
• Stewie Griffin from Family Guy
• Lisa Simpson from The Simpsons.
• Jake Chambers from The Dark Tower
See also
• Divine child
• Divine maiden
• Timothy Eugene Thomas
• Tiny And Jeff
• Shana
37
12
Hero
A hero (hera or heroine in female) (Ancient Greek: ἥρως, hḗrōs), in
Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demigod, their cult
being one of the most distinctive features of ancient Greek religion.[1]
Later, hero (male) and heroine (female) came to refer to characters
who, in the face of danger and adversity or from a position of
weakness, display courage and the will for self sacrifice – that is,
heroism – for some greater good, originally of martial courage or
excellence but extended to more general moral excellence.
Stories of heroism may serve as moral examples. In classical antiquity,

hero cults – veneration of deified heroes such as Heracles, Perseus, and
Achilles – played an important role in Ancient Greek religion.
Politicians, ancient and modern, have employed hero worship for their
own apotheosis (i.e., cult of personality).
Sir Galahad, a hero of Arthurian legend, detail of
a painting by George Frederic Watts
Etymology
The literal meaning of the word is "protector" or "defender" [2] and etymologically it is thought to be cognate with
the name of the goddess Hera, the guardian of marriage; the postulated original forms of these words being *ἥρϝως,
hērwōs, and *ἭρFα, Hērwā, respectively. It is also thought to be a cognate of the Latin verb servo (original
meaning: to preserve whole) and of the Avestan verb haurvaiti (to keep vigil over), although the original
Proto-Indoeuropean root is unclear.
According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the Indo-European root is ser meaning "to
protect". According to Eric Partridge in Origins, the Greek word Hērōs "is akin to" the Latin seruāre, meaning to
safeguard. Partridge concludes, "The basic sense of both Hera and hero would therefore be 'protector'."
Classical hero cults

Hero cults could be of the utmost political importance. When Cleisthenes divided the ancient Athenians into new
demes for voting, he consulted the Oracle of Delphi about what heroes he should name each division after.
According to Herodotus, the Spartans attributed their conquest of Arcadia to their theft of the bones of Orestes from
the Arcadian town of Tegea.
Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the gods. Thus Heracles's name means "the glory of
Hera", even though he was tormented all his life by Hera, the Queen of the Gods. Perhaps the most striking example
is the Athenian king Erechtheus, whom Poseidon killed for choosing Athena over him as the city's patron god. When
the Athenians worshiped Erechtheus on the Acropolis, they invoked him as Poseidon Erechtheus.
In the Hellenistic Greek East, dynastic leaders such as the Ptolemies or Seleucids were also proclaimed heroes. This
was an influence on the later, Roman apotheosis of their emperors.
Hero 38
Analysis
The classic hero often came with what Lord Raglan (a descendant of the FitzRoy Somerset, Lord Raglan) termed a
"potted biography" made up of some two dozen common traditions that ignored the line between historical fact and
mythology. For example, the circumstances of the hero's conception are unusual; an attempt is made by a powerful
male at his birth to kill him; he is spirited away; reared by foster-parents in a far country. Routinely the hero meets a
mysterious death, often at the top of a hill; his body is not buried; he leaves no successors; he has one or more holy
sepulchres.
The first Hero:
Hero (mythical priestess), in Greek mythology, priestess of Aphrodite, goddess of love, at Sestos, a town on the
Hellespont (now Dardanelles). Hero was loved by Leander, a youth who lived at Abydos, a town on the Asian side
of the channel. They could not marry because Hero was bound by a vow of chastity, and so every night Leander
swam from Asia to Europe, guided by a lamp in Hero's tower. One stormy night a high wind extinguished the
beacon, and Leander was drowned. His body was washed ashore beneath Hero's tower; in her grief, she threw herself
into the sea.
The validity of the hero in historical studies

The philosopher Hegel gave a central role to the "hero", personalized by Napoleon, as the incarnation of a particular
culture's Volksgeist, and thus of the general Zeitgeist. Thomas Carlyle's 1841 On Heroes and Hero Worship and the
Heroic in History also accorded a key function to heroes and great men in history. Carlyle centered history on the
biography of a few central individuals such as Oliver Cromwell or Frederick the Great. His heroes were political and
military figures, the founders or topplers of states. His history of great men, of geniuses good and evil, sought to
organize change in the advent of greatness.
Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century. Most philosophers of history
contend that the motive forces in history can best be described only with a wider lens than the one he used for his
portraits. For example, Karl Marx argued that history was determined by the massive social forces at play in "class
struggles", not by the individuals by whom these forces are played out. After Marx, Herbert Spencer wrote at the end
of the 19th century: "You must admit that the genesis of the great man depends on the long series of complex
influences which has produced the race in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly
grown....Before he can remake his society, his society must make him."[3]
As Michel Foucault pointed out in his analysis of societal communication and debate, history was mainly the
"science of the sovereign", until its inversion by the "historical and political popular discourse".
The Annales School, led by Lucien Febvre, Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel, would contest the exaggeration of the
role of individual subjects in history. Indeed, Braudel distinguished various time scales, one accorded to the life of an
individual, another accorded to the life of a few human generations, and the last one to civilizations, in which
geography, economics and demography play a role considerably more decisive than that of individual subjects.
Foucault's conception of an "archeology" (not to be confused with the anthropological discipline of archaeology) or
Louis Althusser's work were attempts at linking together these various heterogeneous layers composing history.
Hero 39
Heroic myth
The concept of a story archetype of the
standard "hero's quest" or monomyth
pervasive across all cultures is somewhat
controversial. Expounded mainly by Joseph
Campbell in The Hero with a Thousand
Faces, it illustrates several uniting themes of
hero stories that hold similar ideas of what a
hero represents, despite vastly different
cultures and beliefs. The four heroes from the Chinese classic Journey to the West
Folk and fairy tales

Vladimir Propp, in his analysis of the Russian fairy tale, concluded that a fairy tale had only eight dramatis personæ,
of which one was the hero,[4] :p. 80 and his analysis has been widely applied to non-Russian folklore. The actions that
fall into a such hero's sphere include:
1. Departure on a quest
2. Reacting to the test of a donor
3. Marrying a princess (or similar figure)
He distinguished between seekers and victim-heroes. A villain could initiate the issue by kidnapping the hero or
driving him out; these were victim-heroes. On the other hand, a villain could rob the hero, or kidnap someone close
to him, or, without the villain's intervention, the hero could realize that he lacked something and set out to find it;
these heroes are seekers. Victims may appear in tales with seeker heroes, but the tale does not follow them both.[4] :36
The modern fictional hero

Hero or heroine is sometimes used to simply describe the protagonist of a story, or the love interest, a usage which
can conflict with the superhuman expectations of heroism. William Makepeace Thackeray gave Vanity Fair the
subtitle A Novel without a Hero.[5] The larger-than-life hero is a more common feature of fantasy (particularly sword
and sorcery and epic fantasy) than more realist works.[6]
In modern movies, the hero is often simply an ordinary person in extraordinary circumstances, who, despite the odds
being stacked against him or her, typically prevails in the end. In some movies (especially action movies), a hero
may exhibit characteristics such as superhuman strength and endurance that sometimes makes him nearly invincible.
Often a hero in these situations has a foil, the villain, typically a charismatic evildoer who represents, leads, or
himself embodies the struggle the hero is up against. Post-modern fictional works have fomented the increased
popularity of the antihero, who does not follow common conceptions of heroism.[7]
Hero as self
It has been suggested in an article by Roma Chatterji that the hero or more generally protagonist is first and foremost
a symbolic representation of the person who is experiencing the story while reading, listening or watching; thus the
relevance of the hero to the individual relies a great deal on how much similarity there is between the two. The most
compelling reason for the hero-as-self interpretation of stories and myths is the human inability to view the world
from any perspective but a personal one. The almost universal notion of the hero or protagonist and its resulting hero
identification allows us to experience stories in the only way we know how: as ourselves.
Hero 40
One potential drawback of the necessity of hero identification means that a hero is often more a combination of
symbols than a representation of an actual person. In order to appeal to a wide range of individuals, the author often
relegates the hero to a "type" of person which everyone already is or wishes themselves to be: a "good" person; a
"brave" person; a "self-sacrificing" person. The most problematic result of this sort of design is the creation of a
character so universal that we can all identify with somewhat, but none can identify with completely. In regard to the
observer's personal interaction with the story, it can give the feeling of being "mostly involved," but never entirely.
See also
• Antihero
• Bildungsroman
• Byronic hero
• Comparative mythology
• Culture hero
• Epic hero
• Folk hero
• Giant (mythology)
• Leadership
• List of action heroes
• List of women warriors in literature and popular culture
• Mythological king
• Nephilim
• Reluctant hero
• Romantic hero
• Sons of God
• Superhero
• The Hero with a Thousand Faces
• The My Hero Project
• Tragic hero
• Xia (philosophy)
Further reading
• Khan, Sharif (2004). Psychology of the Hero Soul..
• Rohde, Erwin (1924). Psyche.
• Carlyle, Thomas (1985). On Heroes, Hero Worship and the Heroic in History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-250062-7.
• Burkert, Walter (1985). "The dead, heroes and chthonic gods". Greek Religion. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
• Campbell, Joseph (1949). The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Dundes, Alan; Otto Rank, and Lord Raglan (1990). In Quest of the Hero. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Hadas, Moses; Morton Smith (1965). Heroes and Gods. Harper & Row.
• Hein, David. "The Death of Heroes, the Recovery of the Heroic." Christian Century 110 (1993): 1298-1303. http:/
/www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_n37_v110/ai_14739320 or http://www.questia.com/PM.
qst?a=o&d=5000242002
• Kerenyi, Karl (1959). The Heroes of the Greeks. London: Thames & Hudson.
• Lord Raglan (1936/2003). The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
42
13
Great Mother
The Great Mother refers to the concept of the mother goddess, including:
• Great Mother, in the Mahayana and Vajrayana refers to Prajnaparamita, and the wisdom of the Madhyamaka
• Great Mother, anglicization of Latin Magna Mater, Roman title of the goddess Cybele
• Great Mother of Wisdom, Yum Chenmo, a Tibetan deity of whom Machig Labdrön is considered an emanation
• The Great Mother, epithet of Babalon, a goddess in Aleister Crowley's mystical system of Thelema
• Great Mother, archetypal image in Jungian psychology
It can also refer to:
• The Great Mother, a book by Erich Neumann (psychologist)
• Great Mother (Dungeons & Dragons), a deity character in the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game
See also
• Category:Mother goddesses
• Divine Mother (disambiguation)
• Goddess
• Goddess worship (disambiguation)
• Great Goddess (disambiguation)
• Heavenly Mother
• Heavenly Mother (Latter Day Saints)
• Mother Divine
43
14
Wise old man

The wise old man (also called senex, sage or sophos)
is an archetype as described by Carl Jung, as well as a
classic literary figure, and may be seen as a stock
character.[1] The wise old man is usually a profound
philosopher distinguished for wisdom and sound
judgment. These characters usually have beards.
Traits
This type of character is typically represented as a kind
and wise, older father-type figure who uses personal
knowledge of people and the world to help tell stories
and offer guidance that, in a mystical way, may impress
upon his audience a sense of who they are and who
A wise old man: "Philosopher in Meditation" by Rembrandt
they might become, thereby acting as a mentor. He may
occasionally appear as an absent-minded professor,
appearing absent-minded due to a predilection for contemplative pursuits.
The wise old man is often seen to be in some way "foreign", that is, from a different culture, nation, or occasionally,
even a different time, from those he advises. In extreme cases, he may be a liminal being, such as Merlin, who was
only half human, or Dumbledore who is a half-blood wizard from the famous Harry Potter series.
In medieval chivalric romance and modern fantasy literature, he is often presented as a wizard.[2] He can also or
instead be featured as a hermit. This character type often explained to the knights or heroes — particularly those
searching for the Holy Grail — the significiance of their encounters.[3]
In storytelling, the character of the wise old man is commonly killed or in some other way removed for a time, in
order to allow the hero to develop on his/her own.
In Jungian psychology
In Jungian analytical psychology, senex is the specific term used in association with this archetype.[4] In Ancient
Rome, the title of Senex (Latin for old man) was only awarded to elderly men with families who had good standing
in their village. Examples of the senex archetype in a positive form include the wise old man or wizard. The senex
may also appear in a negative form as a devouring father (e.g. Uranus, Cronus) or a doddering fool.
The antithetical archetype, or enantiodromic opposite, of the senex is the Puer Aeternus.
Wise old man 44
In theater
• Two stock characters of theater are the senex amans, an old man unsuitably in love with a much younger woman,
and the senex iratus, an old man who irrationally opposes the love of the young couple.[5]
In fiction
• Due to the influence of Merlin, a wise old man is often presented in the form of a wizard or other magician in
medieval chivalric romance and modern fantasy literature and films (e.g. Obi-Wan Kenobi, Yoda, Gandalf or
Dumbledore) See List of magicians in fantasy for more examples.
• Senex is the name of a wise old fara, a subcellular creature inside a mitochondrion, in the novel A Wind in the
Door by Madeleine L'Engle.[6]
In poetry
• "Senex" is the title of a poem by Sir John Betjeman[7] describing an older man's guilty, but harmless, pleasure in
watching young women playing sports.
In journalism
• Sir Alan Lascelles used the pen-name "Senex" when writing to The Times in 1950 setting out the so-called
Lascelles Principles concerning the monarch's right to refuse a prime minister's request for a general election.
Examples
Historical
• Seven Sages of Greece
• Solon of Athens
• Chilon of Sparta
• Thales of Miletus
• Bias of Priene
• Cleobulus of Lindos
• Pittacus of Mitylene
• Periander of Corinth
• Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove
• Ruan Ji
• Xi Kang
• Liu Ling
• Shan Tao
• Ruan Xian
• Xiang Xiu
• Wang Rong
Xi Kang
• Navaratnas
• The Rabbis, or Sages of Talmudic lore (Judaism)

