Chapter 0.

Procedures

0.3 Propulsion Models

Warning:
• The mathematical models
10 described next show the trends in the vari-

ation of the engine parameters in an approximately right manner, but

they will be used by us for academic reasons. We must not demand from
them a realism that they are not able to oer.

• If we have data from the manufacturer, we will prefer them.

• More accurate models are quite complex. It will be barely practical to

use them in the 11889 course.

• This information often appears in the shape of graphics or tables and not
as symbolic mathematical expressions.

• In order to numerically x the model, it is necessary to have some correct,

authentic and real basic datum of the modelled engine.

SUMMARY OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR

What follows is a
JET ENGINES

0.3.1 Specic Thermodynamic Models

They analyze the engine cycle according to the laws of thermodynamics. They
allow to study the behavior in any ight condition from the characteristics of
the cycle in an operating point. The mathematical expression is usually not
simple.

0.3.2 Mathematical models for the Specic Fuel Consumption

1. Turbofan engines with a high bypass ratio.

(a) Constant Specic Fuel Consumption:

i. Fixed Point (M = 0, z = 0 - Sea Level)

Ce ≈ 1.11 × 10−5 kg/Ns

10 For more information, please refer to: "Assessment of Numerical Models for Thrust and Specic
Fuel Consumption for Turbofan Engines" by Oliver Schulz (2007), and Élodie Roux's thesis: "Pour
une aproche analytique de la mecanique du vol, vol. I: Modèles Moteurs".

58
 0.3 Propulsion Models

ii. Cruise Flight (M = 0.8, z = 10 km)

Ce ≈ 1.75 × 10−5 kg/Ns

(b) J. Mattingly
q
Ce = 10−5 (1.13 + 1.25M ) σ(z) kg/Ns

(c) ESDU (Double Flux Engines)

M
 
Ce = Ce,0 = 1 − n + n
M0
where

n = 3.51 · 10−2 λ − 1.27 · 10−5 zmeters + 0.31

λ = Engine Bypass Ratio ≥ 3
z ≤ 11 km
M ≈ 0.8
The values of M0 and Ce,0 are a reference Mach number and specic
fuel consumption, to be obtained from the manufacturer data.

(d) A. Carrére Model, for single ux jet engines without postcombus-
tion.
a
Ce = p
b−M γ Rg T
The values of a and b are constants adapted to the specic engine
being treated, to be determined from the manufacturer data.

(e) Model X. For an aircraft powered by high bypass ratio engines

there is a mathematical model frequently used to dene the Specic
Consumption:

s
M T (z)
Ce (M, T (z)) = Ce∗
M ∗ T ∗ (z ∗ )

where
∗
stands for reference condition.

59
Chapter 0. Procedures

0.3.3 Mathematical models for the Thrust

1. J-C Wanner Model (1984):
T = kf σ(z) V λf δP
where

kf = Constant to be obtained from the manufacturer data

λf ≈ −1 for turboprops
λf ≈ 0 for simple ux jet engines
λf ≈ +1 for simple ux jet engines with postcombustion
λf ≈ 2 for ramjets
δP = Position of the thrust lever (0 ≤ δP ≤ 1)
Please note that λf is not the engine bypass ratio.

2. Aérospatiale Model
M2
 
Tmax = T0 1−M + σ(z)
2
where

T0 = Maximum Thrust at a Fixed Point (M = 0, z = 0)

ρ(z)
σ(z) =
ρ0
Apt for λ ≈ 6

3. J. Mattingly Model
h i
3
Tmax = T0 0.568 + 0.25 (1.2 − M ) σ(z)0.6

T0 = Maximum Thrust at a Fixed Point (M = 0, z = 0)

ρ(z)
σ(z) =
ρ0
Apt for λ ≈ 6

M ≤ 0.9 (0.65)

60
 0.3 Propulsion Models

TURBOJET a b
Troposphere (z < 11 km) 1.2 0.1
Stratosphere (z > 11 km) 1.0 0
TURBOFAN a b
Troposphere (z < 11 km) 1.0 0
Stratosphere (z > 11 km) 1.0 0

Table 1: Values of a and b for the Hull model depending on the engine type and the
atmosphere layer.

4. D. Hull Model11
a b
T = T0 [σ(z)] δP Ce = Ce,0 [σ(z)] δP
where

T0 = Maximum Thrust at a Fixed Point (M = 0, z = 0)

Ce,0 = Specic Fuel Consumption corresponding to T0 (M = 0, z = 0)
with the values shown in Table 1 for the a and b constants.

5. Hoskyns University Linear Model for the SNECMA Atar 09k50

jet engine. (Single ow jet engine with postcombustion).
Maximum thrust with full postcombustion load (δP = 1):

TP C,max [z(km), M ] = 61337.9 − 8170.95z + 412.305z 2 − 8.54179z 3 + · · ·

· · · M 19986.2 + 5315.61z − 1007.6z 2 + 64.2477z 3 − 1.51794z 4


[N]
(0.66)

0.3.4 Thrust produced by a propeller coupled to a reciprocating

engine with and without turbocharging
The classical Momentum theory applied to an actuating disk (disk actuator
theory) allows to estimate (with some limitations that we will not have a look
at right now) the thrust generated by a propeller to which a certain power W0
is applied while it is moving with a forward speed V0 .
If we accept that the power required to counter the parasitic aerodynamic
drag of the blade airfoils and that the power delivered by the engine do not

11 We do not wish to suggest that this is the actual name of the mathematical model. This name
is just used for convenience.

