ABSTRACT

The main objective of the present investigation is to improve the properties of

natural fiber reinforced epoxy composite system by toughening the epoxy resin with silica
to obtain hybrid nanocomposites, which will meet the requirements for high performance
applications.A manufacturing process using hand lay-up is used to produce sisal-hemp
fiber reinforced nanocomposite. Composites are manufactured using silica with various

weight content (Viz. 0wt%,1wt% 2wt%, 3wt% and 4wt%) in the polymer system,to
study the effects of nanoparticles on the significant mechanical and tribological properties
of Epoxy/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposites.The unfilled or neat Epoxy/sisal-hemp fiber
composites are also made for the comparison purpose.

The mechanical properties of the EP/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposites are found

to be enhanced with the addition of silica.The silica brought about a significant improve-
ment in tensile strength an increase of 27.02%is registered with the addition of 2wtsilica
in EP/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposites.
The wear test is conducted by Pin-on-Disc wear testing machine.It is found that

the wear rate is increased with increase in normal load irrespective of the silica content.
The wear rate of the composite laminate with 2wt% silica is found to be less when
compared to the other composites.
CONTENTS

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF COMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 MATRIX MATERIAL IN COMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.5 WHY POLYMER MATRIX IN COMPOSITE? . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 THERMOPLASTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 THERMOSETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.7.1 Epoxy Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.8 HARDNERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9 REINFORCEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 BENEFITS OF THE POLYMER COMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . 8

1.11 FIBER REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.11.1 Hemp Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.11.2 Sisal Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.11.3 Glass Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.11.4 Advantages of Natural Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.12 PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.12.1 Hand lay-up Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.12.2 Spray-up method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.12.3 Filament Winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.12.4 Compression Moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

 1.13 FILLERS AND ADDITIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.14 WHY NANOTECHNOLOGY? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.14.1 Nanomaterials as filler material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.15 POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.16 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 EXAMINE OF EFFECTS OF MICRO AND NANO PARTI-
CLE FILLED COMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1 Filler effects on Thermal / Mechanical Properties of Poly-
mer Nanocomposites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2.2 Filler effects on Water Resistance/Wear/Fatigue/ behaviour

of Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 STUDIES OF BEHAVIOUR OF NANO PARTICLE FILLED
COMPOSITES FORTIFIED WITH FIBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.3.1 Effect of Fillers and Fibers on Thermal/Mechanical be-

haviour of Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.2 Effect of Fibers and Fillers on Tribological and Water
Absorption Properties of Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.4 OBJECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 RESEARCH WORK PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.1 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 PREPARATION OF THE COMPOSITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Despersion of silica into epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2.2 Fabrication of composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

iii
 3.3 COMPOSITE ARCHITECTURE DETAILS . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.1 Density and Void fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.2 Tensile Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.4.3 Charpy Impact Strength Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.4.4 Hardness Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4.5 Dry Slide Wear Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4.6 Preparation of Sample for Wear Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4.7 Water Absorption Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.4.8 Scanning electron magnifying instrument (SEM) Test . . 41

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.1 EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROP-

ERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.1.1 Effect of silica loading on density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.1.2 Effect of silica loading on tensile properties . . . . . . . . . 43

4.1.3 Effect of silica on impact properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.1.4 Effect of silica on hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.5 Effect of silica on wear loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.6 Effect of silica on water absorption characteristic . . . . . 48

4.1.7 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis . . . . . . . . 49

5. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.0.8 Scope for future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

iv
LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Relationships between classes of engineering materials. . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1 Research work plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1 Tensile testing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.2 Tensile test sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Impact testing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.4 Hardness testing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.5 Wear testing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.6 Weighing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.7 SEM testing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.1 Stress Strain plot for EP/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposites . . . . . . . . 44

4.2 Effect of silica wt% on impact strength of nanocomposites . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Effect of silica wt% on hardness of nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4 Wear loss vs. normal load at 1.2m/s sliding velocity. . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.5 Water absorption behaviour of EP/sisal-hemp/silica composites . . . . . 49

4.6 SEM micrograph of fractured surfaces of unfiled EP/sisal-hemp composite 50

4.7 SEM Micrograph of fractured surfaces of 2wt% filled Filled EP/sisal-
hemp/ nanocomposites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.8 SEM Micrograph of fractured surfaces of 4wt%silica Filled EP/sisal-hemp/

nanocomposites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
LIST OF TABLES

3.1 Composite designations used for the present study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.1 Theoretical, experimental densities and void fractions in nanocomposites 43

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

In the mechanically propelled time that we presently live in, there is a develop-
ing interest for practical and sturdier materials for a number of applications. In prior

circumstances metals and metal composites were utilized to make everything without
exception from a nail to plane. At that point plastics were invented and they began
supplanting metal components, for example hedges, latches and other structural seg-
ments. Plastics are easier to mould into complicated parts as well as being lighter than

metal counterparts and even as robust.Despite the fact that plastics were costly in the
first place, as their application in the everyday life is expanded,the manufacturing costs
of plastic components become minimized. The work of plastic segments is confined to
low-end applications like perishables holder and dustbins because of their generally low

quality.Most recent applications such as car, maritime and aviation structures still re-
quire the work of metals and their combinations.Hence there was an interest for strong
and lightweight materials subsequently composite materials were developed.
Composite materials or composites are built materials comprised of at least
two constituent materials, with essentially extraordinary physical or chemical properties

that keep them partitioned and particular at a plainly visible level among the completed
structure.The properties of composite materials acquired by consolidating the different
constituent materials can’t be accomplished by any of the segments acting alone.
Composite materials are typically arranged by every one of the three first gath-
erings of materials,for example,metals,ceramic and polymers.
The greater part of the composite materials are created to enhance the me-
chanical properties,for example,strength,durability and hardness.Composites also have
predominant elective properties like high quality, lightweight,wear and erosion resistance.

Composite materials or composites are designed materials comprised of at least

two constituent materials, with fundamentally extraordinary physical or chemical prop-
erties that keep them independent and particular at a perceptible level among the com-
pleted structure. The properties of composite materials acquired by consolidating the
different constituent materials can’t be accomplished by any of the segments acting

alone.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF COMPOSITES

Although the idea of composite materials is fairly new, they have been in exploit
for millennia. The foremost primitive application is mud and straw bricks. A block of

dried mud is easy to break by applying a tensile force. However, mud will still make a
good strong wall wherever all the forces are compressive. A lump of straw has a lot of
strengths once it is stretched. However, it has virtually no strength when it is crumpled
up. If pieces of straw were embedded in a block of mud and allowed to dry hard, the
resulting mud / straw brick resists both squeezing and tearing and makes a wonderful

building material. In technical terms, it has mutually high compression strength and
great tensile strength. In terms of matrix reinforcement constituents, the reinforcement
material is the straw while the mud is the matrix. This is probably the earliest example
of a fiber-reinforced composite.

Another old composite is concrete. Cement could be a blend of aggregate, con-

crete and sand. It has the great compressive quality. As of late it has been discovered
that adding metal components to the solid expanded the ductility and twisting quality.
Such a solid is known as strengthened cement. Despite the fact that most composites

2
that are utilized in stylish designing structures are man-made, composites do exist in
nature as well. Wood has long strands of cellulose that are held along by the weaker
substance alluded to as lignin. Cellulose is additionally found in cotton and linen.
The historical backdrop of present day composites started in the late 1930’s.

Owens Corning presented the main glass fiber amid 1935. Fiber glass, once joined with
a plastic makes an unrealistically lightweight and strong structure. The primary busi-
ness composite boat hull frame was presented in 1946. The pace of the improvement of
composite materials quickened all through World War II. The improvement of the most
recent and enhanced resins has conjointly added to the development of the composites

showcase especially for high temperature and high consumption obstruction applica-
tions. The chief propelled applications are routinely found on aerospace in demanding
conditions. The Figure 1.1 (Harris 1999)[1], depicts the expansion of this standard to
join filamentary metals, ceramic production and polymers into the mass types of any

of these three classes of materials to make the polymer composites like carbon fiber
strengthened composites, glass fiber fortified composites; Metal-lattice composites like
silicon-carbide-fiber-strengthened aluminium and ceramic grid composites like carbon
fiber-fortified glass.

Figure 1.1: Relationships between classes of engineering materials.

3
1.3 ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITE

Composites are comprised of individual materials alluded to as constituent ma-

terials. There are two divisions of constituent materials. They are matrix and reinforce-
ment. No less than one of the every division is fundamental to manufacture a composite.
The matrix material environs and underpins the reinforcement materials by keeping up
their relative positions. The reinforcement grant their exceptional mechanical and phys-

ical properties to upgrade the matrix properties. A combination between the matrix
and reinforcement creates the properties which are inaccessible from the singular con-
stituent materials. The wide assortment of matrix and reinforcement materials allows
the creator to choose an ideal combination. The matrix material is acquainted with the

support previously or after the reinforcement material is put into the mould cavity. The
matrix material encounters a consolidating occasion, after which the part shape is set.
Depending upon the normal for the matrix material, this combination will happen from
various perspectives, for example, chemical polymerization or curing from the liquid

state.