• Yohanan ben Zakkai
• Hillel I
Wise old man 45
• Shammai
• others
• Jiang Ziya, a genius and patient old man. He was well known as a legendary military strategist and the most
famous Prime Minister of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
• Benjamin Franklin, at least at the time of the American Revolution and afterwards; shows much of the character
of a "wise old man".
Mythology
• Mentor, in Greek mythology
• Merlin from the Matter of Britain and the legends of King Arthur
• Nestor from Iliad
• Tiresias from the Odyssey, Oedipus Rex, and other Greek myths
• Utnapishtim from the Epic of Gilgamesh
• Mímir, in Norse mythology
See also
• Elderly martial arts master
• Hermit
• Ivory Tower
• Jungian psychology
• Magic Negro
• Magicians in fantasy
• Masonic Merlin instructing a young knight, from The
Idylls of the King
• Sage (Sophos)
References
[1] Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, p 151, ISBN 0-691-01298-9
[2] Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, p 195, ISBN 0-691-01298-9
[3] Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages, p 179-81, ISBN 0-8014-8000-0
[4] Chalquist, Craig (2007). Terrapsychology: Reengaging the Soul of Place. Spring Journal Books. ISBN 978-1882670659.
[5] Frye, Northrop (1971). Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 172. ISBN 9780691012988. OCLC 31807672.
[6] L'Engle, Madeleine (1973). A Wind in the Door. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 9780374384432. OCLC 709787.
[7] "Senex" by John Betjeman (http:/ / www. sanjeev. net/ poetry/ betjeman-john/ senex-182201. html)
49
16
Wounded healer
Wounded healer is an archetypal dynamic that psychologist Carl Jung used to describe a phenomenon that may take
place in the relationship between analyst and analysand.
The following is an example of the "wounded healer phenomena" between a psychiatrist and his/her patient:
• The psychiatrist, through the nature of his profession is consciously aware of his own personal wounds. However,
these wounds may be activated in certain situations, especially if his patient's wounds are similar to his own. (This
can be the basis of countertransference).
• In the meantime, the wounded patient's "inner healer" is unconscious to him, but potentially available.
• The patient's wounds activate those of the doctor. The doctor realizes what is taking place, and either consciously
or unconsciously passes this awareness back to his patient.
• In this way, an unconscious relationship takes place between analyst and patient.
Jung felt that this type of depth psychology can be potentially dangerous, because the analyst is vulnerable to being
infected by his patient's wounds, or having his or her wounds reopened. Also, the analyst must have an ongoing
relationship with the unconscious, otherwise he or she could identify with the "healer archetype", and create an
inflated ego.
Jung derives the term "wounded healer" from the ancient Greek legend of Asclepius, a physician who in
identification of his own wounds creates a sanctuary at Epidaurus in order to treat others. Spiritual writer Henri
Nouwen also wrote a book with the same title.
The Greek Myth of Chiron is also used to illustrate the archetype of the Wounded Healer
References
• C.G. Jung "The Psychology of the Transference", The Practice of Psychotherapy; CW 16, par. 422.
• C.G. Jung "Fundamental Questions of Psychotherapy"; ibid. para. 239.
• "The Jung Lexicon" by Daryl Sharp, Toronto
50
17
Trickster
In mythology, and in the study of folklore and religion,
a trickster is a god, goddess, spirit, man, woman, or
anthropomorphic animal who plays tricks or otherwise
disobeys normal rules and conventional behavior. It is
suggested by Hansen (2001) that the term "Trickster"
was probably first used in this context by Daniel G.
Brinton in 1885.
Mythology
The trickster deity breaks the rules of the gods or
nature, sometimes maliciously (for example, Loki) but
usually, albeit unintentionally, with ultimately positive
effects. Often, the rule-breaking takes the form of tricks
(e.g. Eris) or thievery. Tricksters can be cunning or
foolish or both; they are often funny even when
considered sacred or performing important cultural
tasks. An example of this is the sacred Heyoka, whose
role is to play tricks and games and by doing so raises
awareness and acts as an equalizer.
The trickster figure Reynard the Fox as depicted in an 1869
In many cultures, (as may be seen in Greek, Norse, or
children's book by Michel Rodange.
Slavic folktales, along with Native American/First
Nations lore), the trickster and the culture hero are
often combined. To illustrate: Prometheus, in Greek mythology, stole fire from the gods to give to humans. He is
more of a culture hero than a trickster. In many Native American and First Nations mythologies, the coyote
(Southwestern United States) or raven (Pacific Northwest, coastal British Columbia, Alaska and Russian Far East)
stole fire from the gods (stars, moon, and/or sun) and are more tricksters than culture heroes. This is primarily
because of other stories involving these spirits: Prometheus was a Titan, whereas the Coyote spirit and Raven spirit
are usually seen as jokesters and pranksters. Examples of Tricksters in the world mythologies are given by Hansen
(2001), who lists Mercurius in Roman mythology, Hermes in Greek mythology, Eshu in Yoruba mythology and
Wakdjunga in Winnebago mythology as examples of the Trickster archetype. Hansen makes the interesting
observation that the Trickster is nearly always a male figure.
Frequently the Trickster figure exhibits gender and form variability, changing gender roles and engaging in same-sex
practices. Such figures appear in Native American and First Nations mythologies, where they are said to have a
two-spirit nature. Loki, the Norse trickster, also exhibits gender variability, in one case even becoming pregnant;
interestingly, he shares the ability to change genders with Odin, the chief Norse deity who also possesses many
characteristics of the Trickster. In the case of Loki's pregnancy, he was forced by the Gods to stop a giant from
erecting a wall for them before 7 days passed; he solved the problem by transforming into a mare and drawing the
giant's magical horse away from its work. He returned some time later with a child he had given birth to—the
Trickster 51
eight-legged horse Sleipnir, who served as Odin's steed.

In some cultures, there are dualistic myths, featuring two demiurges creating the world, or two culture heroes
arranging the world — in a complementary manner. Dualistic cosmologies are present in all inhabited continents[1]
and show great diversity: they may feature culture heroes, but also demiurges (exemplifying a dualistic creation
myth in the latter case), or other beings; the two heroes may compete or collaborate; they may be conceived as
neutral or contrasted as good versus evil; be of the same importance or distinguished as powerful versus weak; be
brothers (even twins) or be not relatives at all.[2]
Coyote
The Coyote mythos is one of the most popular among Native American
cultures. Coyote is a ubiquitous being and can be categorized in many
types. In creation myths, Coyote appears as the Creator himself; but he
may at the same time be the messenger, the culture hero, the trickster,
the fool, the clown. He has also the ability of the transformer: in some
stories he is a handsome young man; in others he is an animal; yet
others present him as just a power, a sacred one. According to Crow
(and other Plains) tradition, Old Man Coyote impersonates the Creator,
"Old Man Coyote took up a handful of mud and out of it made
people".[3] His creative power is also spread onto words, "Old Man
Coyote named buffalo, deer, elk, antelopes, and bear. And all these
came into being". In such myths Coyote-Creator is never mentioned as
an animal; more, he can meet his animal counterpart, the coyote: they
address each other as "elder brother" and "younger brother", and walk
and talk together. According to A. Hultkranz, the impersonation of
Coyote as Creator is a result of a taboo, a mythic substitute to the
religious notion of the Great Spirit whose name was too dangerous Coyote often has the role of trickster as well as a
and/or sacred to use apart from at special ceremonies. clown in traditional stories.
In other stories, the Coyote is purely a clown that entertains, however; he usually ends up tricking people and
stealing.
In Chelan myths, Coyote belongs to the animal people but he is at the same time "a power just like the Creator, the
head of all the creatures". Yet his being 'just like the Creator' does not really mean being 'the Creator': it is not
seldom that Coyote-Just-Like-Creator is subject to the Creator, Great Chief Above, who can punish him, send him
away, take powers away from him, etc. In the Pacific Northwest tradition, Coyote is mostly mentioned as a
messenger, or minor power, "Coyote was sent to the camp of the chief of the Cold Wind tribe to deliver a challenge;
Coyote traveled around to tell all the people in both tribes about the contest." As such, Coyote "was cruelly treated,
and his work was never done."
As the culture hero, Coyote appears in various mythic traditions, but generally with the same magical powers of
transformation, resurrection, and then Coyote's "medicine". He is engaged in changing the ways of rivers, standing of
mountains, creating new landscapes and getting sacred things for people. Of mention is the tradition of Coyote
fighting against monsters. According to Wasco tradition, Coyote was the hero to fight and kill Thunderbird, the killer
of people, but he could do that not because of his personal power, but due to the help of the Spirit Chief; Coyote was
trying his best, he was fighting hard, and he had to have fasted ten days before the fight, so advised by Spirit Chief 8.
In many Wasco myths, Coyote rivals the Raven (Crow) about the same ordeal: in some stories, Multnomah Falls
came to be by Coyote's efforts; in others, it is done by Raven.
Trickster 52
More often than not Coyote is a trickster, but he is always different. In some stories, he is a noble trickster, "Coyote
takes water from the Frog people... because it is not right that one people have all the water." In others, he is mean,
"Coyote determined to bring harm to Duck. He took Duck's wife and children, whom he treated badly."
Archetype
The Trickster or Clown, is an example of a Jungian archetype. In modern literature the trickster survives as a
character archetype, not necessarily supernatural or divine, sometimes no more than a stock character.
In later folklore, the trickster/clown is incarnated as a clever, mischievous man or creature, who tries to survive the
dangers and challenges of the world using trickery and deceit as a defense.He also is known for entertaining people
as a clown does. For example many typical fairy tales have the King who wants to find the best groom for his
daughter by ordering several trials. No brave and valiant prince or knight manages to win them, until a poor and
simple peasant comes. With the help of his wits and cleverness, instead of fighting, he evades or fools monsters and
villains and dangers with unorthodox manners. Therefore the most unlikely candidate passes the trials and receives
the reward. More modern and obvious examples of that type are Bugs Bunny and The Tramp (Charlie Chaplin) and
Pippi Longstocking. (see list).
The trickster is an enduring archetype that crosses many cultures and appears in a wide variety of popular media.
The trickster's literary role