61
Chapter 0. Procedures

vary withV0 , the induced power absorbed by the propeller will be constant.
For academic purposes (for the analysis of Flight Mechanics) we will accept
this to be the case, and we will write the fundamental equation as shown in
Equation 0.67.
s !
T 2T
W0 = V0 + V02 + (0.67)
2 ρA

where

T = Thrust
ρ = Density
A = Propeller Disk Area
V0 = Flight Speed
W0 = Available Power

With some manipulations, we may reach the cubic Equation 0.68

s
2T
2 W0 − T V0 = T V02 +
ρA
 
2 22 2T
(2 W0 − T V0 ) = T V0 +
ρA
3
T
+ 2 W0 V0 T − 2 W02 = 0
ρA
T 3 + (2 ρ A W0 V0 ) T − 2 ρ A W02 = 0 ⇒ T 3 + (B) T − (C) = 0


(0.68)

The 3 solutions of Equation 0.68 are, ordinarily, two complex roots and a real
one. We will work with the real root, given by Equation 0.69.

 1/3
 √ √ 1/3 2
9 C + 3 4B 3 + 27C 2 B
3
T = − √ √ 1/3 (0.69)
21/3 32/3
9 C + 3 4B 3 + 27C 2

with B = 2 ρ A W0 V0 and C = 2 ρ A W02 .

62
 0.3 Propulsion Models

Once the values of the constants are replaced, we reach the unpleasant Equa-
tion 0.70.

 √ p 1/3
9 ρ A W02 + 3 8 ρ3 A3 V03 W03 + 27 ρ2 A2 W04
T = − ...
32/3
2 ρ A V 0 W0
··· −  √ p 1/3 (0.70)
31/3 9 ρ A W02 + 3 8 ρ3 A3 V03 W03 + 27 ρ2 A2 W04

As it can be seen, the dependence of T with respect to V0 is not mathemat-

ically simple. However, once the particular values of the powertrain group,
propeller, etc. are replaced, it loses its erce look (and it usually admits a
more comfortable polynomic approximation...).

Relation among the Engine Power and the Useful Power for propul-
sion
Only part of the engine power is converted by the propeller into eective thrust.
An in-depth study of this process is complex.

Following a usual procedure, we will make use of a coecient ηH called " pro-
peller performance ". This coecient, multiplied by the engine power, will give
us the power that the propeller is actually able to transform into thrust.

Thus, we must apply the following substitution to Equation 0.70:

W0 ⇒ W0 η H

Relation among the Power of a reciprocating engine and the atmo-

spheric conditions
The air pressure, temperature and humidity notably inuence the performance
of the reciprocating engines.

It is usually accepted that the power delivered by one engine, with the altitude,
is given by Equation 0.71.

δ(z) q
W (z) = W0,SL p = W0,SL σ(z) θ(z) (0.71)
θ(z)

In order to mitigate the disadvantage of the power reduction with the altitude,
the reciprocating engines appeal to a compressor to introduce a similar (as

63
Chapter 0. Procedures

far as possible) air mass as the one it would draw in at low altitude. These
engines are called turbocharged, and they try to keep the power constant in
this manner.

This Equation 0.71 will also need to be introduced into Equation 0.70 in order
to obtain reasonable results.

In practice and with academic purposes, in Flight Mechanics it is

usual to take assumptions that allow a simpler analytical treatment.
To make it easier to visualize everything we just mentioned, we will represent
the Thrust curves of a propeller coupled to a particular reciprocating engine,
according to the following hypotheses:

RECIPROCATING ENGINE (without compressor)

W0 = 1100 hp
W (z) = W0 σ(z)
ηpropeller = 0.85
φpropeller = 1.80 m ⇒ A = 2.55 m2

Applying Equation 0.70 for the Thrust (T ) with the previous data and the
relations of the ISA atmosphere, we would obtain the curves for the Thrust at
dierent altitudes as a function of the ight speed shown in Figure 0.28.

It may be seen that the thrust with no speed is perfectly determined. The
general mathematic expression of Equation 0.70 may seem complex, but it will
not be so complex for a particular case. It shows, nevertheless, that it is not a
comfortable function of the speed. (In general, it will compensate to perform
some "mathematical accommodation" in the shape of a polynomial expression
or similar).

However, despite what has been mentioned, frequently in Flight Mechanics we

accept an expression for the Thrust that is simply Equation 0.72, with dierent
exponents for the relative density.

W0 x
T = σ (z) (0.72)
V

Figure 0.29 shows (for x = 1) that the Thrust obtained with Equation 0.72
notably diers from the "complete" one introduced previously, especially (as
it could be expected) at low speeds. However, the simplication could make
sense at higher speeds.

64
 0.3 Propulsion Models

Figure 0.28: Sample of the thrust delivered by a propeller as a function of the ight speed
for dierent ight altitudes.

Figure 0.29: Simplied curves for the thrust delivered by a propeller as a function of the
ight speed for dierent ight altitudes.

65
Chapter 0. Procedures

Figure 0.30: Thrust curves obtained according to the disk actuator theory (continuous
lines) and with the simplied model (dashed lines).

If we overlap both curves in Figure 0.30 we will see that (for the particular
case we are studying), the simplication could maybe be accepted above V =
100 m/s.
As a conclusion, we may say that we will accept the simplication provided
by Equation 0.72 or similar equations, except to analyse the low speed zones.
(For instance, to study take-os we will need the "complex" expression...).

For realistic studies, we will also need information from the engine manufac-
turer concerning fuel consumption and power as a function of the altitude.

66