1.4 MATRIX MATERIAL IN COMPOSITES

The matrix phase consists of a monolithic material inside which the reinforce-
ment is entrenched and is continuous. The vital elements of the matrix stage are to
exchange and circulate the load between the strengthening stages. Matrix could like-

wise be metal,ceramic or polymer. The matrix goes about as an obstruction to protect

any natural or mechanical degradation caused by factors like abrasion or erosion. In
spite of the fact that the quality of composites is generally because of the fiber reinforce-
ment however the significance of the matrix material can’t be thought less significant
since it offers support for the strands and helps them to bear the load. It likewise pro-

vides security to the composite material. The resin framework goes about as a coupling

4
operator in basic component inside which the fibers are surrounded.
In a composite material, the matrix material serves the accompanying functions:
1. Ties the reinforcement together.
2. Protects the reinforcement from the environment.

3. Disseminates the load equitably between reinforcement, with the goal that every one
of the strands experience a similar amount of strain.
4. Lift up the transverse properties of a composite.
The matrix assumes a trifling part in the malleable load-conveying limit of a
composite structure. However, the choice of a matrix affects the interlaminar shear, and

additionally on the in-plane shear properties of the composite material. The coveted
properties of the matrix which are essential for a composite structure are as follows:
1. Diminished dampness absorption
2. Low shrinkage

3. Less coefficient of thermal expansion

4. Prevalent stream characteristics
5. Sensible quality, modulus and elongation
6. Must be flexible to transmit the load to the fibers

7. Must be effectively processable into the last composite shape

Kinds of composites in view of matrix material:
1. Polymer matrix composites
2. Metal matrix composites
3. ceramic matrix composites

1.5 WHY POLYMER MATRIX IN COMPOSITE?

Polymers are fundamentally significantly more complex than metals. They are
simple to prepare.In addition,polymers have less strength and modulus and lower tem-
perature utilize limits. On account of transcendently covalent bonding, polymers are

5
poor conveyors of electricity and heat. Nonetheless, polymers are by and large more
impervious to synthetic substances than the metals. Fundamentally, polymers are mam-
moth chain like particles (thus the name macromolecules) with covalently fortified carbon
molecules shaping the spine of the chain. The way toward framing vast particles from

little ones is called polymerization; that is, polymerization is the way toward joining
numerous monomers, the fundamental building squares together to frame the polymer.
Since the most recent century, polymeric materials have been broadly used in
numerous territories, for example, in common life and military applications. Presently
polymers are the quickest developing materials on the planet.In general, polymer resins

can be separated into two types: thermoplastics and thermoset. These two kinds of
polymers vary in their atomic structures furthermore.(Schwartz 1992)[2].

1.6 THERMOPLASTICS

In a thermoplastic polymer, singular atoms have a direct structure without com-

plex connectivity between them. With the utilization of pressure and heat, the poor
connections between atoms can be incidentally broken and after that the plastics can
be softened and made to flow. After cooling, the atoms re-establish the optional bonds
amongst them and the plastics change from liquid to solid state. Due to their sim-
plicity of creation and their cost productivity, thermoplastics are popular in composite

items. The most widely recognized thermoplastic resins comprise of polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and so on.

1.7 THERMOSETS

In a thermoset polymer, the particles are artificially connected together, shaping

a three-dimensional system structure. Once the crosslinked structure is shaped, the

thermoset polymer can’t be liquefied and made to reflow by the utilization of pressure

6
and heat.Thermoset resin offer higher thermal security and upgraded thermal resistance
than thermoplastic resin. Thus, Thermoset composites are used in the applications at
raised temperatures. The most widely recognized thermoset resins are epoxy, phenol,
unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester, polyurethanes, and so on. The strategy for relieving

of the pitches ought to either be done at room temperature or at higher temperatures.

1.7.1 Epoxy Matrix

Epoxy is the most broadly utilized polymer matrix for basic composites. This
is inferable from the solid adhesiveness of epoxy, in expansion to the long history of
its utilization in composites. Exchange names of epoxy incorporate Epon, Epi-rez, and

Araldite. Epoxy offers an extraordinary blend of mechanical properties and is erosion

resistance. Furthermore, the low atomic weight of uncured epoxide resin in the fluid state
brings about peculiarly high sub-atomic mobility during processing. This mobility causes
the resin to quickly spread on the surface of carbon fiber. Epoxy resin are portrayed
by having at least two epoxide bunches for every atom. The synthetic structure of an

epoxide amass is appeared in Figure. 1.2

1.8 HARDNERS

A broad scope of restoring operator for epoxy resin are accessible relying upon
the procedure and properties required. The generally utilized restoring operators for

epoxies incorporate amines, polyamides, phenolic resin. The fix energy and the Tg of
restored framework are subject to the atomic structure of the hardener. The decision of
the resin and hardener relies upon the application, the procedure chosen, and the coveted
properties. The stoichiometry of the epoxy-hardener framework likewise influences the
properties of the curing material. Utilizing extraordinary sorts and measures of hardener,

which tend to control cross-interface thickness will change the structure. The amine and

7
phenolic resin based relieving specialists are by and large utilized for curing of epoxy
reins.

1.9 REINFORCEMENTS

Reinforcement stages are either in discontinuous or continuous shape. It has

predominant mechanical properties. The discontinuous reinforcement comprises of bris-

tles, particles or short strands with anisotropic behaviour. The continuous reinforcement
contains wires or strands with anisotropic properties which are embedded in the lattice
in a specific direction. The behaviour of composites chiefly relies on the size and shape
with an amount of Reinforcement and bonding between the matrix with reinforcement.

Advanced composites are those composite materials which are expectedly used
in aviation ventures. These composites have the reinforcement of thin fiber in the matrix
materials, for example, epoxy and aluminium. Graphite/epoxy, boron/aluminium are
a portion of the cases of these composites. The strengthening materials are ordinarily

strong with low densities. The foremost filaments for business utilize are different kinds
of carbon and glass,and in addition aramid filaments, for example, Kevlar.The fiber
introduction can be controlled in laminate to create broad scope of mechanical and
physical properties. In view of the kind of fortification utilized, composites are regularly
separated into fibrous composites and particulate composites.

1.10 BENEFITS OF THE POLYMER COMPOSITES

The achievement of fiber-strengthened polymer composites is basically because

of their brilliant performance compared to different materials. The preferences include:
1. Design flexibility
2. Low specific gravity

3. High strength-to-weight and modulus-to-weight ratios

8
4. Dimensional stability
5. High internal damping
6. Thermal stability
7. Improved corrosion and wear resistance

8. Ability to adapt properties to meet wide-ranging performance specifications

9. Shaped to required dimensional tolerances leading to withholding
10. Improved impact, compression, fatigue and electrical properties
11. Enhanced damping capabilities

1.11 FIBER REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS

The accompanying subdivisions manage different filaments reinforcement mate-

rials.

1.11.1 Hemp Fiber

Hemp is the most generally utilized common fiber as fortification in composites.

Hemp is normally one of the most environmentally benevolent strands and furthermore

the oldest.The fiber packs are in a few layers inside the hemp stalks. A package comprises
of a few strands and packages are associated by unit cells. The packs in the inward layers
are typically shorter and better than those of the external layers. The state of unit cells
ranges from triangular to heptagonal with adjusted corners and a substantial essence.

Unit cells are associated by lignified gelatins and the premise of hemp preparing lies
in slackening and dissolving this bond.Its adaptability relies upon the fineness of the
package. The more drawn out groups require less wind amid turning. The prolongation
of the groups is low and their adaptability is high and this can cause issues amid turning.
Mixing flax with hemp enhances both the prolongation and the adaptability of the yarns,

which is low in 100% hemp yarns.

9
1.11.2 Sisal Fiber

Agave sisalana or Sisal is one of the 300 types of the Agave sort, which has a
place with the Agavacea family. Sisal is developed for filaments in tropical and sub-

tropical around 24 nations in Central and South America, East Africa, Madagascar and
Asia. It is a xerophytic plant and is anything but difficult to develop. It is a generally
utilized common fiber. Sisal plant has short restoration times and develops wild in the
supports of fields and railroad tracks. Fiber exracted from the leaves of sisal plant is

hard fiber. A plant of sisal creates around 200-250 leaves and each leaf contains 1000-
1200 fiber packs. Every fiber is made out of 4% fiber, 0.75% fingernail skin, 8% dry
issue and 87.25% water.Due to higher substance of lignin in the fiber packs, sisal fiber
groups are more inflexible and have more noteworthy perseverance than other bast and

leaf strands. Contrasted with the jute and pineapple strands, sisal fiber has the most
astounding modulus of proportional stretching.