Modern African American literary criticism has turned the trickster figure into one example of how it is possible to
overcome a system of oppression from within. For years, African American literature was discounted by the greater
community of American literary criticism while its authors were still obligated to use the language and the rhetoric
of the very system that relegated African Americans and other minorities to the ostracized position of the cultural
“other.” The central question became one of how to overcome this system when the only words available were
created and defined by the oppressors. As Audre Lorde explained, the problem was that “the master’s tools [would]
never dismantle the master’s house.”[4]
In his writings of the late 1980s, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. presents the concept of Signifyin(g). Wound up in this
theory is the idea that the “master’s house” can be “dismantled” using his “tools” if the tools are used in a new or
unconventional way. To demonstrate this process, Gates cites the interactions found in African American narrative
poetry between the trickster, the Signifying Monkey, and his oppressor, the Lion.[5] According to Gates, the
“Signifying Monkey” is the “New World figuration” and “functional equivalent” of the Eshu trickster figure of
African Yoruba mythology.[6] The Lion functions as the authoritative figure in his classical role of “King of the
Jungle.”[7] He is the one who commands the Signifying Monkey’s movements. Yet the Monkey is able to outwit the
Lion continually in these narratives through his usage of figurative language. According to Gates, “[T]he Signifying
Monkey is able to signify upon the Lion because the Lion does not understand the Monkey’s discourse…The
monkey speaks figuratively, in a symbolic code; the lion interprets or reads literally and suffers the consequences of
his folly…”[7] In this way, the Monkey uses the same language as the Lion, but he uses it on a level that the Lion
cannot comprehend. This usually leads to the Lion’s “trounc[ing]” at the hands of a third-party, the Elephant.[8] The
net effect of all of this is “the reversal of [the Lion’s] status as the King of the Jungle.”[7] In this way, the “master’s
house” is dismantled when his own tools are turned against him by the trickster Monkey.
Trickster 53
Following in this tradition, critics since Gates have come to assert that
another popular African American folk trickster, Brer Rabbit, uses
clever language to perform the same kind of rebellious societal
deconstruction as the Signifying Monkey. Brer Rabbit is the “creative
way that the slave community responded to the oppressor’s failure to
address them as human beings created in the image of God.”[9] The
figurative representative of this slave community, Brer Rabbit is the
hero with a “fragile body but a deceptively strong mind” that allows
him to “create [his] own symbols in defiance of the perverted logic of
the oppressor.”[10] By twisting language to create these symbols, Brer
Rabbit not only was the “personification of the ethic of
Br'er Rabbit is a trickster character who succeeds
through his wits rather than through strength. self-preservation” for the slave community, but also “an alternative
response to their oppressor’s false doctrine of anthropology.”[11]
Through his language of trickery, Brer Rabbit outwits his oppressors, deconstructing, in small ways, the hierarchy of
subjugation to which his weak body forces him to physically conform.
Before Gates, there was some precedent for the analysis of African American folk heroes as destructive agents of an
oppressive hierarchical system. In the 1920s and 1930s, T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound engaged in an epistolary
correspondence.[12] Both writers signed the letters with pseudonyms adopted from the Uncle Remus tales; Eliot was
“Possum;” Pound was “Tar Baby.” Pound and Eliot wrote in the same “African slave” dialect of the tales. Pound,
writing later of the series of letters, distinguished the language from “the Queen’s English, the language of public
propriety.”[13] This rebellion against proper language came as part of “collaboration” between Pound and Eliot
“against the London literary establishment and the language that it used.”[14] Although Pound and Eliot were not
attempting to overthrow an establishment as expansive as the one oppressing the African American slave
community, they were actively trying to establish for themselves a new kind of literary freedom. In their usage of the
Uncle Remus trickster figures’ names and dialects, they display an early understanding of the way in which cleverly
manipulated language can dismantle a restrictive hierarchy.
African American literary criticism and folktales are not the only place in the American literary tradition that
tricksters are to be found combating subjugation from within an oppressive system. In When Brer Rabbit Meets
Coyote, the argument is posited that the Brer Rabbit stories were derived from a mixture of African and Native
American mythology, thus attributing part of the credit for the formation of the tales and wiles of Brer Rabbit to
“Indian captivity narratives” and the rabbit trickster found in Cherokee mythology.[15] In arguing for a merged
“African-Native American folklore,” the idea is forwarded that certain shared “cultural affinities” between African
Americans and Native Americans allowed both groups “through the trickster tales…survive[d] European American
cultural and political domination.”[16]
Tricksters in Native Traditions

While the trickster crosses various cultural traditions, there are significant differences between tricksters in the
traditions of many indigenous peoples and those in the European tradition:
"Many native traditions held clowns and tricksters as essential to any contact with the sacred. People
could not pray until they had laughed, because laughter opens and frees from rigid preconception.
Humans had to have tricksters within the most sacred ceremonies for fear that they forget the sacred
comes through upset, reversal, surprise. The trickster in most native traditions is essential to creation, to
birth".[17]
Native American tricksters should not be confused with the European fictional picaro. One of the most important
distinctions is that "we can see in the Native American trickster an openness to life's multiplicity and paradoxes
Trickster 54
largely missing in the modern Euro-American moral tradition".[18]
Tricksters in various cultures

• Abenaki mythology ... Azeban • Indonesian folklore ... Kantjil, or kancil in modern
grammar
• Akan mythology ... Kwaku Ananse • Inuit mythology ... Amaguq
• American folklore ... Brer Rabbit (or Compere Lapin) and Aunt Nancy, a corruption • Internet mythology ... Trollface
of Anansi (Anansee)
• Arabian mythology ... Juha • Irish folklore...Leprechauns
• Ashanti mythology ... Anansi • Islamic mythology ... Nasreddin
• Australian Aboriginal mythology ... Bamapana • Japanese mythology ... Kitsune, Susanoo, Kappa
• Aztec mythology ... Huehuecoyotl • Jewish mythology ... Asmodeus, Jacob, Lilith
• Bantu mythology ... Hare (Tsuro or Kalulu) • Jewish folklore ... Hershele Ostropoler
• Basque mythology ... San Martin Txiki • Lakota mythology ... Iktomi, Heyoka
• Brazilian folklore ... Saci, Curupira • Levantine mythology ... Yaw
• Bulgarian folklore ... Hitar Petar • Maori mythology ... Māui
• Bushmen/San Folklore ... Kaggen • Miwok mythology ... Coyote
• Celtic mythology ... Fairy, Puck, Briccriu, Gwydion • Navajo mythology ... Tonenili
• Chilean mythology ... Pedro Urdemales ("Peter Urdemales" in English) • Nootka mythology ... Chulyen, Guguyni
• Chinese mythology ... Nezha, Sun Wukong (the Monkey King) • Norse mythology ... Loki
• Cree mythology . . . Wisakedjak • Norwegian mythology ... Espen Askeladd
• Croatian folklore...Petrica Kerempuh • Northwest Caucasian mythology ... Sosruko
• Croatian mythology and later folklore...Domaci as group later personalized in Malik • Ohlone mythology ... Coyote
Tintilinic
• Crow mythology ... Awakkule, Mannegishi • Ojibwe mythology ... Nanabozho
• Dutch folklore ... Reynaert de Vos, Tijl Uilenspiegel • Philippine mythology ... Nuno sa Punso, Aswang
• Egyptian mythology ... Set • Polynesian mythology ... Maui
• English folklore ... Robin Hood, Puck, Brownies • Pomo mythology ... Coyote
• Estonian mythology ... The Wily Ants • Pueblos dancing ... Koshares
• Fijian mythology ... Daucina • Romanian mythology ... Păcală
• French folklore ... Renart the Fox • Russian folklore ... Ivan the Fool
• German folklore ... Till Eulenspiegel, Reineke Fuchs • Slavic mythology ... Veles
• Greek mythology ... Eris, Prometheus, Hephaestos, Hermes, Odysseus, Sisyphus • Spanish mythology ... Don Juan The Trickster of
Seville
• Haida mythology ... Nankil'slas (Raven spirit), (Coyote) • Tibetan folklore ... Uncle Tompa
• Haitian folklore ... Ti Malice • Tsimshian mythology ... Txaamsm, Raven, 'Wiigyet
(Big Man)
• Hawaiian mythology ... Iwa, Kaulu, Kupua, Maui, Pekoi. • Tumbuka mythology...Kalulu
• Hindu mythology ... Baby Krishna stealing ghee • Ute mythology ... Cin-an-ev
• Hopi and Zuni mythology ... Kokopelli • Vodou ... Papa Legba, Ti Malice, Baron Samedi
• West African mythology ... Anansi
• Yoruba mythology ... Eshu
57
18
Devil
The Devil (Greek: διάβολος or diávolos = 'slanderer' or 'accuser'[1]
) is believed in certain religions and cultures to be a powerful,
supernatural entity that is the personification of evil and the enemy
of God and humankind. The Devil is commonly associated with
heretics, infidels, and other unbelievers. The Abrahamic religions
have variously regarded the Devil as a rebellious fallen angel or
demon that tempts humans to sin or commit evil deeds. Others
regard the Devil as an allegory that represents a crisis of faith,
individualism, free will, wisdom and enlightenment.
In mainstream Christianity, God and the Devil are usually

portrayed as fighting over the souls of humans, with the Devil
seeking to lure people away from God and into Hell. The Devil
commands a force of evil angels, commonly known as demons.[2]
The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) describes the Adversary
(Ha-satan) as an angel who instigates tests upon humankind.[3] [4]
Many other religions have a trickster or tempter figure that is
similar to the Devil. Modern conceptions of the Devil include the
concept that it symbolizes humans' own lower nature or sinfulness.
People put the concept of the Devil to use in social and political
conflicts, claiming that their opponents are influenced by the Devil
or even willingly supporting the Devil. The Devil has also been Depiction of the Devil as seen in the Codex Gigas.
used to explain why others hold beliefs that are considered to be

false and ungodly.
Religious accounts
Judaism
In mainstream Judaism there is no concept of a devil like in mainstream Christianity or Islam. In Hebrew, the
biblical word ha-satan (‫ )ןָטָׂשה‬means "the adversary"[5] or the obstacle, or even "the prosecutor" (recognizing that
God is viewed as the ultimate Judge).
Hebrew Apocrypha
The Apocrypha are religious writings which are not generally accepted as scripture by Judaism and many
modern-day Protestant sects of Christianity.
In the Book of Wisdom, the devil is represented as the one who brought death into the world.[6]
The 2nd Book of Enoch, also called the Slavonic Book of Enoch, contains references to a Watcher Grigori called
Satanael.[7] It is a pseudepigraphic text of an uncertain date and unknown authorship. The text describes Satanael as
being the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven[8] and an evil spirit who knew the difference between
Devil 58
what was "righteous" and "sinful".[9] A similar story is found in the book of 1 Enoch; however, in that book, the
leader of the Grigori is called Semjâzâ.
In the apocryphal literature, Satan rules over a host of angels.[10] Mastema, who induced God to test Abraham
through the sacrifice of Isaac, is identical with Satan in both name and nature.[11]
For the Chasidic Jews of the eighteenth century, Ha-satan was Baal Davar.[12] The Book of Enoch contains
references to Satariel, thought also to be Sataniel and Satan'el (etymology dating back to Babylonian origins). The
similar spellings mirror that of his angelic brethren Michael, Raphael, Uriel and Gabriel, previous to his expulsion
from Heaven.
Christianity
In mainstream Christianity the Devil is known as Satan and sometimes
as Lucifer, although most scholars recognize the reference in Isaiah
14:12 to Lucifer, or the Morning Star, to be a reference to the
Babylonian king.[13] Many modern Christians consider the Devil to be
an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons)
rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the
Lake of Fire. He is described as hating all humanity, or more
accurately creation, opposing God, spreading lies and wreaking havoc
on the souls of mankind. Other Christians consider the devil in the
Bible to refer figuratively to human sin and temptation and to any
human system in opposition to God.
Satan is often identified as the serpent who convinced Eve to eat the
forbidden fruit; thus, Satan has often been depicted as a serpent.
Though this identification is not present in the Adam and Eve
narrative, this interpretation goes back at least as far as the time of the
writing of the book of Revelation, which specifically identifies Satan The Devil depicted in The Temptation of Christ,
as being the serpent (Rev. 20:2). by Ary Scheffer, 1854.
In the Bible, the devil is identified with the "The dragon" and "the old
serpent" in the Book of Revelation 12:9, 20:2 have also been identified with Satan, as have "the prince of this world"
in the Book of John 12:31, 14:30; "the prince of the power of the air" also called Meririm, and "the spirit that now
worketh in the children of disobedience" in the Book of Ephesians 2:2; and "the god of this world" in 2 Corinthians
4:4.[14] . He is also identified as the dragon in the Book of Revelation (e.g.[15] ), and the tempter of the Gospels
(e.g.[16] ).
Beelzebub is originally the name of a Philistine god (more specifically a certain type of Baal, from Ba‘al Zebûb, lit.
"Lord of Flies") but is also used in the New Testament as a synonym for Satan. A corrupted version, "Belzeboub,"
appears in The Divine Comedy.
In other, non-mainstream, Christian beliefs (e.g. the beliefs of the Christadelphians) the word "satan" in the Bible is
not regarded as referring to a supernatural, personal being but to any 'adversary' and figuratively refers to human sin
and temptation.[17]
Devil 59
Islam
In Islam the Devil is referred to as Iblis (Arabic: Shaitan, a word referring to evil devil-like beings). According to the
Qur'an, God created Iblis out of "smokeless fire" (along with all of the other jinn) and created man out of clay. The
primary characteristic of the Devil, besides hubris, is that he has no power other than the power to cast evil
suggestions into the heart of men and women.
According to Muslim theology, Iblis was expelled from the grace of God when he disobeyed God by choosing not to
pay homage to Adam, the father of all mankind. He claimed to be superior to Adam, on the grounds that man was
created of earth unlike himself. As for the angels, they prostrated before Adam to show their homage and obedience
to God. However, Iblis, adamant in his view that man is inferior, and unlike angels was given the ability to choose,
made a choice of not obeying God. This caused him to be expelled by God, a fact that Iblis blamed on humanity.
Initially, the Devil was successful in deceiving Adam, but once his intentions became clear, Adam and Eve repented
to God and were freed from their misdeeds and forgiven. God gave them a strong warning about Iblis and the fires of
Hell and asked them and their children (humankind) to stay away from the deceptions of their senses caused by the
Devil.
According to the verses of the Qur’an, the Devil's mission until the Qiyamah or Resurrection Day (yaum-ul-qiyama)
is to deceive Adam's children (mankind). After that, he will be put into the fires of Hell along with those whom he
has deceived. The Devil is also referred to as one of the jinns, as they are all created from the smokeless fire. The
Qur'an does not depict Iblis as the enemy of God, as God is supreme over all his creations and Iblis is just one of his
creations. Iblis's single enemy is humanity. He intends to discourage humans from obeying God. Thus, humankind is
warned to struggle (jihad) against the mischiefs of the Satan and temptations he puts them in. The ones who succeed
in this are rewarded with Paradise (jannath ul firdaus), attainable only by righteous conduct.
Bahá'í Faith
In the Bahá'í Faith there is no existence of a malevolent superhuman entity such as the devil.[18] Human beings are
seen to have free will, and thus are seen to be able to either turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities, or
instead be immersed in their own desires and thus commit wrongs; if people are immersed in their own desires, the
Bahá'í writings sometimes use a metaphorical usage of satanic to describe their actions.[18] The writings of Bahá'í
Faith also state that the devil is also a metaphor for the "insistent self" or "lower self" which is a self-serving
inclination within each individual. This tendency is often referred to in the Bahá'í writings as "the Evil One".[19] [20]
Yazidism
An alternate name for the main deity in the tentatively Indo-European pantheon of the Yazidi, Malek Taus, is
Shaitan.[21] Rather than Satanic, however, Yazidism is better understood as a remnant of a pre-Islamic Middle
Eastern religion, and/or a ghulat Sufi movement founded by Shaykh Adi. The connection with Satan, originally
made by Muslim outsiders, attracted the interest of 19th-century European travelers and esoteric writers.
Neopaganism
Christian tradition has frequently identified pagan religions and witchcraft with the influence of Satan. In the Early
Modern Period, the Church accused alleged witches of consorting and conspiring with Satan. Several modern
conservative Christian writers, such as Jack Chick and James Dobson, have depicted today's neopagan and witchcraft
religions as explicitly Satanic.
Few neopagan reconstructionist traditions recognize Satan or the Devil outright. However, many neopagan groups
worship some sort of Horned God, for example as a consort of the Great Goddess in Wicca. These gods usually
reflect mythological figures such as Cernunnos or Pan, and any similarity they may have to the Christian Devil
seems to date back only to the 19th century, when a Christian reaction to Pan's growing importance in literature and
art resulted in his image being translated to that of the Devil.[22]
Devil 60
New Age movement

Participants in the New Age movement have widely varied views about Satan, the Devil, and so forth. In some forms
of Esoteric Christianity Satan remains as a being of evil, or at least a metaphor for sin and materialism, but the most
widespread tendency is to deny his existence altogether. Lucifer, on the other hand, in the original Roman sense of
"light-bringer", occasionally appears in the literature of certain groups as a metaphorical figure quite distinct from
Satan, and without any implications of evil. For example, Theosophy founder Madame Blavatsky named her journal
Lucifer since she intended it to be a "bringer of light". Many New Age schools of thought follow a nondualistic
philosophy that does not recognize a primal force for evil.
Even when a dualistic model is followed, this is more often akin to the
Chinese system of yin and yang, in which good and evil are explicitly not a
complementary duality. Schools of thought that do stress a spiritual war
between good and evil or light and darkness include the philosophy of Rudolf
Steiner, Agni Yoga, and the Church Universal and Triumphant.
Satanism
Some religions worship the Devil. This can be in a polytheistic sense where
"God", Satan, and others are all deities with Satan as the preferred patron; or
it can be from a more monotheistic viewpoint, where God is regarded as a
true god, but is nevertheless defied.
Some variants deny the existence of God and the Devil altogether, but still
call themselves Satanists, such as Anton LaVey's Church Of Satan which sees
Satan as a representation of the primal and natural state of mankind.[23] The Baphomet, adopted symbol of some
Left-Hand Path systems, including
Much "Satanic" lore does not originate from actual Satanists, but from Theistic Satanism.
Christians. Best-known would be the medieval folklore and theology
surrounding demons and witches. A more recent example is the Satanic ritual abuse scare of the 1980s – beginning
with the memoir Michelle Remembers – which depicts Satanism as a vast (and unsubstantiated) conspiracy of elites
with a predilection for child abuse and human sacrifice. This genre regularly describes Satan as actually appearing in
person in order to receive worship.
Similar concepts in other religions
Zoroastrianism
In the Gathas, the oldest texts of the Zoroastrian Avesta, believed to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the
poet does not mention a manifest adversary. Ahura Mazda's Creation is "truth", asha. The "lie" (druj) is manifest
only as decay or chaos, not an entity.
Later, in Zurvanism (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), Ahura Mazda and the principle of evil, Angra Mainyu, are the
"twin" offspring of Zurvan, 'Time'. No trace of Zurvanism exists after the 10th century.
Today, the Parsis of India largely accept the 19th century interpretation that Angra Mainyu is the 'Destructive
Emanation' of Ahura Mazda. Instead of struggling against Mazda himself, Angra Mainyu battles Spenta Mainyu,
Mazda's 'Creative Emanation.'
Devil 61
Hinduism
In contrast to Christianity, Islam, and Zoroastrianism, Hinduism does not recognize any central evil force or entity
such as the Devil opposing God. Hinduism does recognize that different beings (e.g., asuras) and entities can
perform evil acts, under the temporary dominance of the guna of tamas, and cause wordly sufferings. The Rajasic
and Tamasic Gunas of Maya are considered especially close to the Abrahamic concept , the hellish parts of the
Ultimate Delusion called "Prakriti". An embodiment of this is the concept of Advaita (non-dualism) where there is
no good or evil but simply different levels of realization.
On the other hand in Hinduism, which provides plenty of room for counterpoint, there is also the notion of dvaita
(dualism) where there is interplay between good and evil tendencies.[24] A prominent asura is Rahu whose
characteristics are similar to those of the Devil. However, Hindus, and Vaishnavites in particular, believe that an
avatar of Vishnu incarnates to defeat evil when evil reaches its greatest strength. The concept of Guna and Karma
also explain evil to a degree, rather than the influence of a devil.
To be more specific, Hindu philosophy defines that the only existing thing (Truth) is the Almighty God. So, all the
asuric tendencies are inferior and mostly exist as illusions in the mind. Asuras are also different people in whom bad
motivations and intentions (tamas) have temporarily outweighed the good ones (Sattva). Different beings like
siddha, gandharva, yaksha etc. are considered beings unlike mankind, and in some ways superior to men.
In Ayyavazhi, officially an offshoot of Hinduism prominent in Tamil Nadu (a southern state in India with Dravidian
heritage), followers, unlike most other branches of Hinduism, believes in a Satan-like figure, Kroni. Kroni, according
to Ayyavazhi is the primordial manifestation of evil and manifests in various forms of evil, i.e., Ravana,
Duryodhana, etc., in different ages or yugas. In response to such manifestation of evil, believers, in Ayya-Vazhi
religion believe that God, as Vishnu manifests in His avatars such as Rama and Krishna to defeat evil. Eventually,
the Ekam with the spirit (the spirit taken by Narayana only for incarnating in the world) of Narayana incarnates in
the world as Ayya Vaikundar to destroy the final manifestaion of Kroni, Kaliyan.
Kroni, the spirit of Kali Yuga is said to be omnipresent in this age and that is one of the reasons why followers of
Ayya Vazhi, like most Hindus, believe that the current yuga, Kali Yuga is so degraded.
Buddhism
A devil-like figure in Buddhism is Mara. He is a tempter, who also tempted Gautama Buddha by trying to seduce
him with the vision of beautiful women who, in various legends, are often said to be Mara's daughters. Mara
personifies unskillfulness, the "death" of the spiritual life. He tries to distract humans from practicing the spiritual
life by making the mundane alluring or the negative seem positive. Another interpretation of Mara is that he is the
desires that are present in ones own mind preventing the person from seeing the truth. So in a sense Mara is not an
independent being but a part of one's own being that has to be defeated. In daily life of the Buddha the role of devil
has been given to Devadatta.
Ancient Egypt
In the Ausarian drama we find that Ausar (Greek: Osiris) is chopped into 13 pieces by Set. Auset (Isis) collects all of
his pieces save his phallus. Horus, son of Ausar and Auset sets out to avenge the death and dismemberment of his
father by confronting Set. Horus is victorious over Set and Ausar, being brought back from the dead becomes lord of
the underworld. It is this drama that gives us the cosmic conflict between good and evil, evil being embodied by Set.
This is not to say that Set was always seen as an evil character in Ancient Egyptian theology. There are many times
in Ancient Egyptian history where conflicts between different "houses" lead to the depreciation of one god relative to
another.
As in most polytheistic faiths, the characters involved differentiate themselves from the Western tradition of a devil
in that all the gods are closely related. In this case, numerous historic texts suggest that Set is the Uncle or Brother of
Devil 62
Horus and in the "defeat" of Set, we see another separation from the norm in the devouring/assimilation of Set into
Horus with the result of Horus having depictions of both the falcon head and the (unknown animal) head of Set. This
(like Buddhism) represents a dissolution of dichotomy.
World folklore
In the Western Christian tradition, the Devil has entered popular folklore,
particularly in his role as a trickster figure. As such, he is found as a character
in a wide number of traditional folktales and legends from Ireland,
Newfoundland, Italy and the United Kingdom, where he often attempts to
trick or outwit other characters. In some of these tales, the Devil is portrayed
as more of a folk villain than as the personification of evil. The Devil also
features prominently in a number of hagiographical tales, or tales of the saints
such as the popular tale of St. Dunstan, many of which may fall outside the
authorized religious canon. The Devil is also a recurring feature in tales
explaining the etymology of geographical names, lending his name to natural
formations such as The Devil's Chimney.
Depiction of the Devil interviewing
Mayor Hall
Other names
Further information: Names of the Devil in Christianity
Demons
In some religions and traditions, these titles are separate demons; others identify these names as guises of The Devil.
Even when thought of as individual demons, some are often thought of being under the Devil's direct control. This
identifies only those thought of as the Devil; List of demons has a more general listing.
• Azazel, Asael (Hebrew): King of Devils
• Baphomet, a demon supposedly worshiped by the Knights Templar
• Beelzebub, ba'al zevuv ‫( בובז לעב‬Hebrew): Master of the flies or Lord of the Flies (Matthew 10:25)
• Belial, Beliar, Bheliar (Hebrew): without master, despicableness of the earth, Lord of Pride (Corinthians 2 6:15)
• Mastema, a devil in the Book of Jubilees
• Sammael, Samiel, Sammael (Hebrew): "Poison of God"
Titles
These are titles that almost always refer to the Devil.
• 666 or 616, the Number of the Beast
• Angra Mainyu, Ahriman: "malign spirit", "unholy spirit"
• Antichrist, the coming of the Devil to the mortal world in Christianity
• Der Leibhaftige (German): "He Himself"
• Diabolus, Diavolus (Greek): "cutting through"
• Iblis, the devil in Islam
• Lord of the underworld / Lord of Hell / Lord of this World
• Lucifer / The Morning Star (Greek and Roman): bringer of light, illuminator; the planet Venus, often portrayed as
Satan's name before he fell
Devil 63
• Leviathan
• Mephistopheles, Mephisto (Greek): that, which avoids the light
• Old Scratch, The Stranger, Old Nick: a colloquialism for the devil, as indicated by the name of the character in
the story The Devil and Tom Walker
• Old Hob
• Prince of Darkness / Air
• Satan / The Adversary, Accuser, Prosecutor
• (The ancient/old/crooked/coiling) Serpent
• Shaitan, an Arabic name for Satan
• Kölski (Iceland)[25]
• Voland (medieval France)
A list of liturgical names for the Devil may be found in Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer, the Devil in the Middle Ages
(Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 128, note 76 online. [26]
God as the Devil