1.11.3 Glass Fibers

Glass fiber or fiber glass is a material produced using amazingly fine filaments
of glass, and it is the biggest reinforcement estimated in sales. After creation of glass

fiber it has turned out to be broadly utilized as protection and composite reinforcement
material. In light of the arrangement and the application, glass strands can be ordered
in a few kinds (Lowenstein 1973)[3].
The most ordinarily utilized glass fiber write for composite applications is E-
glass, because of its great mechanical and high electrical protection properties. S-glass is

likewise utilized as a part of composite materials where high elasticity is wanted. Be that
as it may, this material comes at a considerably higher cost. R-glass is likewise utilized as
a part of composite materials with high mechanical prerequisites, for example, weariness
life and high synthetic obstruction. The regular distance across of glass filaments is 10-12

m and specific gravity is around 2.5.(Sheldon 1982)[4].

10
1.11.4 Advantages of Natural Fibers

Following are some of the advantages of using natural fiber:

1. Environmental friendly

2. Fully biodegradable
3. Non toxic
4. Easy to handle
5. Non abrasive during processing and use

6. Low density/light weight

7. Source of income for rural/agricultural community
8. Renewable, abundant and continuous supply of raw materials
9. Low cost

10.Free from health hazard (cause no skin irritations)

11.High toughness

1.12 PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES

Ample variety of methods used to fabricate reinforced plastics is partially novel

and fairly copied from traditional methods of processing usual polymeric materials..
The example of joining strands and matrix into a composite material depends especially
on the specific mix in the need and on the scale and geometry of the structure to be
produced. The arrangement of the composite includes the mixing of the matrix and fiber
with the end goal that the matrix impregnates, encompasses, and wets the filaments.

The wonderful handling techniques for thermosetting polymers incorporate hand layup,
pultrusion,fiber winding,sheet forming and so forth.

11
1.12.1 Hand lay-up Method

The procedure of hand lay up is effortful technique, requires slightest tooling.

It is utilized for prototypes and mostly used in the car industry. Hand layup can be

performed with prepreg materials or dry texture that is strengthened with resin at the
season of layup. Hand layup of prepreg into overlays of the coveted reinforcement and
part geometry is effortful and has accounted in vast part for the cost of elite composite
structures. Creation of hand layup parts brings about in excess of 60% of the cost of

delivering completed parts.

1.12.2 Spray-up method

Spray-up method is mostly used in fiber reinforced polymer industries. The

catalyzed resin and cleaved glass fiber are sprayed on mould surface with nozzle. The
slashed fiber is delivered by encouraging consistent glass fiber wandering into a turning

chopper at the leader of the shower weapon. The strategy requires skilled labours to
get indistinguishable items and to evade excessively scrap coming about because of over
spraying.

1.12.3 Filament Winding

The quality of FRP items is enhanced by the fixation and length of the fiber

reinforcement. The twisting of fiber roving that have been impregnated with catalyzed
resin over a turning mandrel gives the best structural performance. However,this method
is confined to articles with hub symmetry like round and hollow items.Fiber winding
is utilized for the creation of channels,tubes,chambers,and circles and is consistently

utilized for the development of huge tanks and pipe work for the concoction industry.

12
1.12.4 Compression Moulding

Compression moulding offers a means for large volume fabrication of components

with outstanding dimensional accuracy and high quality finish on both surfaces. Com-

pression moulding is made by pressing and shaping the moulding charge in a matched
die and curing the products by fast curing methods. The products take the shape of
the cavity. It is most expedient to use a preformed thermosetting moulding compound
to which all the essential ingredients are added. Moulding compounds can be divided

into three broad categories: bulk or dough moulding (BMC or DMC), sheet moulding
(SMC) and prepregs. In DMC,chopped fibers are employed while SMC employs woven
or chopped strand mats.Prepregs consist of roving, woven fabric, and continuous unidi-
rectional fiber reinforcement sheets or random chopped-fiber sheets impregnated with a

partially cured resin system.

1.13 FILLERS AND ADDITIVES

Except long fibers, some filler are added into polymer matrix for one or more of
the following reasons.
1. Mechanical property modifiers

2. Fire retardants
3. Electrical and attractive property modifiers
4. Surface property modifiers
5. Handling aids
6. Decreases cost

7. Decreases shrinkage
Extra capacities may incorporate degradability improvement, obstruction at-
tributes,bioactivity, radiation ingestion, warpage minimization thus on.
The most well-known fillers for thermoset resin are calcium carbonate, kaolin,

13
and alumina hydrate. Cases of other ordinarily utilized fillers incorporate earth, mica,
silica, glass microspheres, glass bristle, and small scale elastic inflatable. In unsaturated
polyester and vinyl ester resin, calcium carbonate is regularly used to diminish the cost
and also the form shrinkage.

An assortment of added substances can be utilized to change composite prop-

erties, execution, and appearance, including impetuses, inhibitors, colorants, discharge
operators, fire retardants, and bright safeguards (Mallick 1988)[5]. Every filler com-
pose has diverse properties relying upon molecule estimate, shape and chemistry of
surface. The most ordinarily utilized fillers for thermoset pitches are calcium carbonate,

kaolin, and alumina hydrate. Other ordinarily utilized fillers incorporate mud, carbon
dark,mica,silica,glass microspheres,and glass stubbles (Rothon 2002)[6].

1.14 WHY NANOTECHNOLOGY?

Science of micro-engineering is nanotechnology. Miniaturized scale building is

the investigation of designing that arrangements with molecule control. In the event
that those particles are smaller than 100 nanometers nuclear and atomic control is the
core of nanotechnology. This science is utilized to make a relevant particle.
Nanotechnology might be able to deliver numerous items and devices with a
large scope of utilization, for example, in medication, hardware, biomaterials and vitality

generation. At the nano level, a few mixes change from inactive to dynamic,from delicate
to extreme. They can wind up lighter, more grounded and more safe. The major
variables of adjust these properties is the expansion in the proportion of surface area to
volume. By the use of nanometre-sized particles it is conceivable to control the principal

properties of materials through the surface/estimate effect.

14
1.14.1 Nanomaterials as filler material

The advancement from microparticles to nanoparticles yields exceptional changes

in physical properties. Nanoscale materials have large surface area for a given volume.

Since various essential substance and physical associations are represented by surfaces
and surface properties, a nanostructured material can have widely modified properties
from a mass material of the same piece. On account of particles and filaments, the
surface region per unit volume is contrarily relative to the material’s distance across

subsequently,the smaller the measurement, the more prominent the surface area per
unit volume

1.15 POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES

Polymer nanocomposites (PNC) are a novel gathering of composites that are

molecule filled polymers in which no less than, one measurement of the scattered particles

is in the nanometer extend (1 nanometer (nm) = 10−9 m.). Polymer nanocomposites have
been a territory of industry and scholarly research for as long as twenty years.
As of late, the advances in amalgamation methods and the capacity to portray
materials on the nuclear scale has prompted a developing enthusiasm for nanometer-

estimate materials. Polymer nanocomposites join these two ideas, i.e., composites and
nano-sized materials. Polymer nanocomposite is another class of material in which
tar materials is ordinarily custom-made by inorganic nanoparticles to show enhanced
mechanical,thermal also, imperviousness to fire properties Due to the nanoscale scatter-
ing polymer nanocomposites show light-weight, great dimensional soundness, upgraded

thermal and fire opposition, and upgrades of quality, firmness, and hindrance properties
with far less mud stacking than their regular composite partners. The upgrade in the
properties of nanocomposites happens for the most part because of their novel stage
morphology and enhanced interfacial properties.

15
 The kinds of nanomaterials that are most generally utilized for composite in-
clude: nanotubes, nanoclays, silica particles and electrospun polymeric nanofibers. These
composites demonstrate extraordinary guarantee as far as predominant mechanical prop-
erties, as well as far as unrivaled thermal, electrical, optical, and different properties,

and as a rule, at generally low-reinforcement volume divisions (Joseph 2006)[7].

There are numerous elements that may influence the properties of polymer
nanocomposites:
1. Nanoparticle types and their surface treatment
2. Polymer matrix, for example, atomic weight and chemistry of polymer

3. Amalgamation methods
All in all, the morphology of polymer-mud composites can be partitioned into
three classes: traditional miscible composites, intercalated nanocomposites, and exfo-
liated nanocomposites (Thostenson et al 2005)[8]. The structures of mud particles in

polymer matrix are appeared in Figure 1.7 (Vaia et al 1999)[9].

In the traditional miscible express, the clay particles keep up their precious stone
structure and the molecule estimate is of small scale. In an intercalated nanocomposite,
a couple of polymer particles are embedded into the silicate displays with settled in-

terlayer dividing. Interestingly, a exfoliated nanocomposite is framed when the silicate

nanolayers are delaminated and separately scattered in the nonstop polymer matrix.
Just the exfoliated state may boost interfacial contact between the natural and inor-
ganic stages and prompt homogeneous scattering thus, the nanocomposites with ideal
execution properties can be gotten.So exfoliated nanocomposite is the advisable state

for polymer composite (Joseph 2006)[10]

1.16 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS

The theory is composed into five parts.Part insightful rundowns of the theory
expressing the advancement announced in that and comes about acquired from exami-

16
nations are exhibited in the areas that take after.
Chapter 1 presents essentials of composites materials and gives a brief presenta-
tion about the exploration. It additionally incorporates the association of the chapters.
Chapter 2 portrays the writing overview behind the work, deals with mechani-

cal and tribological conduct of polymer matrix composites both with and without the
expansion of the filler materials. It likewise incorporates the targets of the research work.
Chapter 3 talks about the techniques utilized for creation of FRP nanocompos-
ites, the strategies and exploratory setups used to direct the mechanical, tribological,
water absorption examinations of composites both with and without nano filler.