Several religious authors throughout history have advanced the notion that the god of the Abrahamic Bible and its
sequels is consistent in character with the Devil. They make the case that the Biblical God is a divine force that
wreaks suffering, death, and destruction and that tempts or commands humanity into committing mayhem and
genocide.
These writings refer to the Biblical God variously as "a demiurgus", "an evil angel", "the devil god", "the Prince of
Darkness", "the source of all evil", "a demon", "a cruel, wrathful, warlike tyrant", "Satan", "the devil", and "the first
beast of the book of Revelation".
Many of the authors criticize only Jehovah, the God of the Abrahamic scriptures (Tanakh), in contrast with the "true
god" of the New Testament. However, other authors apply their condemnation to the entire godhead of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam.
The authors assert their claims by reference to a number of passages in Biblical scripture describing actions of God
that they say are evil or Devil-like. Many of the authors have been severely chastised for their writings, and their
followers killed.
See also
• Devil in popular culture
• The Devil (Tarot card)
• Devil worship
• Hierarchy of devils
• Names of the demons
• Hell, Hades, Underworld
• Pact with the Devil
• Number of the Beast
• Lawsuits against the Devil
66
19
Lucifer
Lucifer is a Latin word (from the words
lucem ferre), literally meaning "light-bearer",
which in that language is used as a name for
the dawn appearance of the planet Venus,
heralding daylight. Use of the word in this
sense is uncommon in English, in which
"Day Star" or "Morning Star" are more
common expressions.
In English, "Lucifer" generally refers to

Satan, although the name is not applied to
him in the New Testament. The use of the
name "Lucifer" in reference to a fallen angel
stems from an interpretation of Isaiah
14:3–20 [3], a passage that speaks of a
particular Babylonian King, to whom it gives
the title of "Day Star", "Morning Star" (in
Latin, lucifer),[4] as fallen or destined to fall
from the heavens or sky.[5] In Peter 2 1:19
and elsewhere, the same Latin word lucifer is
used to refer to the Morning Star, with no
relation to the devil. However, in post-New
Testament times the Latin word Lucifer has
[1]
often been used as a name for the devil, both Satan, who in Milton's Paradise Lost is also called Lucifer, on his way to bring
in religious writing and in fiction. about the downfall of Adam. Gustave Doré's illustration for Paradise Lost, Book
[2]
III, lines 739-742 by John Milton.
Satan as Lucifer
Lucifer 67
The Lucifer story

A pagan myth of the fall of angels, associated with
the Morning Star, was transferred to Satan, as seen
in the Life of Adam and Eve and the Second Book
of Enoch,[7] which the Jewish Encyclopedia
attributes to the first pre-Christian century:[8] in
these Satan-Sataniel (sometimes identified with
Samael) is described as having been one of the
archangels. Because he contrived "to make his
throne higher than the clouds over the earth and
resemble 'My power' on high", Satan-Sataniel was
hurled down, with his hosts of angels, and since
then he has been flying in the air continually above
the abyss.[9]
Early Christian writers continued this identification

of "Lucifer" with Satan. Tertullian ("Contra
Marcionem," v. 11, 17), Origen ("Ezekiel Opera,"
iii. 356), and others, identify Lucifer with Satan,
who also is represented as being "cast down from
heaven" (Revelation 12:7–10; cf. Luke 10:18).[9]
However, some contemporary exorcists and

theologians such as Father Jose Antonio Fortea and Gustave Doré's illustration for Milton's Paradise Lost, Book IV, lines
[6]
1013–1015: Satan (alias Lucifer) yielding before Raphael
Father Amorth in their experience and based on
Biblical interpretations assert that Lucifer and
Satan are different beings.[10]
In the New Testament the Adversary has many names, but "Lucifer" is not among them. He is called "Satan" (Matt.
4:10; Mark 1:13, 4:15; Luke 10:18), "devil" (Matt. 4:1), "adversary" (1. Peter 5:8, ἀντίδικος; 1. Tim. 5:14,
ἀντικείμενος), "enemy" (Matt. 13:39), "accuser" (Rev. 12:10), "old serpent" (Rev. 20:2), "great dragon" (Rev. 12:9),
Beelzebub (Matt. 10:25, 12:24), and Belial (comp. Samael). In Luke 10:18, John 12:31, 2. Cor. 6:16, and Rev. 12:9
the fall of Satan is mentioned. The devil is regarded as the author of all evil (Luke 10:19; Acts 5:3; 2. Cor. 11:3;
Ephes. 2:2), who beguiled Eve (2. Cor. 11:3; Rev. 12:9). Because of Satan, death came into this world, being ever
the tempter (1. Cor. 7:5; 1. Thess. 3:5; 1. Peter 5:8), even as he tempted Jesus (Matt. 4). The Christian demonology
and belief in the devil dominated subsequent periods.[11] However, though the New Testament includes the
conception that Satan fell from heaven "as lightning" (Luke 10:18; Rev. 12:7-10),[12] it nowhere applies the name
Lucifer to him.
The Jewish Encyclopedia states that in the apocalyptic literature, the conception of fallen angels is widespread.
Throughout antiquity stars were commonly regarded as living celestial beings (Job 38:7).[12] Indications of this
belief in fallen angels, behind which probably lies the symbolizing of an astronomical phenomenon, the shooting
stars, are found in Isaiah 14:12.
Lucifer 68
The Morning Star in Isaiah 14:12

The Book of Isaiah has the following passage:
When the Lord has given you rest from your pain and turmoil and the hard service with which you were made
to serve, you will take up this taunt against the king of Babylon: How the oppressor has ceased! How his
insolence has ceased! … How you are fallen from heaven, O Day Star, son of Dawn! How you are cut down to
the ground, you who laid the nations low! You said in your heart, "I will ascend to heaven; I will raise my
throne above the stars of God; I will sit on the mount of assembly on the heights of Zaphon; I will ascend to
the tops of the clouds, I will make myself like the Most High." But you are brought down to Sheol, to the
depths of the Pit. Those who see you will stare at you, and ponder over you: "Is this the man who made the
earth tremble, who shook kingdoms, who made the world like a desert and overthrew its cities, who would not
let his prisoners go home?[13]
The passage refers to the king of Babylon, a man who seemed all-powerful, but who has been brought down to the
abode of the dead ("Sheol"). Isaiah promises that the Israelites will be freed and will then be able to use in a taunting
song against their oppressor the image of the Morning Star, which rises at dawn as the brightest of the stars,
outshining Jupiter and Saturn, but lasting only until the sun appears. This image was used in an old popular
Canaanite story that the Morning Star tried to rise high above the clouds and establish himself on the mountain
where the gods assembled, in the far north, but was cast down into the underworld.[9] [14]
The phrase "O Day Star, son of Dawn" in the New Revised Standard Version translation given above corresponds to
the Hebrew phrase "‫( "רחׁש־ןב לליה‬Helel Ben-Shachar) in verse 12, meaning "morning star, son of dawn". As the
Latin poets personified the Morning Star and the Dawn (Aurora), as well as the Sun and the Moon and other
heavenly bodies, so in Canaanite mythology Morning Star and Dawn were pictured as two deities, the former being
the son of the latter.[15]
In the Latin Vulgate, Jerome translated "‫( "רחׁש־ןב לליה‬morning star, son of dawn) as "lucifer qui mane oriebaris"
(morning star that used to rise early).[16] Already, as early as the Christian writers Tertullian and Origen,[14] the
whole passage had come to be applied to Satan. Satan began to be referred to as "Lucifer" (Morning Star), and
finally the word "Lucifer" was treated as a proper name. The use of the word "Lucifer" in the 1611 King James
Version instead of a word such as "Daystar" ensured its continued popularity among English speakers.
Most modern English versions (including the NIV, NRSV, NASB, NJB and ESV) render the Hebrew word as "day
star", "morning star" or something similar, and never as "Lucifer", a word that in English is now very rarely used in
the sense of the original word in Hebrew (Morning Star), though in Latin "Lucifer" was a literal translation.
A passage quite similar to that in Isaiah is found in Ezekiel 28:1–19, which is expressly directed against the king of
Tyre, a city on an island that had grown rich by trade, factors alluded to in the text.[17] In Christian tradition, it too
has been applied to Lucifer, because of some of the expressions contained in it.[18] But, since it does not contain the
image of the Morning Star, discussion of it belongs rather to the article on Satan than to that on Lucifer.
Lucifer 69
The same holds for the Christian depiction of Satan in other books
of the Old Testament as, for instance, in the Book of Job, where
Satan, who has been wandering the earth, has a discussion with
God and makes a deal with him to test Job.
The Tyndale Bible Dictionary states that there are many who
believe the expression "Lucifer" and the surrounding context in
Isaiah 14 refer to Satan: they believe the similarities among
Isaiah 14:12, Luke 10:18, and Revelation 12:7–10 warrant this
conclusion. But it points out that the context of the Isaiah passage
is about the accomplished defeat of the king of Babylon, while the
New Testament passages speak of Satan.[14]
Islamic point of view

According to the Qur'an, Iblis (the Arabic name used) disobeyed
an order from Allah to bow to Adam and as a result was forced out
of heaven and given respite until the day of judgment from further
punishment.
When Allah commanded all of the angels to bow down before
Adam (the first Human), Iblis, full of hubris and jealousy, refused
Lucifer (Le génie du mal) by Guillaume Geefs
to obey Allah's command (he could do so because, as a jinn, he
(Cathedral of St. Paul, Liège, Belgium)
had free will), seeing Adam as being inferior in creation due to his
being created from clay as compared to him (created of fire).[19]
"It is We Who created you and gave you shape; then We bade the angels prostrate to Adam, and they prostrate;
not so Iblis (Lucifer); He refused to be of those who prostrate."
(Allah) said: "What prevented thee from prostrating when I commanded thee?" He said: "I am better than he:
Thou didst create me from fire, and him from clay."
Qur'an 7:11–12
It was after this that the title of "Shaitan" was given, which can be roughly translated as "Mischievous" or "Devil".
Shaitan then claims that if the punishment for his act of disobedience is to be delayed until the Day of Judgment, that
he will divert many of Adam's own descendants from the straight path during his period of respite.[20] Allah accepts
the claims of Iblis and guarantees recompense to Iblis and his followers in the form of Hellfire. In order to test
mankind and jinn alike, Allah allowed Iblis to roam the earth to attempt to convert others away from his path.[21] He
was sent to earth along with Adam and Eve, after eventually luring them into eating the fruit from the forbidden
tree.[22]
Other readings
Joseph Campbell (1972: pp. 148–149) illustrates an unorthodox Islamic reading of Lucifer's fall from Heaven, which
champions Lucifer's eclipsing love for God:
One of the most amazing images of love that I know is in Persian – a mystical Persian representation as Satan
as the most loyal lover of God. You will have heard the old legend of how, when God created the angels, he
commanded them to pay worship to no one but himself; but then, creating man, he commanded them to bow in
reverence to this most noble of his works, and Lucifer refused – because, we are told, of his pride. However,
according to this Muslim reading of his case, it was rather because he loved and adored God so deeply and
intensely that he could not bring himself to bow before anything else, and because he refused to bow down to
Lucifer 70
something inferior to him (since he was made of fire, and man from clay). And it was for that that he was
flung into Hell, condemned to exist there forever, apart from his love.
This interpretation of the satanic rebellion described in the Quran is seen by some Sufi teachers such as Mansur
Al-Hallaj (in his 'Tawasin') as a predestined scenario in which Iblis-Shaitan plays the role of tragic and jealous lover
who, unable to perceive the Divine Image in Adam and capable only of seeing the exterior, disobeyed the divine
mandate to bow down. His refusal (according to the Tawasin) was due to a misconceived idea of God's uniqueness
and because of his refusal to abandon himself to God in love. Hallaj criticized the staleness of Iblis' adoration.
Excerpts from Sufi texts expounding this interpretation have been included along with many other viewpoints on
Shaitan (by no means all of them apologetic) in an important anthology of Sufi texts edited by Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh,
head of the Nimatullahi Sufi Order.[23]
The Sufi teacher Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan taught that 'Luciferian Light' is Light which has become dislocated from
the Divine Source and is thus associated with the seductive false light of the lower ego which lures humankind into
self-centered delusion.[24] Here Lucifer represents what the Sufis term the 'Nafs', the ego.
Mentions of the Morning Star in the Bible

The Vulgate (Latin) version of the Christian Bible used the word "lucifer" (with lower-case initial) twice to refer to
the Morning Star: once in Peter 2 1:19 to translate the Greek word Φωσφόρος, a word, from φῶς (light), that has
exactly the same meaning of Light-Bringer that the Latin word has, and once in Isaiah 14:12 to translate the Hebrew
word ‫( לליה‬Hêlēl).[25] In the latter passage the title of "Morning Star" is given to the tyrannous Babylonian king,
who the prophet says is destined to fall. This passage was later applied to the prince of the demons, and so the name
"Lucifer" came to be used outside the Bible for the devil, and was popularized in works such as Dante Alighieri's
Inferno and John Milton's Paradise Lost, but for English speakers the greatest influence has been its use in the King
James Version of Isa 14:12 to translate the Hebrew word ‫לליה‬, which more modern English versions render as
"Morning Star" or "Day Star". A similar passage in Ezekiel 28:11–19 regarding the "king of Tyre" was also applied
to the devil, contributing to the traditional picture of the fallen angel.
The Vulgate translation uses "lucifer" (Morning Star) twice to translate words in the Book of Job that meant
something different: once to represent the word "‫["רקב‬26] (which instead means "morning") in Job 11:17, and once
for the word "‫( "תורזמ‬usually taken to mean "the constellations") in Job 38:32. The same Latin word appears also in
the Vulgate version of Psalms 110:3, where the original has "‫( "רחׁש‬dawn, the same word as in Isaiah 14:12).
The Vulgate did not use the Latin word lucifer to represent the two references to the Morning Star in the Book of
Revelation . In both cases the original Greek text uses a circumlocution instead of the single word "φωσφόρος", and
a corresponding circumlocution is used in the Latin. Thus "stella matutina" is used for "ὁ ἀστὴρ ὁ πρωϊνός" in
Revelation 2:28, which promises the Morning Star to those who persevere, and for "ὁ ἀστὴρ ὁ πρωϊνός" (or,
according to some manuscripts, "ὁ ἀστὴρ ὁ ὀρθρινός") in Revelation 22:16, where Jesus calls himself "the bright
morning star".
The English word "Lucifer" is used in none of these places (other than Isaiah 14:12), where the Latin translation uses
the Latin word "lucifer" (i.e., morning star).
Outside the Bible, the Roman Rite liturgy's Exultet chant in praise of the paschal candle refers to Christ as the
Morning Star (in Latin, lucifer, with lower-case initial):
Lucifer 71
May the Morning Star which never sets Flammas eius lucifer matutinus
find this flame still burning: inveniat:
Christ, that Morning Star, ille, inquam, lucifer, qui nescit
who came back from the dead, occasum,
and shed his peaceful light on all mankind, Christus Filius tuus qui,
your Son, who lives and reigns for ever and ever. regressus ab inferis,
humano generi serenus illuxit,
et vivit et regnat in saecula saeculorum.
Astronomical significance
Because the planet Venus is an inferior planet, meaning that its orbit lies between the orbit of the Earth and the Sun,
it can never rise high in the sky at night as seen from Earth. It can be seen in the eastern morning sky for an hour or
so before the Sun rises, and in the western evening sky for an hour or so after the Sun sets, but never during the dark
of midnight.
It is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun and the Moon. As bright and as brilliant as it is, ancient people did
not understand why they could not see it at midnight like the outer planets, or during midday, like the Sun and Moon.
It outshines the planets Saturn and Jupiter, which do last all night, but it soon disappears. Canaanite mythology has a
story of an unsuccessful attempt by Athtar, the Morning Star pictured as a god, to take over the throne of Baal.[27]
[28]
Latin name for the Morning Star

In Latin, the word "Lucifer", meaning "Light-Bringer" (from lux, lucis,
"light", and ferre, "to bear, bring"), is a name used for the Morning Star
(the planet Venus in its dawn appearances).[29] The word is used in its
astronomical sense both in prose[30] and poetry,[31] but most poets
personify the star in a mythological context.[32]
Non-Biblical use of "Morning Star" as a title

A 2nd-century sculpture of the moon goddess
"Morning Star" appears to have been used as a poetic description of
Selene accompanied by Hesperus and
Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II in 968. Liutprand, bishop of Phosphorus: the corresponding Latin names are
Cremona, reported the greeting sung to the emperor arriving at Hagia Luna, Vesper and Lucifer.
Sophia: "Behold the morning star approaches Eos rises; he reflects in
his glances the rays of the sun – he the pale death of the Saracens, Nicephorus the ruler."[33]
The Taxil Hoax: Lucifer's alleged connection with Freemasonry

Léo Taxil (1854–1907) claimed that Freemasonry is associated with worshipping Lucifer. In what is known as the
Taxil hoax, he claimed that supposedly leading Freemason Albert Pike had addressed "The 23 Supreme
Confederated Councils of the world" (an invention of Taxil), instructing them that Lucifer was God, and was in
opposition to the evil god Adonai. Apologists of Freemasonry contend that, when Albert Pike and other Masonic
scholars spoke about the "Luciferian path," or the "energies of Lucifer," they were referring to the Morning Star, the
light bearer,[34] the search for light; the very antithesis of dark, satanic evil. Taxil promoted a book by Diana
Vaughan (actually written by himself, as he later confessed publicly)[35] that purported to reveal a highly secret
ruling body called the Palladium which controlled the organization and had a Satanic agenda. As described by
Freemasonry Disclosed in 1897:
Lucifer 72
With frightening cynicism, the miserable person we shall not name here [Taxil] declared before an assembly
especially convened for him that for twelve years he had prepared and carried out to the end the most
sacrilegious of hoaxes. We have always been careful to publish special articles concerning Palladism and
Diana Vaughan. We are now giving in this issue a complete list of these articles, which can now be considered
as not having existed.[36]
Taxil's work and Pike's address continue to be quoted by anti-masonic groups.[37]
In Devil-Worship in France, Arthur Edward Waite compared Taxil's work to what today we would call a tabloid
story, replete with logical and factual inconsistencies.
See also "Lucifer and Satan" [38] at the Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon website.
Occult beliefs
In the modern occultism of Dolores North (alias Madeline Montalban) (died 1982)[40]
Lucifer's identification as the Morning Star (Venus) equates him with Lumiel, whom
she regarded as the Archangel of Light, and among Satanists he is seen as the "Torch
of Baphomet" and Azazel.
In the Satanic Bible of 1969, Lucifer is acknowledged as one of the Four Crown
Princes of, particularly that of the East. Lord of the Air, Lucifer has been named
"Bringer of Light, the Morning Star, Intellectualism, Enlightenment."
Author Michael W. Ford[41] has written on Lucifer as a "mask" of the Adversary, a
motivator and illuminating force of the mind and subconscious.[42]
The Sigil of Lucifer ("Seal of

[39]
Satan") a magical sigil
used occasionally as an
emblem by Satanists
Gallery of images of Lucifer
Lucifer, by Alessandro Vellutello Lucifer, by William Blake, for cover of 1887 edition of Lucifer before the Lord, by
(1534), for Dante's Inferno, canto Dante's Inferno, canto 34 Mario Rapisardi's poem Mihály Zichy (19th century)
34 Lucifero
Lucifer 73
Lucifer, the Fallen Angel, by Mayor Hall and Lucifer, by The planet Venus, either as the
James Donahue an unknown artist (1870) Morning Star (in Latin, Lucifer)
or as the Evening Star (in Latin,
Hesperus)
See also
• Christianity
• Devil
• Earendel
• Eosphoros
• Iblis
• Luceafăr
• Lucifer in popular culture
• Luciferianism
• War in Heaven
Further reading
• Campbell, Joseph (1972). Myths To Live By. A Condor Book: Souvenir Press (Educational & Academic) Ltd.
ISBN 0-285-64731-8
External links
"Lucifer" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Lucifer [43]
References
[1] Milton's poem uses the name "Lucifer" only three times, as against 72 mentions of "Satan". The name used in this context is "Satan".
[2] http:/ / www. danshort. com/ pl/ page1. php?p=12
[3] http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Isaiah%2014:3-20& version=NIV
[4] The word in the original text in Hebrew is ‫( לֵליֵה‬transliteration: helel; definition: a shining one – Strong's Hebrew Numbers, 1966). (http:/ /
strongsnumbers. com/ hebrew/ 1966. htm)
[5] The word in the original text is Hebrew ‫( םִיַ֫מָׁש‬transliteration: shamayim; definition: heaven, sky – Strong's Hebrew Numbers, 8064). (http:/ /
strongsnumbers. com/ hebrew/ 8064. htm)
[6] http:/ / www. danshort. com/ pl/ page1. php?p=19
[7] Verses 29:4, 31:4 of the longer recension manuscript R
[8] "The Lucifer myth was transferred to Satan in the pre-Christian century, as may be learned from Vita Adæ et Evæ (12) and Slavonic Enoch
(xxix. 4, xxxi. 4)" – article Lucifer (http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia. com/ view. jsp?artid=612& letter=L)
[9] Jewish Encyclopedia: article Lucifer (http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia. com/ view. jsp?artid=612& letter=L)
[10] Jose [Fortea] Cucurull, Summa Daemoniaca 2004. (ISBN 84-933788-2-8)
[11] Jewish Encyclopedia: article Satan (http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia. com/ view. jsp?artid=270& letter=S)
Lucifer 74
[12] Jewish Encyclopedia: article Fall Of Angels (http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia. com/ view. jsp?artid=612& letter=F)
[13] Isaiah 14:3–4, 14:12–17
[14] Tyndale Bible Dictionary (Carol Stream, Illinois 2001 ISBN 978-1-4143-1945-2), article Lucifer (p. 829)
[15] "Verses 12–15 seem to be based on a Phoenician model. At all events, they display several points of contact with the Ras-Shamra poems:
Daystar and Dawn were two divinities; the "mount of Assembly" was where the gods used to meet, like Mount Olympus in Greek mythology.
The Fathers identified the fall of the Morning Star (Vulgate, Lucifer) with that of the prince of the demons" (note in the New Jerusalem Bible).
[16] The Septuagint Greek translation of the phrase uses the same interpretation of "son of dawn": ὁ ἑωσφόρος ὁ πρωὶ ἀνατέλλων.
[17] Your heart is proud and you have said, "I am a god; I sit in the seat of the gods, in the heart of the seas" … By your great wisdom in trade
you have increased your wealth, and your heart has become proud in your wealth (verses 2 and 5)
[18] With an anointed cherub as guardian I placed you; you were on the holy mountain of God; you walked among the stones of fire. You were
blameless in your ways from the day that you were created, until iniquity was found in you. In the abundance of your trade you were filled
with violence, and you sinned; so I cast you as a profane thing from the mountain of God, and the guardian cherub drove you out from among
the stones of fire (verses 14–16).
[19] [Qur'an 17:61 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ quran/ 017. qmt. html#017. 061)]; [Qur'an 2:34 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ quran/
002. qmt. html#002. 034)]
[20] [Qur'an 17:62 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ quran/ 017. qmt. html#017. 062)]
[21] [Qur'an 17:63–64 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ quran/ 017. qmt. html#017. 63& ndash;64)]
[22] [Qur'an 7:20–22 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ quran/ 007. qmt. html#007. 20& ndash;22)]
[23] Nurbakhsh, Javad. The Great Satan 'Eblis'. KNP, 1999. ISBN 0933546238.
[24] Universel.net (http:/ / www. universel. net/ Gateway. cfm?Selected=Media& SelectedID=114)
[25] In the Greek translation of this passage the word used is Ἑωσφόρος – from ἔως, meaning dawn – which literally means Dawn-Bringer.
[26] Hebrew text (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ a/ anonymous/ hebrewot/ Job. html)
[27] John Day, Yahweh and the gods and goddesses of Canaan (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=y-gfwlltlRwC) (Continuum International
Publishing Group, 2002 ISBN 0826468306, 9780826468307), pp. 172–173
[28] Gregory A. Boyd, God at War: The Bible & Spiritual Conflict (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Hj791_BeAF0C) (InterVarsity Press,
1997 ISBN 0830818855, 9780830818853), pp. 159–160
[29] [[Lewis and Short (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?layout. reflang=la;layout. reflookup=Lucifer;doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04.
0059:entry=#27063)]]
[30] Cicero wrote: Stella Veneris, quae Φωσφόρος Graece, Latine dicitur Lucifer, cum antegreditur solem, cum subsequitur autem Hesperos
(The star of Venus, called Φωσφόρος in Greek and Lucifer in Latin when it precedes, Hesperos when it follows the sun – De Natura Deorum
2, 20, 53 (http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ cicero/ nd2. shtml#53).
Pliny the Elder: Sidus appellatum Veneris … ante matutinum exoriens Luciferi nomen accipit … contra ab occasu refulgens nuncupatur
Vesper (The star called Venus … when it rises in the morning is given the name Lucifer … but when it shines at sunset it is called Vesper)
Natural History 2, 36 (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 02. 0004& query=id=#927)
[31] Virgil wrote:
Luciferi primo cum sidere frigida rura
carpamus, dum mane novum, dum gramina canent
(Let us hasten, when first the Morning Star appears, to the cool pastures, while the day is new, while the grass is dewy) [[Georgics (http:/ /
www. thelatinlibrary. com/ vergil/ geo3. shtml)] 3:324–325].
[32] Ovid wrote:
… vigil nitido patefecit ab ortu
purpureas Aurora fores et plena rosarum
atria: diffugiunt stellae, quarum agmina cogit
Lucifer et caeli statione novissimus exit
(Aurora, awake in the glowing east, opens wide her bright doors, and her rose-filled courts. The stars, whose ranks are shepherded by Lucifer
the morning star, vanish, and he, last of all, leaves his station in the sky – Metamorphoses 2.114–115; A. S. Kline's Version (http:/ / etext.
virginia. edu/ latin/ ovid/ trans/ Metamorph2. htm#476707492)
And Lucan:
Lucifer a Casia prospexit rupe diemque
misit in Aegypton primo quoque sole calentem
(The morning-star looked forth from Mount Casius and sent the daylight over Egypt, where even sunrise is hot) Lucan, Pharsalia, 10:434–435
(http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ lucan/ lucan10. shtml); English translation by J.D.Duff (Loeb Classical Library) (http:/ / www. archive.
org/ stream/ lucancivilwarboo00lucauoft/ lucancivilwarboo00lucauoft_djvu. txt) And Statius:
Et iam Mygdoniis elata cubilibus alto
impulerat caelo gelidas Aurora tenebras,
rorantes excussa comas multumque sequenti
sole rubens; illi roseus per nubila seras
aduertit flammas alienumque aethera tardo
Lucifer exit equo, donec pater igneus orbem
Lucifer 75
impleat atque ipsi radios uetet esse sorori