Chapter 4 features the mechanical performance of nanoparticles filled and un-

filled composites,for example,rigidity, affect quality, hardness, wear opposition, water
ingestion behaviour.
Chapter 5, conclusions and recommendations for future work are featured.

17
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Amid the most recent decades,there has been a tremendous development in the
utilization of composite materials in different fields of use,going from sports equipment

to structural parts for the car and aviation businesses, where the long haul properties
are of essential significance. Superior polymer composite materials are being utilized
progressively for designing applications under dedicated conditions. The materials must
give selective mechanical and tribological properties joined with a low particular weight

and a high protection from degradation keeping in mind the end goal to guarantee
security and monetary efficiency.
Epoxy resins are generally utilized matrix for composites due to their incredi-
ble glue, electrical, and mechanical properties and alone give the vast majority of the

properties required for composites.

Glass fiber strengthened epoxy composites have turned out to be alluring ba-
sic materials in weight delicate avionic business as well as in marine, car, railroads,
structural building structures, sport products and so forth. This is authorize to high
particular quality and particular firmness of the glass fiber fortified composites. In any

case, in light of the fact that the polymer matrix must withstand high mechanical and
tribological loads, it is typically fortified with fillers.
Nano particles has gotten much consideration as strengthening materials for
polymer due to its conceivably high view point proportion and one of a kind intercala-
tion qualities .The little sum expansion of Nanoparticles into polymer matrix supplies
unforeseen properties including lessening gas porousness, enhanced dissolvable obstruc-
tion, being unrivaled in mechanical properties and thermal steadiness, and improved fire
resistant properties.

A few literary works are accessible on different parts of mechanical, thermal

and tribological properties of polymer matrix composites by particulate fillers and fiber
stacking, length and unidirectional fiber introduction, bidirectional fiber composites.
The literary works on effect of small scale/nano particles on polymer composites and
FRP’s on different properties have been examined in the accompanying passages.

2.2 EXAMINE OF EFFECTS OF MICRO AND NANO

PARTICLE FILLED COMPOSITES

The following studies describe the brief literature survey to understand the effect
of fillers on mechanical and other properties of polymer composites.

2.2.1 Filler effects on Thermal / Mechanical Properties of

Polymer Nanocomposites.

Wetzel et al[11] have worked on the hybrid epoxy composite with different mea-
sures of T iO2 and CaSiO3 miniaturized scale and nano scale particles as reinforcements.
The outcomes show the best change in stiffness, impact strength and wear obstruction

of epoxy at nano-molecule substance of 4 vol per T iO2 .

Guo et al[12] altered the MMT with CAB and scattered the subsequent O-MMT
in an epoxy to make epoxy nanocomposites and reasoned that the thermal stability of
the epoxy nanocomposite was relied on the scattering territory of OMMT in the matrix

albeit all the epoxy nanocomposites had improved thermal stability compared to neat
epoxy resin.

19
 Yasmin and Daniel[13] concentrated the mechanical and thermal properties of
graphite platelet/epoxy composites and detailed that the storage modulus and glass tran-
sition temperatures of the composites expanded with an expansion of graphite platelet
fixation; notwithstanding, the coefficient of thermal expansion diminished with the ex-

pansion of graphite platelets. They likewise found that a higher grouping of the graphite
builds the thermal stability of the composite than the unadulterated epoxy.
Pervin et al[14] has manufactured the nanocomposite materials containing SC-
15 epoxy resin and carbon nanofiber (CNF) and performed TGA, DMA and 3-point
bend tests on unfilled,1wt%,2wt% and 4wt% CNF filled SC-15 epoxy to distinguish the

loading impact on the thermal and mechanical properties of composites.The flexural

comes about show that both modulus and strength expanded with expanding loading
level of CNF.DMA examines additionally uncoveresd that filling the CNF into epoxy
resin can make increase storage modulus and Tg contrasted with perfect epoxy, and TGA

demonstrate that thermal stability of composite is not sensitive to the fiber content.
Dean et al[15] arranged nanocomposites with layered silicate scattered on the
epoxy resin.DMA were directed to set up the Tg of the specimens.A change of 31% in
flexural modulus and 24% in flexural extreme strength for the 2% silicate fiber fortified

nanocomposites was accomplished. Interlaminar shear and fracture durability considers

were additionally led, be that as it may,no upgrade was observed.
Wang et al[16] arranged the examples containing 13 wt% silane altered clay
(SAC) and their mechanical/thermal properties were contemplated by dynamic me-
chanical examination, fracture and tensile tests. They have discovered that the tensile

strength expanded by 25% with the expansion of 2 wt% SMC yet dropped with addi-
tionally expanding of SAC content. The change of tensile strength was 13% and 31% for
storage modulus by the clay convergence of 3 wt% SMC. The fracture surface demon-
strated various microcracks, which could have been created at the interface of exfoliated

clay layers and epoxy matrix. The microcracks engendered along the clay platelets and

20
accordingly brought about a very convoluted fracture surface.
Zunjarrao et al[17] tentatively concentrated the impact of handling parameters
and molecule volume part for epoxy-clay (MMT) nanocomposites. The volume portion
of clay particles was methodicallly fluctuated from 0.5 to 6% and mechanical properties

viz. Flexural modulus and fracture sturdiness were examined as a component of clay
volume part and handling procedures (fast shear scattering and ultrasonic scattering).
It was discovered that the flexural modulus expanded tediously with increment in vol-
ume portion of clay particles, while, the fracture sturdiness demonstrated an underlying
increment on expansion of clay however a consequent diminish at higher clay volume

portions. Likewise, the nanocomposites prepared by shear blending displayed better

mechanical properties when contrasted with those prepared by ultrasonication.
Yang et al[18] has arranged DGEBA based epoxy composite loaded up with
different measures of silica hybrid materials (GPTMS) and silica nanoparticles. The got

hybrid materials were investigated by methods for DMA, SEM, FTIR and TGA. The
outcomes demonstrated that the presentation of GPTMS and silica nanoparticles had
synergistic impact thermal stability.
Tarro-Saavedra et al[19] arranged composites of a seethed silica mechanical de-

posit and an epoxy and thermal degradation conduct were examined by TGA. It was
discovered that the thermal debasement conduct of the resin was influenced by silica
content. The thermal steadiness of the epoxy resin is by all accounts improved.
Guadagno et al[20] joined the MWCNT in an epoxy resin and made the compos-
ites. It was demonstrated that the nearness of MWCNT quickens the glass transition

temperature with expanding MWCNT focus. DMA likewise demonstrated that a higher
elastic modulus at higher temperatures and enhanced hindrance properties on expanding
the CNT concentration.
Kim et al[21] arranged epoxy nanocomposites with unmodified MWCNT and

silanized MWCNT by cast shaping strategy. The comes about demonstrated that epoxy

21
composites in view of si-MWCNTs indicated better thermal behaviour, glass change
temperature and tensile properties than composites in view of unmodified MWCNTs.
Parashar[22] depicted the amalgamation and restoring behaviour of nano silica
particles and to consider the adjustment inflammable properties of the epoxy resin. The

outcomes demonstrated that restoring temperature was expanded with expanding wt%
of nano silica likewise the utilized epoxy nano tests have demonstrated the huge change
in the thermal properties.
Lee et al[23] have manufactured the CNT/basalt/epoxy composites by impreg-
nating woven basalt filaments into epoxy resin blended with CNTs and concentrated

the impact of carbon nanotube (CNT) change on the tensile and thermal properties
of CNT/basalt/epoxy composites. They demonstrated that the tensile strength and
Young’s modulus of silanized CNT/basalt/epoxy composites were 34 and 60% more
noteworthy, individually than that of unmodified CNT/basalt/epoxy composites.

Ramana et al[24] built up the epoxy based polymer composites by scattering of

immaculate and surface altered CNTs as reinforcement in various fixations fluctuating
from 0.2 to 1.0 wt% and discovered that with 1 wt% gives the best outcome. The thermal
steadiness of the composites is estimated utilizing TGA and shown that composites

made with surface adjusted CNT demonstrated higher thermal strength as contrasted
and unadulterated epoxy and unblemished CNTs. Improvement in flexural properties is
seen with surface adjusted CNTs.