(And now Aurora rising from her Mygdonian couch had driven the cold darkness on from high in the heavens, shaking out her dewy hair, her
face blushing red at the pursuing sun – from him roseate Lucifer averts his fires lingering in the clouds and with reluctant horse leaves the
heavens no longer his, until the blazing father make full his orb and forbid even his sister her beams) [[Thebaid (Latin poem)|Statius, Thebaid
(http:/ / www. thelatinlibrary. com/ statius/ theb2. shtml)] 2, 134–150]; Translated by A. L. Ritchie and J. B. Hall in collaboration with M. J.
Edwards (http:/ / www. c-s-p. org/ Flyers/ 9781847183545-sample. pdf)
[33] "Liutprand of Cremona: Report of his Mission to Constantinople" (http:/ / medieval. ucdavis. edu/ 20A/ Luitprand. html). . Retrieved
2007-06-27.
[34] "Lucifer, the Son of the Morning! Is it he who bears the Light, and with its splendors intolerable blinds feeble, sensual, or selfish Souls?
Doubt it not!" (Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma, p. 321). Much has been made of this quote ( Masonic information: Lucifer (http:/ / www.
masonicinfo. com/ lucifer. htm)).
[35] Leo Taxil's confession (http:/ / freemasonry. bcy. ca/ texts/ taxil_confessed. html)
[36] Freemasonry Disclosed April 1897
[37] "Leo Taxil: The tale of the Pope and the Pornographer" (http:/ / www. masonicinfo. com/ taxil. htm). . Retrieved 14 September 2006.
[38] http:/ / www. freemasonry. bcy. ca/ texts/ LuciferandSatan. html
[39] Alternative Religions (http:/ / altreligion. about. com/ library/ glossary/ symbols/ bldefslucifersigil. htm)
[40] Madeline Montalban and the Order of the Morning Star (http:/ / www. sheridandouglas. co. uk/ OMS. htm)
[41] Luciferwitchcraft.com (http:/ / www. luciferianwitchcraft. com/ mfordbooks. htm)
[42] The Bible of the Adversary "Adversarial Doctrine" page 8 – Bible of the Adversary, Succubus Productions 2007).
[43] http:/ / jewishencyclopedia. com/ view. jsp?artid=612& letter=L& search=Lucifer
76
20
Scarecrow
A scarecrow is a device – traditionally a human figure
or mannequin dressed in old clothes – placed in fields
by farmers to discourage birds such as crows or
sparrows from disturbing and feeding on recently cast
seed and growing crops.[1]
Scarecrows in a rice paddy in Japan

Scarecrow 77
History
In Kojiki, the oldest surviving book in Japan (compiled
in the year 712), a scarecrow known as Kuebiko appears
as a deity who cannot walk, yet knows everything about
the world.
The 1881 Household Cyclopedia of General Information
gives the following advice:
Machinery of various kinds, such as wind-mills in
miniature, horse rattles, etc., to be put in motion
by the wind, are often employed to frighten crows;
but with all of these they soon become familiar,
when they cease to be of any use whatever.
The most effectual method of banishing them
from a field, as far as experience goes, is to
combine with one or other of the scarecrows in
vogue the frequent use of the musket. Nothing
strikes such terror into these sagacious animals as
the sight of a fowling-piece and the explosion of
gun powder, which they have known so often to
be fatal to their race.
Such is their dread of a fowling-piece, that if one
is placed upon a dyke or other eminence, it will
for a long time prevent them from alighting on the
A rather ineffective scarecrow
adjacent grounds. Many persons now, however,
believe that crows like most other birds, do more
good by destroying insects and worms, etc., than harm by eating grain.
—Henry Hartshorne, The Household Cyclopedia of General Information [2]
Crows can be a substantial problem for gardens in the springtime: they can work down a row pulling up recently
sprouted corn to eat the remaining seed/seedlings. In the southern Appalachians another common method of scaring
off crows was use of a dead crow hung upside down from a pole.
Modern scarecrows seldom take a human shape. On California farmland, highly reflective aluminized PET film
ribbons are tied to the plants to create shimmers from the sun. Another approach is automatic noise guns powered by
propane gas.
Scarecrow 78
Other names for scarecrows

In the United Kingdom, where the use of scarecrows as
a protector of crops dates from time immemorial, and
where dialects were rife, there are a wide range of
alternative names such as:
• Mommet (Somerset)
• Murmet (Devon)
• Hodmedod (Berkshire)
• Tattie bogle [3] (Scotland), Bodach-rocais (lit. "old
man of the rooks")
• Bwbach (Wales)
Alternative names for scarecrows also include these
localized versions: Korean scarecrows
• Tao-tao (Philippines)
• Bogle
• Flay-crow
• Mawpin
• Mawkin
• Bird-scarer
• Moggy
• Shay
• Guy
• Bogeyman
• Shuft
• Rook-scarer
• Kelson
• Nuffara (Maltese)
• Espantalho (Portuguese)
(Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to
Language and Society. London: Penguin Books, 2000) The scarecrow which was covered with a
helmet(Japan)
Cultural impact
The impact of the scarecrow extends beyond its immediate utilitarian function. Scarecrows feature in literature and
in festivals.
Literature and film

In the 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe, by Daniel Defoe, the main character attempts to keep birds from eating his
newly sowed corn stalks. As a discouragement, he shoots several of the birds and then hangs them in rows, such as
English prisoners. The remaining birds are so frightened that they refuse to even remain in the area. While not the
modern idea of a scarecrow, Crusoe does remark, "...I could never see a bird near the place as long as my scarecrows
hung there." (Crusoe is generally thought of as the first English novel to use the term and it is possible that the term
owes its popularity to this appearance.)
Scarecrow 79
Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story "Feathertop" is about a scarecrow created and brought to life in seventeenth
century Salem, Massachusetts by a witch in league with the devil. He is intended to be used for sinister purposes and
at first believes himself to be human, but develops human feelings and deliberately cuts his own life short when he
realizes what he really is. The basic framework of the story was used by American dramatist Percy MacKaye in his
1908 play The Scarecrow.
L. Frank Baum's tale The Wonderful Wizard of Oz has a scarecrow as one of the main protagonists. The Scarecrow
of Oz was searching for brains from the Great Wizard. In the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz The Scarecrow of Oz was
portrayed by Ray Bolger. In the 1914 film His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz the Scarecrow of Oz was portrayed by
Frank Moore.
Worzel Gummidge, a scarecrow who came to life in a friendly form, first appeared in series of novels by Barbara
Euphan Todd in the 1930s, and later in a popular television adaptation.
The Scarecrow is the alter ego of the Reverend Doctor
Christopher Syn, the smuggler-Robin-Hood hero in a
series of novels written by Russell Thorndike. The first
book, Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh, was
published in 1915. The story was made into a movie
(1937) and later taken up by Disney in 1963 and
dramatized for its Sunday night audience as Dr. Syn:
The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh starring Patrick
McGoohan.
A film directed by Jerry Schatzberg in 1973 starring Al