2.2.2 Filler effects on Water Resistance/Wear/Fatigue/

behaviour of Nanocomposites

Sole and ball[25] examined the wear and mechanical behaviour of the Polypropy-
lene (PP) included with mineral fillers, for example,BaSO4 , talc,CaCO3 , and fly powder.
The expansion of the mineral fillers to the PP matrix brought about a diminishing in the
tensile yield strength of the material. The powder filled PP demonstrated a huge change

22
in yield strength over unfilled PP. A slight change in yield strength was distinguished in
BaSO4 ,CaCO3 , filled PP.
Wetzel et al[26] presented different measures of smaller scale and nano scale
particles(CaSiO3 and Al2 O3 ) into epoxy for reinforcement reason and explored the me-

chanical and wear practices. They presumed that nano and miniaturized scale particles
both can enhance the wear resistance of the epoxy matrix.
Shi et al[27] have prpared the epoxy composite with low frictional coefficient and
high wear resistance;nanometer silicon nitride particles were included. Dry siding wear
tests show that the composite materials show altogether enhanced tribological execution

and mechanical properties at rather low filler content (under 1vol%)

Ren et al[28] concentrated the strain pressure fatigue conduct of unidirectional,
adjusted SWNT rope strengthened epoxy composite. They presumedthat the level S-
N outline of SWNT/epoxy is fundamentally the same as that of carbon/epoxy despite

the fact that SWNT were loaded at significantly higher cyclic stress. The outcomes
demonstrate that SWNT ropes have great possibilities as reinforcement in fatigue safe,
high fracture durability polymer composites.
Ji et al[29] assessed the sliding wear practices of epoxy also, its composites loaded

up with untreated and treated SiC nanoparticles. The trial comes about show that the
treated nanopartices enhanced the generally execution of the epoxy and prompted more
;arge decrease in frictional co-productive and wear rate of epoxy.
Dong et al[30] were readied multi-walled carbon nanotube /epoxy resin (MWNT/EP)
nanocomposite with various MWNTs content examined the wear and friction proper-

ties of the nanocomposites. They demonstrated that complexity to EP, MWNT/EP

nanocomposite showed not just higher wear opposition yet in addition little griction
coefficient.
Gojny et al[31] produced the nano-molecule fortified glass fiber polymer nanocom-

posites and inferred that the nanocomposite fortified with carbon nanotubes, show an

23
enhanced mechanical execution, particularly the effect of the CNTs on the fracture
toughness.
Mohan et al[32] combined epoxy-MMT clay composites furthermore, broke down
the reinforcement impact of organocaly (OC)and unmodified clay (UC) in the epoxy

polymer on the mechanical, thermal and vibration properties. The epoxy with OC fillers
demonstrates significant change on tensile and impact properties over unadulterated
epoxy polymer and epoxy with UC fillers. Epoxy with OC fillers indicates improved
vibration attributes than that of the unadulterated epoxy polymer and epoxy with UC
fillers.

Blackman et al[33] fabricated the epoxy composite strengthened with nano-silica

particles and demonstrated that the presentation of nano-silica particles into epoxy
polymer has expanded both the underlying durability , as estimated by the fracture
strength, and furthermore essentially enhanced the cyclic-fatigue conduct of the epoxy

polymer.
Zhao and Robert[34] have joined Al2 O3 nanoparticles into epoxy resin to exam-
ine the impact of water retention on the mechanical and die-electric behaviour of the
Al2 O3 /epoxy nanocomposites. They closed that upon water retention, the mechanical

properties of the Al2 O3 /epoxy nanocomposites diminish clearly, in light of the dam-
age of water on the epoxy resin. Be that as it may, the malleability can be enhanced
by the wate rretention process. and both dielectric steady and die-electric loss of the
Al2 O3 /epoxy nanocomposites increments incredibly after water retention treatment.

2.3 STUDIES OF BEHAVIOUR OF NANO PARTICLE

FILLED COMPOSITES FORTIFIED WITH FIBERS

The accompanying examinations depict the short writing review to comprehend

the impact of fillers on mechanical and different properties of polymer composites.

24
2.3.1 Effect of Fillers and Fibers on Thermal/Mechanical

behaviour of Nanocomposites

Ramakrishna and Hull (1994)[35] concentrated the tensile properties on the bi-
directional carbon texture strengthened epoxy (C-E) composites. They detailed that the
resin matrix breaking, fiber package debonding and tensile fracture of fiber packs are
the purposes behind crumple the overlays under tensile loading. They likewise watched
that the tensile properties of the C-E composite expanded with an expansion in fiber

content.
Wu et al[36] have readied carbon fiber and glass fiber fortified polyamide-6 and
polyamide-6/nanocomposites. Results demonstrated that the mechanical and thermal
properties of the polyamide-6/clay nanocomposites are better than those polyamide-

6 composite as far as the thermal bending temperature, tensile, flexural strength and
modulus without giving up their impact strength.
Timmerman et al[37] adjusted carbon/epoxy composites with Closite 25 and
alumina particles to decide the impact of molecule reinforcement and reaction of adjusted

materials to cryogenic cycling. Closite 25 was joined into the base resin at a centralization
of 2, 5 and 8 sections for every hundred resin and alumina particles were included at
a focus of 5 sections for every hundred resins (phr). An expansion in interlaminar
shear strength was seen at 2 and 5 phr closite 25 increases. Flexural comes about
demonstrated a diminish in strength with an expansion of nano clay. The normal crack

density was watched utilizing optical micrographs,diminished with fuse of clay when
compared to unmodified overlay.Though joining of alumina particles acquired no change
in microcrack thickness when compared to unmodified system.
Haque et al[38] arranged S2-glass/epoxy-clay nanocomposites through a reason-

able vacuum assisted resin infusion method (VARIM) and concentrated the impacts of
nano clay particles, for example, montmorillonite on enhancing mechanical and thermal
properties of fiber strengthened polymer matrix composite materials. Essential rela-

25
tionships between’s polymer morphology, strength, modulus, sturdiness, and thermal
soundness of thermoset nanocomposites were additionally explored as a component of
layered silicate content. They found that by scattering 1% by weight nano silicate,
S2-glass/epoxy-clay nanocomposites credited to very nearly 44, 24 and 23change in in-

terlaminar shear strength, flexural strength and fracture strength in contrast with regu-
lar S2-glass/epoxy composites.Similarly,the nanocomposites display roughly 26 Chigher
deterioration temperatures than that of customary composites.
Kornmann et al[39] effectively orchestrated glass fiber strengthened epoxy lay-
ered silicates nanocomposites utilizing hand lay-up, vacuum stowing, and hot squeez-

ing methods. X-beam diffraction investigation affirmed this nanostructure both in the
nanocomposites and in the fiber reinforced composite in light of a similar matrix. Scan-
ning electron micrographs of the overlay with a nanocomposite matrix demonstrated
that nanolayers stacked at the surface of the glass fiber, enhancing conceivably in this

way the interfacial properties of the strands. Flexural testing of the overlays demon-
strated that the Nano layers enhanced the modulus and the strength, individually, by
6% and 27%. DMA of the epoxy and nanocomposite plates and their comparing over-
lays demonstrated an orderly glass change temperature abatement of the nanocomposite

based materials. This, the scientists proposed, clarified the bigger water take-up seen at
50C in the plate and the overlay based on a nanocomposite matrix as contrasted and
those in view of the neat epoxy.
Lin et al[40] have readied the nano clay/glass fiber/epoxy hybrid composite
utilizing a vacuum-helped resin exchange shaping procedure. The outcomes showed that

presenting a little measure of organoclay to the glass fiber/epoxy composites upgraded

their mechanical and thermal properties.
Wichmann et al[41] have created glass-fiberstrengthened composites with nanopar-
ticle altered epoxy matrix with a resin-transfermoulding process.They found that the

interlaminar shear strength of the nanoparticle altered composites were essentially en-

26
hanced by including just 0.3wt% of CNTs additionally the overlays containing CNT
displayed a generally high electrical conductivity at low filler contents.
Chowdhury et al[42] completed an examination to explore the impacts of nano
clay particles (Nanomer 1.28E) scattered in SC-15 epoxy/weave carbon fiber composite

on flexural and thermal properties. Most extreme changes in flexural strength and
modulus were found for 2wt% nano clay strengthened composites.DMA additionally
demonstrated an upgrade in thermo mechanical properties.
Bozkurt et al[43] explored the mechanical and thermal properties of non-crease
glass fiber strengthened clay/epoxy nanocomposites. The tensile test demonstrated that

clay loading minorly affects the tensile properties, flexural properties of overlays were
enhanced by clay expansion. DSC comes about demonstrated that the changed clay
particles influenced the glass progress temperature of the nanocomposites. Joining of
surface treated clay particles expanded the dynamic mechanical properties of nanocom-

posite covers additionally the fire opposition of composites was enhanced fundamentally
by the clay expansion into the epoxy matrix.
Tsai and Wu[44] arranged the glass/epoxy nanocomposite scattered with 2.5,5
and 7.5wt% organoclay by hand lay process. the tests uncovered that tensile strength

diminishes as organoclay loading increments, tensile modulus increments upto 5wt%

organoclay inplane shear strength and flexural strength increments with increment in
organoclay content. Moreover, the interlaminar Model fracture sturdiness likewise di-
minishes with increment in organocaly content.
Cho et al[45] were changed the carbon fiber/epoxy composites with graphite

nanoplatelets to enhance their mechanical properties. The composite strengthened with

nanoparticles demonstrated upgraded compressive strength and in-plane shear proper-
ties.
Siddiqui et al[46] explored the mechanical properties and fracture conduct of

nanocomposites and carbon fiber composites (CFRPs) containing organoclay in the

27
epoxy matrix.. Morphological investigations uncovered that the clay particles inside
the epoxy resin were intercalated or methodical shed. The organoclay achieved a huge
change in flexural modulus, particularly in the initial few wt% of loading, and the change
of flexural modulus was to the detriment of a diminishment in flexural strength. The

semi static fracture durability expanded, though the impact fracture durability dropped
forcefully with expanding the clay content. Flexural properties of CFRPs containing
organoclay adjusted epoxy matrix by and large took after the pattern like the epoxy
nanocomposite despite the factthat the variety was substantially littler for the CFRPs.
Both the inception and engendering estimations of mode I interlaminar fracture dura-

bility of CFRP composites expanded with expanding clay fixation. Specifically, the
engendering fracture durability relatively multiplied with 7 wt% clay loading. A solid
connection was set up between the fracture sturdiness of organoclay-changed epoxy ma-
trix and the CFRP composite interlaminar fracture toughness.