Pacino and Gene Hackman is titled Scarecrow and
deals with two characters on a journey reminiscent of
Worzel Gummidge
the one in L. Frank Baum's book. The film also features
a dialogue regarding scarecrows which presents the
idea that the crows find scarecrows funny, and crows, as a sign of gratitude for the laughter, decide to keep off of
crops where scarecrows are posted.
"Scarecrow" is the callsign of Captain Shane M. Schofield who appears in Ice Station, Area 7, Scarecrow and Hell
Island by Australian author Matthew Reilly.
Cillian Murphy portrays the Scarecrow in the 2005 feature film Batman Begins and the 2008 sequel The Dark
Knight. In the film, Jonathan Crane is the lead psychiatrist at Arkham Asylum and also working with mobster
Carmine Falcone, declaring his arrested henchmen insane so they can be released quicker. However, he also
conducts experiments on his patients, using a fear toxin developed with Ra's al Ghul to break their minds. This
version just wears a poorly-stitched burlap sack with a built-in rebreather, doubling as a gas mask. Murphy explained
that the relatively simple mask was done because "[He] wanted to avoid the Worzel Gummidge look, because he's
not a very physically imposing man - he's more interested in the manipulation of the mind and what that can do."[14]
Scarecrow 80
Comics
The Scarecrow is a character in the DC Comics universe, a classic supervillain and one of Batman's greatest
enemies. Similar characters, known as Scarecrow and Straw Man, have appeared in Marvel Comics.
A scarecrow called Mervyn Pumpkinhead is one of the dreams who serve Dream of the Endless in Neil Gaiman's
The Sandman (Vertigo) series. Mervyn is a builder of dreamscapes as well as a caretaker or maintenance worker of
sorts.
Music
Disney created a themesong for its 1963 Dr. Syn: The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh, which included the lyrics,
"Scarecrow, Scarecrow, the soldiers of the King fear his name! Scarecrow, Scarecrow, but the people love him just
the same. SCARECROW!"
Dr. Syn: The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh (Walt Disney Treasures) (1964) British band Pink Floyd recorded a song
called "The Scarecrow" for their debut album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, while Southern horrorcore rapper
Boondox's stage act incorporates scarecrow imagery. In January 2008 Avantasia, a heavy metal project by Edguy's
vocalist Tobias Sammet released an album called The Scarecrow.
A song on "Psalm 69" by American band Ministry is named "Scarecrow".
The album Peepshow by British band Siouxsie and the Banshees contains a track called "Scarecrow".
Beck's album Guero contains a song named "Scarecrow".
Other
In August 2004 a scarecrow dressed as a police woman was stolen from Middleton-in-Teesdale by staff at Loaded
magazine who appointed it as guest editor for one issue. [4]
Scarecrows are also a type of creature in the trading card game Magic: The Gathering. They act as ordinary
scarcrows animated by magical means.
Scarecrow festivals
In the UK, the festival at Wray, Lancashire was established in the early 1990s and continues to the present day. In
the village of Orton, Eden, scarecrows are displayed each year, often using topical themes such as a Dalek
exterminating a Wind turbine to represent local opposition to a wind farm. Norland, West Yorkshire has a festival.
Tetford and Salmonby jointly host one. In Teesdale, the villages of Cotherstone, Staindrop and
Middleton-in-Teesdale have annual scarecrow festivals. The village of Meerbrook in Staffordshire holds an annual
Scarecrow Festival during the month of May. In Dymchurch on Romney Marsh a man dressed as a scarecrow rode
down the street annually since 1964 in celebration of local author Russel Thorndike's Dr Syn books, however in
2008 he was required to walk due to health and safety regulations. Tonbridge in Kent also host an annual "Scarecrow
Trail" [5]., organised by the local Rotary Club to raise money for local charities. In the USA, St. Charles, Illinois
hosts an annual "Scarecrow Festival" [6]. The 'pumpkin people' come in the fall months in the valley region of Nova
Scotia, Canada. They are scarecrows with pumpkin heads doing various things such as playing the fiddle or riding a
wooden horse. Cats and pigs made from pumpkins are also present. Hick;ing, in the south of Nottinghamshire, is
another village that celebrates an annual scarecrow event. It is very popular and has successfully raised a great deal
of money for charity. [7] Photographs of some of the hundreds of scarecrows built at Hickling can be found here...
[8]
Scarecrow 81
See also
• Bird scarer
• Klopotec
• Kostroma (tradition)
• Henohenomoheji
• Sōzu
Further reading
Scarecrow Fact and Fable, Peter Haining, 1986
External links
• British history of the scarecrow [9]
• Photo of a crow trap in Australia [10]
• A typical English scarecrow made of discarded clothing [11]
References
[1] Lesley Brown (ed.). (2007). "Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles". 6th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-9233243.
[2] Hartshorne, Henry. (1881). "The Household Cyclopedia of General Information". New York: Thomas Kelly.
[3] Warrack, Alexander (1982). "Chambers Scots Dictionary". Chambers. ISBN 0-550-11801-2.
[4] Mercury, Teesdale. "Men's magazine owns up to stealing scarecrow Nancy" (http:/ / www. teesdalemercury. co. uk/ teesdale-news/ story,773.
html). .
[5] http:/ / www. tmbc. gov. uk/ cgi-bin/ buildpage. pl?mysql=2922
[6] http:/ / www. scarecrowfest. com/
[7] http:/ / www. meltontimes. co. uk/ news/ Village-hands-over-13500. 6061185. jp
[8] http:/ / good-times. webshots. com/ album/ 553956839TVZoQG
[9] http:/ / www. scarecrowland. co. uk/ history. html
[10] http:/ / libapp. sl. nsw. gov. au/ cgi-bin/ spydus/ ENQ/ PM/ FULL1?394494,I
[11] http:/ / quitehuman. wordpress. com/ 2007/ 10/ 01/ fred-the-scarecrow/
82
21
Mentor
In Greek mythology, Mentor (Greek: Μέντωρ / Méntōr; gen.: Μέντορος)[1] was the son of Alcumus and, in his old
age, a friend of Odysseus. When Odysseus left for the Trojan War he placed Mentor in charge of his son,
Telemachus, and of his palace. When Athena visited Telemachus she took the disguise of Mentor to hide herself
from the suitors of Telemachus' mother Penelope.[2] As Mentor, the goddess encourages Telemachus to stand up
against the suitors and go abroad to find out what happened to his father.
[3]
When Odysseus returns to Ithaca, Athena (in the form of Mentor) takes the form of a swallow and the suitors'
arrows have no effect on him.
Mentor as term
The first recorded modern usage of the term can be traced to a book entitled "Les Aventures de Telemaque", by the
French writer François Fénelon[4] In the book the lead character is that of Mentor. This book was published in 1699
and was very popular during the 18th century and the modern application of the term can be traced to this
publication.[4]
This is the source of the modern use of the word mentor: a trusted friend, counselor or teacher, usually a more
experienced person. Some professions have "mentoring programs" in which newcomers are paired with more
experienced people, who advise them and serve as examples as they advance. Schools sometimes offer mentoring
programs to new students, or students having difficulties.
Today mentors provide expertise to less experienced individuals to help them advance their careers, enhance their
education, and build their networks. In many different arenas people have benefited from being part of a mentoring
relationship, including:
• Authors - H.P. Lovecraft mentored Robert Bloch, Clark Ashton Smith, and Robert E. Howard
• Business people - Freddie Laker mentored Richard Branson
• Politicians - Aristotle mentored Alexander the Great
• Directors - Roger Corman mentored Francis Ford Coppola, Martin Scorsese, Ron Howard, Peter Bogdanovich,
Jonathan Demme, Joe Dante, James Cameron, John Sayles, Donald G. Jackson, Gale Anne Hurd, Carl Colpaert,
Monte Hellman, Paul Bartel, George Armitage, Jonathan Kaplan, George Hickenlooper, Curtis Hanson, and Jack
Hill. Martin Scorsese mentored Oliver Stone at New York University
• Actors - Laurence Olivier mentored Anthony Hopkins. Martin Landau mentored Jack Nicholson. Mel Gibson
mentored Heath Ledger
• Musicians - Johann Christian Bach mentored Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. José Antonio Abreu mentored Gustavo
Dudamel. Dr. Dre mentors Eminem. Denniz Pop mentored Max Martin. David Foster mentored Josh Groban
• Athletes - Eddy Merckx (five-time Tour de France winner) mentored Lance Armstrong (seven-time Tour de
France winner). Bobby Charlton mentored David Beckham
• Movies - Obi-wan Kenobi mentored Anakin Skywalker and his son Luke Skywalker
• Television - Perry Cox mentored J.D. (Scrubs)
• Video Games - The Boss mentored Naked Snake. The latter's son, Solid Snake, mentored Raiden.
• Poetry - Seamus Heaney mentored Paul Muldoon.
Mentor 83
"Mentee"
The student of a mentor is called a protégé. More accurately, for the recondite, the protégé would be called the
telemachus (pl. telemachuses or telemachi). Sometimes, the protégé is also called a mentee. The -or ending of the
original name Mentor does not have the meaning of "the one who does something", as in other English words such
as contractor or actor. The derivation of mentee from mentor is therefore an example of backformation (cf. employer
and employee).
See also
• Mentoring
• Youth mentoring
• Peer mentoring
• Coaching
• Tutor
• MENTOR
• eMentors
• Maybach Foundation
External links
• Mentorship: A Selected Bibliography [5]
• 2009 USA Today article on how successful women are mentored mostly by men [6]
• [7]
References
[1] Online Etymology Dictionary - Mentor (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=mentor)
[2] Homer. Odyssey, Book II, Lines 255 and 268.
[3] http:/ / records. viu. ca/ ~johnstoi/ homer/ odyssey22. htm
[4] Roberts, Andy. (1999) "The origins of the term mentor." History of Education Society Bulletin, No. 64, November 1999, p. 313-329.
[5] http:/ / www. carlisle. army. mil/ library/ bibs/ mentor06. pdf
[6] http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ money/ companies/ management/ 2009-08-04-female-executives-male-mentors_N. htm
[7] http:/ / www. compumentors. com
84
22
Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism

For the Ascending reticular activating system, see Reticular activating system
The Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism (ARAS) is an encyclopedic collection of archetypal images
consisting of photographs of works of art, ritual images, and artifacts of sacred traditions and contemporary art from
around the world. The archive is hosted by National ARAS with institutional members in New York, Los Angeles,
Chicago and San Francisco.
Today, the ARAS archive contains about 17,000 photographic images collected over more than sixty years, each
accompanied by scholarly commentary. The commentary includes a description of the image with a cultural history
that places it in in context historically and geographically, an important aspect for understanding and working with
archetypal images. Where applicable, the commentary brings the image into focus for its modern psychological and
symbolic meaning, as well as often including a bibliography for related reading and a glossary of technical terms.
The archive has physical repositories in the cities of its institutional-member hosts; it is also available online (online
access does require a subscription) and images are indexed with keywords, including historical, cultural, geographic
and other useful terms. ARAS also publishes a quarterly online journal connecting art, culture and depth psychology
from a multi-disciplinary perspective that can be subscribed to free of charge on their website, aras.org.
Who uses ARAS?

The ARAS archive is designed for and used by students and scholars for research, by artists and designers as a
sourcebook of motifs and iconographic forms, by individuals interested in commonalities in mythology, dream
imagery, and vision which transcend nation and ideology, and by practitioners of depth psychology or other
psychological perspectives wanting to enhance their knowledge of archetypal symbolism.[1]
Among the scholars who have visited or made use of ARAS' resources are Erich Neumann, who in his The Great
Mother: An Analysis of the Archetype (Princeton, 1955) mined ARAS for images of ancient goddesses to explore the
archetype of the feminine as it evolved over the centuries from ancient Sumeria and Egypt into the modern era. Two
volumes have been published containing a small fraction of the images held by ARAS, entitled An Encyclopedia of
Archetypal Symbolism.
History of ARAS
ARAS was begun — and built to over six thousand images — by spiritualist and scholar Olga Fröbe-Kapteyn, who
founded the Eranos conferences in 1933. Each conference had a theme, and Olga collected images to illustrate the
topic of each year's meeting. In 1946 Olga Froebe-Kapteyn gave her collection of pictorial artifacts to the Warburg
Institute in London, and photographic duplicates were given to the C.G. Jung Institute in Zurich and to the Bollingen
Foundation in New York. The collection in New York was edited and further developed, including collection,
sorting, and classification of the material and the development of detailed study sheets for every image. This New
York archive was eventually renamed the Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism and was acquired by the
C.G. Jung Foundation of New York (mirror collections exist at the C.G. Jung Institutes in San Francisco and Los
Angeles). The close association of ARAS with the Jung Institutes is "not because a symbolic point of view is limited
to Jungians, but because Jung was the particular proponent of a broadly archetypal point of view that insists upon
transpersonal and symbolic connections transcending cultural and theological boundaries. This perspective lies at the
Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism 85
heart of the archive."[2]

ARAS today contains more than 17,000 images from every era of human history, from the Paleolithic and Neolithic
eras, from ancient India, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Mycenae, from small tribal societies to great empires. The study
sheets that accompany each image provide a detailed description of the image, a cultural history to place it in
context, an archetypal commentary which examines the image's modern psychological meaning and offers numerous
cross-cultural references to related concepts/images, a bibliography for related reading, and a glossary of technical
terms. This detailed documentation renders the library of images accessible to the lay person as well as the specialist
scholar, although as the ARAS home page notes, "There is...no supposition among those working in this field that
they have found the one and only way of interpreting archetypal symbolism. The symbol is forever recreating itself
anew in the imaginations of those who experience it."[2]
ARAS Online
Where for many years the archive was accessible only by personal visit to one of the three locations: New York, San
Francisco and Los Angeles, the digitization of the archive has made it accessible to anyone with a computer
connected through a web browser to the Internet. ARAS online is built over a powerful search engine accessible
through an intuitive user interface, and aided by reference features such as the ARAS cultural timeline. This timeline
shows the selected images placed in historical time, and a click on the "live" marker for a particular image opens that
image and its descriptive content.
See also
• archetype
• Depth psychology
• Carl Jung
• Symbolism (disambiguation)
• Dream interpretation
External links
• Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism website [2]
• Sample image with scholarly commentary: Hall of the Bulls at Lascaux [3]
References
[1] "About ARAS," available online on the ARAS website: http:/ / aras. org/ aboutaras. aspx
[2] [Torben Gronning, Thomas Singer, Patricia Sohl, "A.R.A.S. Archetypal Symbolism and Images" Visual Resources Vol. XXIII, No. 3,
September 2007, pp. 245-267]

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Contents

Examples and conceptual difficulties

Actualization and complexes

Parallels and developments

Archetypes and psychology

The Value of the Archetype

Articles on specific archetypes

Archetypal literary criticism

Critiques of Archetypal Criticism

Examples of Archetypes in Literature

Basic prototype categories

Differences between a prototype and a production design

Characteristics and limitations of prototypes

and then build the full design.

Mechanical and electrical engineering

An electronics designer often builds the first prototype from

manufacturing prices fall and as many components are not available in

Advantages and disadvantages

from the experience of the sensible.

Levels of anima development

Levels of animus development

Anima and animus compared

The latin word derived from the Etruscan

Child archetype in literature and media

Stories of heroism may serve as moral examples. In classical antiquity,

Classical hero cults

The validity of the hero in historical studies

Folk and fairy tales

The modern fictional hero

Wise old man

• The Rabbis, or Sages of Talmudic lore (Judaism)

eight-legged horse Sleipnir, who served as Odin's steed.

The trickster's literary role

Tricksters in Native Traditions

largely missing in the modern Euro-American moral tradition".[18]

Tricksters in various cultures

In mainstream Christianity, God and the Devil are usually

used to explain why others hold beliefs that are considered to be

New Age movement

Similar concepts in other religions

God as the Devil

In English, "Lucifer" generally refers to

The Lucifer story

Early Christian writers continued this identification

However, some contemporary exorcists and

The Morning Star in Isaiah 14:12

Islamic point of view

Mentions of the Morning Star in the Bible

Latin name for the Morning Star

Non-Biblical use of "Morning Star" as a title

The Taxil Hoax: Lucifer's alleged connection with Freemasonry

The Sigil of Lucifer ("Seal of

Gallery of images of Lucifer

impleat atque ipsi radios uetet esse sorori

Scarecrows in a rice paddy in Japan

Other names for scarecrows

Literature and film

A film directed by Jerry Schatzberg in 1973 starring Al

Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism

Who uses ARAS?

heart of the archive."[2]

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