2.3.2 Effect of Fibers and Fillers on Tribological and Water

Absorption Properties of Nanocomposites

Kishore et al[47] have analysed the impact of load and sliding speed on the
erosion and wear conduct of glass-reinforced polymer composite loaded up with either

aluminium oxide or rubber particles. They announced that the loss of wear increments
with an expansion in load/speed Indeed in spite of the fact that the oxide filled com-
posites indicated least wear at bring down loads; elastic filled composites demonstrated
least wear at higher loads.
Su et al[48] were fabricated the carbon texture composites loaded up with the

particulates of nano-Al2 O3 and nano-Si3 N4 separately. The contact and wear properties
of the subsequent composites were assessed. It was discovered that nano-Si3 N4 and
nano-Al2 O3 as the fillers added to enhancing the contact lessening and anti wear capac-
ities of the carbon texture composites. This was ascribed to the interfacial fortifying

28
activity of the nano-particulates as the fillers.
Chow et al (2005)[49] have arranged the epoxy/glass fiber/organomontmorillonite
(OMMT) nanocomposites by hand lay-up technique. In this work, the epoxy nanocom-
posites were described by X-ray diffraction (XRD),DSC and water retention tests. Epoxy/glass

fiber/OMMT hybrid nanocomposites arranged by hand layup procedure demonstrated

shedding attributes and slight improvement in glass transition temperature. The water
opposition properties of epoxy were enhanced by an expansion of both glass fiber and
OMMT, which is perhaps ascribed to the expanding of the tortuosity way for water
penetration.

Suresha et al[50] assessed the mechanical and tribological properties of glass-

fiber-reinforced epoxy (G-E) composites with and without graphite particulate filler.
From the test examination, they found that tensile strength and dimensional security of
G-E composite expanded with expanding graphite content. The impact of filler content

(0-7.5%) and wear conduct of graphite filled G-E composite likewise examined. The
7.5% graphite filled G-E composite demonstrated a lower grinding coefficient for the
sliding separations utilized. The wear loss diminished with expanding the weight portion
of the graphite filler and expanded with expanding sliding distance.

Suresha et al[51] examined the impacts of SiC particles as fillers in glass-epoxy

(G-E) composite frameworks on the mechanical and tribological properties; it was dis-
covered that the mechanical properties of the G-E composite expanded with the incor-
poration of SiC filler. The dry slide wear test after effects of SiC-G-E composite show
bring down slide wear losses regardless of the load/sliding speed when contrasted with

G-E composite.
Manfredi et al[52] observed that mechanical properties were upgraded by the ex-
pansion of clay to epoxy matrix additionally the expansion of clay to the epoxy matrix
caused higher greatest water assimilation and this was connected with the decrease in

the crosslinking thickness of the polymer matrix, then again, it was seen that water also,

29
temperature influenced both the matrix and fiber-matrix interface causing micromechan-
ical harm. As a result, a reduction in the mechanical properties after water absorption
was observed.
Zhang et al[53] examined the wear and friction properties of CF reinforced phe-

nolic composites utilizing the ring-on-square analyzer. They detailed that both silane
coupling operator and HNO3 oxidation can help to enhance the grating and wear con-
duct of CF reinforced phenolic composite, while joined surface treatment is the best one
to diminish the grating coefficient and wear rate of the composite.
Shivamurthy et al[54] manufactured the E-glass woven fabric epoxy composites

with changing sums (3,6 and 9wt%) of Silicon oxide (SiO2 ) particulate filler and re-
searched the impact of silica content on the sliding wear properties, for example, wear
loss , particular wear rate and coefficient of grinding at a speed of 5m/s and steady
scraping separation of 1200 m with diverse loads, for example, 30N, 60N and 90N . They

presume that the expansion in filler content in the GE composite improves the Young’s
modulus, flexural strength, surface hardness, fragility and reductions the tensile strength
and stretching at break. Likewise the composite with 3wt% SiO2 particulates filled GE
composite sliding wear loss and particular wear rate emphatically affected by the con-

nected load when contrasted with other GE composites. The 3 and 6 wt% of SiO2
particulate filled GE composites displays great execution in flexural and sliding wear
obstruction. Additionally increment in filler loading was definitely not advantageous to
flexural and sliding wear performance.
Davim and Cordoso[55] led dry sliding wear test on polyetheretherketone (PEEK),

30 wt% carbon fiber filled PEEK (PEEKCF30), 30wt% glass fiber filled (PEEK-GF30)
against steel and announced that the PEEK-CF30 demonstrates a lesser rubbing co-
efficient when contrasted with PEEK-GF30 and PEEK. Look CF30 and PEEK-GF30
materials the two shows enhanced wear obstruction when contrasted with PEEK despite

the fact that PEEK-CF30 displays best tribological character.

30
 Khan et al[56] concentrated the impacts of nano clay consideration on cyclic
fatigue and lingering properties of carbon fiber-reinforced composites (CFRP). They di-
rected the pressure strain cyclic fatigue tests at different load levels to set up the S-N
bend additionally measures the remaining strength and modulus at various phases of

fatigue cycles. They inferred that the consolidation of nano clay into CFRP compos-
ites not just enhances the mechanical properties of the composite in static loading, yet
additionally the fatigue life for a given cyclic load level and the lingering mechanical
properties after a given time of cyclic fatigue. The relating fatigue harm zone is alto-
gether diminished due to nano clay. Nano clay serves to stifle and defer delamination

harm development and possible failure by enhancing the fiber/matrix interfacial bond
and through the development of nano clayprompted dimples.

2.4 OBJECTIVE

The goals of the present examination are

1. To fabricate sisal and hemp fiber reinforced epoxy nanocomposite with different
weight fraction of the silica particles.
2. To assess mechanical properties (Tensile,Impact and Hardness) of the nanocomposite
and to examine the impact of nanoparticles weight extent on these properties.
3. To assess the wear conduct of the chosen nanocomposites.

4. To evaluate the water absorption properties.

5. To portray the composite by SEM examination procedures.

31
2.5 RESEARCH WORK PLAN

Figure 2.1: Research work plan

32
CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter deals with the details of processing of the composites and the tests
that are performed on the composites.The materials that are used in this work are:

3.1 MATERIALS

Following materials were used during the preparation of nanocomposite:

1. Sisal fibre
2. Hemp fibre

3. Epoxy
4. Hardener
5. Silica Nanoparticle

3.2 PREPARATION OF THE COMPOSITES

3.2.1 Despersion of silica into epoxy

For the preparation of nanocomposites,one of the task is its uniform dispersion.

The upgrade in the mechanical properties for the most part relies on the fine scattering of

nanoparticles inside the polymer nanocomposites. It is very hard to blend nano silicates
into it physically. So a mechanical stirrer is utilized for mixing.
In this examination work mechanical mixing is kept up steady for all the weight
level of silica expansion, to comprehend the impact of silica expansion under the steady
scattering preparing time (Mechanical mixing for 10 minutes ). A pre-figured measure of
silica filler and epoxy LY556 review resin is taken and combined. Silica blend and resin
are blended utilizing mechanical stirrer 10 minutes for blending.Then the commensurable

measure of hardener HY951 is included and physically blended for 5 min.

3.2.2 Fabrication of composite

The creations of composite section are completed by ordinary hand layup strat-
egy.The chopped sisal fiber and the hemp strands are utilized as reinforcement and
epoxy is taken as matrix material. sisal and hemp strands are acquired from Sree

Laxmi Groups, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India. The epoxy resin and the compar-
ing hardener are provided by Northern Polymer.silica nanoparticles are obtainaed from
ultrananotec.com. The low temperature relieving epoxy resin and hardener are blended
in a proportion of 10:1 by weight percentage.The silica substance were fluctuated as
0,1,2,3,and 4%

3.3 COMPOSITE ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

The table 3.1 shows the various proportions materials used for compositein this
research work.

Material Combination Silica (Wt%)

Epoxy/sisal-hemp 0
1
2
Epoxt/sisal-hemp/silica
3
4

Table 3.1: Composite designations used for the present study

34
3.4 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

Various characterization testings of the EP/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposite, in-

volved in this study are explained in the following sections.

3.4.1 Density and Void fraction

The physical properties of a composite material framework can be as essential as

mechanical properties in surveying reasonableness for a specific application. Thickness

assumes a key part to design a building segment or choosing the utilization of a material
especially where weight is a critical factor. In this way, it is important to decide the
thickness of the composites created for this investigation. The hypothetical density ρct of
composites as far as weight portion is gotten utilizing the connection given by Agarwal
and Broutman.

1
ρct = (3.1)
Wf /ρf + Wm /ρm

where,ρ and W and denotes the density and weight fraction, respectively. The ct,f and

m demonstrates the composite materials, fiber and the matrix respectively. The real
density ρce of the composites is dictated by water immersion system. By utilizing the
hypothetical and experimental of composites, the volume portion of voids (Vv ) in the
composites is resolved utilizing the accompanying condition:

ρct − ρce
Vv = (3.2)
ρct

3.4.2 Tensile Test

Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)is the maximum stress that a material can with-

stand while being stretched or pulled before necking,which is when the specimen’s cross-
section starts to significantly contract.The tensile strength of a fiber strengthened com-

35
posite relies upon the bonding between the filaments and the matrix.The capacity of the
matrix is to share the load between filaments.Tensile properties were evaluated by a He-
ico widespread testing(fig 3.1) machine as indicated by the system depicted in standard
ASTM D638. Figure 3.2 demonstrates the tensile test.The specimens were cut from

composite sheets having measurements 165mm x 19mm x 3 mm.

Figure 3.1: Tensile testing machine

Figure 3.2: Tensile test sample

36
3.4.3 Charpy Impact Strength Test

Impact strength means that tolerability for a sudden impact.Impact strength is

characterized as the capacity of a material to oppose the crack under stress applied at

high speed.Impact properties of the composite material are specifically identified with
its general toughness.
Figure 3.3 illustrates Charpy impact pendulum. The notch, with 2.54 mm in depth as
well as an angle of 45 and a tip curvature radius of 0.25 mm. For each wt. fraction of

silica,2 specimens were machined to assure a statistical validation and then tested.

Figure 3.3: Impact testing machine

3.4.4 Hardness Test

Hardness is a surface property of the composite.Vickers hardness of the spec-

imens was measured as per ASTM E384 using micro hardness testers.The specimens
were polished with sandpaper for obtaining smooth surfaces for indentation.The inden-
ter utilized for the test was a 136square-based Vickers’ precious stone pyramid.Three

measurements at different spots were averaged for each sample. A load of 5 KN was

37
applied for 5 s for getting the indentation. The specimen measurements are 20 mm x
20 mm x 3 mm.The unit and magnitude of the hardness are characterized by Vickers’
hardness, Hv and determined by the following equation.

1.854L
Hv = (3.3)
d2

Where L the load applied in gram and d the diagonal length of the diamond impression

of indentation in mm. Figure 3.4 demonstrates the hardness testing machine.

Figure 3.4: Hardness testing machine

38
3.4.5 Dry Slide Wear Test

A dynamic loss of material from its surface is named as wear. In other words
wear is the response of the material to an external load and temperature. Wear of the

component will occur whenever surfaces are in direct contact.Wear of the segment will
happen at whatever point two surfaces are in contact specifically.Scraped area wear can
be processed by subjecting the test to test under Pin on circle technique or scraped spot
test contraption. The Figures 3.5 shows photographic view of Pin-on-Disc wear tester.

3.4.6 Preparation of Sample for Wear Test

This test technique covers a lab system for deciding the wear of materials amid
sliding utilizing a pin-on-disk apparatus mechanical assembly and is issued under the
standard ASTM G 99. For the pin-on-disk wear test conducted in this research, the
specimens were a pin with a rounded tip, which is positioned perpendicular to a flat

circular disk (the test sample).

A ball, rigidly held, is often used as the pin. The test machine causes either the
disk specimen or the pin to revolve about the disk centre. The sliding path is a circle
on the sample surface. The pin is pressed against the disk at a specified load usually by

means of an arm or lever and attached weights.

39
 Figure 3.5: Wear testing machine

3.4.7 Water Absorption Test

Water ingestion test was led as per ASTM D570.The composite specimens were

immersed in a water shower at room temperature for a longer period to reach equilib-
rium. At regular period,the samples were taken out from the water and wiped with a
soft material to expel surface water and weighed with a computerized scale.The speci-
mens were re-immersed in water to allow the continuation of absorption until immersion

restrain was come to following 120 hours. The weighing was done within 30 sec,in order
to avoid the error due to evaporation.The level of the water content (Mt ) was resolved
utilizing the accompanying condition.(Kim et al[57])
Wt - Weight of test at time t in grams
Wo - Initial weight of the example in grams

Mt - Percentage of water absorption

Wt − Wo
Mt = (3.4)
Wo

40
 Figure 3.6: Weighing machine

3.4.8 Scanning electron magnifying instrument (SEM) Test

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that pro-

duces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons.The electrons

interact with electrons in the sample, producing various signals that can be detected and
that contain information about the sample’s surface topography and composition.The
electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the beam’s position

is combined with the detected signal to produce an image.SEM can achieve resolution
better than 1 nm.Specimens can be observed in a high vacuum, low vacuum and in an
environmental SEM specimens can be observed in wet condition.

Figure 3.7: SEM testing machine

41
CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This part exhibits after effects of the Physical and mechanical portrayal of Sisal
and hemp fiber fortified epoxy nano composite loaded up with various extents of silica

filler.The properties of unfilled Epoxy/ sisal and hemp fiber composites (EP/sisal-hemp)
are also investigated for comparison.The result of mechanical properties of unfilled and
silica filled EP/sisal-hemp composites are talked about and exhibited.The morpholog-
ical examination of the broken specimen is additionally completed utilizing Scanning

Electron Microscope

4.1 EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES

This section represents the effect of silica loading on the physical,mechanical

properties such as density,tensile strength,impact strength and hardness of unfilled and

silica filled EP/sisal-hemp composites.

4.1.1 Effect of silica loading on density

The theoretical density,experimental density and the void part of the composites
is introduced in Table 4.1. The experimental density is dictated by utilizing Archimedes

rule,it is to be noticed that the estimations of theoretical density are not equivalent
to the experimental density.The void substance is the reason for the contrast between
the actual densities and theoretically figured one.The calculation of void fraction is for
the estimation of the nature of the composites.It is reasonable that a good composite
should have less voids.This distinction in the theoretical and experimental thickness
of the composites is the measure of voids or pores exhibit in it.The nearness of voids
in composites essentially influences its mechanical properties straightforwardly or in a

roundabout way.

Composites Theoretical Density(gm/cm3 ) Experimental Density(gm/cm3 ) Void Fraction %

0 Wt% Silica 1.2354 1.2126 1.84
1 Wt% Silica 1.2422 1.2213 1.68
2 Wt% Silica 1.2484 1.2381 0.825
3 Wt% Silica 1.2540 1.2480 0.478
4 Wt% Silica 1.2601 1.2575 0.206

Table 4.1: Theoretical, experimental densities and void fractions in nanocomposites

4.1.2 Effect of silica loading on tensile properties

The particular stress-strain curve of unfilled and silica filled EP/sisal-hemp com-
posites are appeared in Figure.For each case two specimens are tried and normal esti-
mations of tensile strength is reported.
Trial estimations of tensile strength of sisal-hemp fiber fortified epoxy nanocom-

posites as a component of silica are appeared in Figures 4.1.For unfilled sisal-hemp fiber
reinforced epoxy composite (without silica) tensile strength is 34MPa.It is clear from
the Figure 4.2 that the tensile properties are quickly expanding up to 2wt % of silica
substance and compasses the most extreme estimations of 47 MPa.

It is additionally seen from the Figures that further expansion of silica over 2wt%
and up to 4wt% abatements the tensile properties of the composites i.e.at 4wt% silica
content the level of increment in tensile strength is 8.82% where with respect to 2wt%
silica content the level of increment in the tensile strength is 38.23%

it ia clearly visible that for all the weight portions of silica,the tensile properties of
nanocomposites are observed to be fundamentally higher than that of unfilled EP/sisal-

43
hemp, which recommends a superior similarity amongst silica and epoxy.
The improvement in tensile strength of the composites up to 2wt% of silica might
be because of the better dispersion of silica.
The decrement in the tensile strength of the EP/sisal hemp/silica composites

past 2wt% of silica expansion can be ascribed to the increment in viscosity of the epoxy
resin which brings about the arrangement of smaller voids rises all through the sample
arrangement.Further,the expansion in weight level of silica diminishes the interaction
amongst reinforcement,filler and the matrix.
Then again,as filler stacking increments,silica-silica agglomeration happens.This

is because of the way that, as the wt% of the silica particles expands,the free space that is
available for nanoparticles would be diminished. In the mean time,the ascent in the cross-
connect densities of the nanocomposites brings about expanding the inclination for the
nanoparticles to form cluster.As the measure of bunches increments in the composites,

the capacity of the nanoparticles to shape agglomeration is likewise expanded.As the

level of agglomeration increments,the fillermatrix cooperation becomes weaker which
decreases the tensile strength.

Figure 4.1: Stress Strain plot for EP/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposites

44
4.1.3 Effect of silica on impact properties

Impact strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist the fracture un-
der stress applied at high speed.When a composite material is subjected to an impact,

accelerated crack propagation is originated throughout the material and such crack pro-
liferation meets a filler particle in the filled composite.The filler takes up that energy
and stop the crack to grow further,if bonding between matrix and fber is good.If the
interfacial grip between matrix and fiber is frail,then less energy will be absorbed and

impact strength will be less (Siriwardena et al)[58].

Figure 4.2 demonstrates the Charpy impact strength of the nanocomposites as a
component of the silica content.For each case two samples are tried and normal estima-
tions of impact strength are accounted for.It can be uncovered that the impact strength

of EP/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposites is higher than the unfilled EP/sisal-hemp com-

posites for all the wt% of silica content.
The rate increment of impact strength of the composite at 2wt% silica is 150%
when contrasted with unfilled EP/sisal-hemp composites. Yet,the rate increment in
impact strength at 4wt% silica is just 60%.So the ideal change in impact strength is

seen at 2wt% silica content.

The good dispersion of silica with epoxy and fiber is at less filler content; at
2wt% silica the impact strength achieves 150% higher than that of unfilled EP/sisal-
hemp composite. At a higher substance (>2%), due to bigger perspective proportion

the scattering of silica in epoxy is troublesome and this prompts more agglomerations
thus the vitality scattering is decreased and not enhanced for the EP/sisal-hemp/silica
composite.

45
 Figure 4.2: Effect of silica wt% on impact strength of nanocomposites

4.1.4 Effect of silica on hardness

For each case two specimens are tried and normal estimations of hardness are
accounted for. It can be seen from the Figure 4.3, that the silica has extraordinarily
expanded the hardness of EP/sisal-hemp. Hardness increments straightly and more
noteworthy hardness is displayed by 2wt% silica content. The most extreme ascent in

hardness when contrasted with unfilled EP/sisal hemp composite is 47%,which is seen
at 2wt% silica filled composite.
The ascent in the estimation of the hardness is because of the consideration of
filler particles between the fiber and resin this thus decreases the measure of pressure

and in this manner expands the hardness of the composite. The higher hardness for
2wt% silica filled composite is the impression of intrinsic hardness of silica and these
silica particle may authorize upgraded opposition other than epoxy section move under
indention. The improvement in hardness with joining of silica filler can likewise be

deciphered as takes after: under the activity of compressive force, the epoxy resin and
the hemp and sial fiber and particles stage will be made to compressed commonly which
makes them to get in touch with each other and provides resistance. In this manner,

46
the interface can pass on stack all the more proficiently. Subsequently the hardness of
silica filled EP/sisal-hemp nanocomposites is enhanced.
In any case, additionally stacking of silica from 2 to 4wt%, the augment in
hardness isn’t considerable i.e.at 4wt% silica content the increment in hardness is just

26.5%, this is because of poor silica dispersion.

Figure 4.3: Effect of silica wt% on hardness of nanocomposites

4.1.5 Effect of silica on wear loss

Figure demonstrates the wear rate of the silica composite as an element of the
silica content.These results shows that the silica content has critical effect on wear
properties of the composites and the size of wear loss is lesser in EP/sisal-hemp/silica

nanocomposites contrasted with unfilled EP/sisal-hemp composites.

The variety in wear loss of perfect epoxy and its nanocomposites under various
loads (10N,20N,30N) were as appeared in Fig.4.4.
The experimental results reveal that the wear loss increased linearly with load.The

pattern in the wear loss with load was the same for all specimens.Another feature ob-
serve was that the wear loss expanded continuously with increment in load for silica
filled epoxy nanocomposites,though in the perfect epoxy,a higher slope was seen.The

47
wear loss diminished with expanding silica filler stacking with the exception of 3 and 4
wt% filled epoxy tests and demonstrates an upward pattern showing more noteworthy
wear loss at higher load.
The 2wt% silica filled composite demonstrates the 62.7%, 60.8% and 59.2% lesser par-

ticular wear rate when contrasted with unfilled composite for the sliding speed (1.2m/s)
for the ordinary heaps of 10N, 20N and 30N respectively.
It is because of the reason that interfacial adhesion is strong enough to prevent
the debonding of filler particles.As the fillers are nanoparticles,the greater the number
of particles on the worn surface,the contact area between particle and wear pin will be

larger and hence the better wear resistance is offered by silica.This behaviour can also
be attributed to the presence of nanoparticle, which is embedded within the matrix
material and that seals fibers which imparts added strength to the composite.

Figure 4.4: Wear loss vs. normal load at 1.2m/s sliding velocity.

4.1.6 Effect of silica on water absorption characteristic

The Figure 4.5 shows the plot of average percentage of water uptake as a function
of time of unfilled EP/sisal-hemp composite and different wt% silica filled EP/sisal-
hemp/silica nanocomposite samples due to immersion in tap water for 120 hours at room

48
temperature. Percentage weight change during moisture absorption has been determined
by weight gain relative to dry weight of the sample.For each case two samples were
tested under identical test conditions.It is significant that the rates of water absorption
of both unfilled and silica filled nano composites were relatively fast in the first 48 hours.

During the time between and hours of immersion,all the composite samples had almost
reached complete saturation.There were no critical changes in moisture absorption data
even after immersion for 72 hours or more.Water absorption decreases with increasing
content of silica.It is may be due to less number of voids that is formed with higher
percentage of silica content.

Figure 4.5: Water absorption behaviour of EP/sisal-hemp/silica composites

4.1.7 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis

Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) gives enough proof of the bonding between
the resin and the fiber. The fractured surfaces are explored to examine the fracture
practices of the unfilled composite and silica nanocomposites. SEM picture of EP/sisal-

hemp/silica nanocomposite for unfilled also, EP/sisal-hemp and 2wt% and 4wt% silica
filled EP/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposite were watched for the failure component is
appeared in Figures.It is clear from the figure that the fiber breaking is the failure mode

49
in all composite specimens.
The Figure 4.6 micrograph of unfilled EP/sisal-hemp specimens, it shows that the fiber
don’t take up their forthcoming most noteworthy load before they break. The over-
whelming system for fracture of these composite is matrix/fiber interface debonding,

fiber pull out and brittle fracture of fiber . The profound pockets framed by the entire
pull out of a bundle of filaments can be obviously observed, which affirms the debonding
of the fiber - polymer matrix interface, bringing about low strength.
In the specimens with 2wt% silica, a solid interlocking of the silica filled resin and the
fibers could be seen from the Figure 4.7.The bonding at all percentage of silica nanocom-

posite is better than that of unfilled composite.The silica gives the bond between the
sisal-hemp filaments and the matrix.
The specimen with 4wt% silica demonstrates more noteworthy level of fiber pull out
(Figure 4.8). This demonstrates the interfacial bonding between matrix and fiber is

feeble.This might be because of the presence of agglomerated silica in the resin frame-
work.After the failure additionally, the filaments are still implanted in the matrix.

Figure 4.6: SEM micrograph of fractured surfaces of unfiled EP/sisal-hemp composite

50
Figure 4.7: SEM Micrograph of fractured surfaces of 2wt% filled Filled EP/sisal-hemp/
nanocomposites.

Figure 4.8: SEM Micrograph of fractured surfaces of 4wt%silica Filled EP/sisal-hemp/

nanocomposites.

51
CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The present work is an endeavor to incorporate progressed nanocomposites ma-

terial for structural applications. Special thought was focussed towards the dispersion

proficiency of nano particles on the polymer composites.

Epoxy/sisal-hemp fiber/silica nanocomposites with shifting level of silica have
been effectively arranged utilizing hand lay-up strategies. Mechanical and other essential
tests was led on unfilled composite and unique arrangements of nanocomposites.

Significant finishes of the present examination on unfilled and silica filled EP/sisal-
hemp hybrid nanocomposites are shortened in this chapter
Proposals for future work are additionally given toward the finish of this part.
Mechanical properties, for example, tensile strength, impact strength and hard-

ness of unfilled EP/sisal-hemp and EP/sisal-hemp/silica nanocomposites were assessed.

It was discovered that the dispersion of silica in EP/sisal-hemp upgradeded all the
mechanical properties when compared to unfilled composite.It can likewise observed
that up to 2wt% silica expansion, the properties, for example, tensile strength,impact
strength,hardness are found to be increased and further expansion of silica(>2wt%)

diminishes the above said properties.

For the unfilled and silica filled composites, an increase in normal load in-
creased the sliding wear.The wear rate of silica filled EP/sisal-hemp nanocomposite was
minimum when compared to unfilled EP/sisal-hemp composite.In EP/sisal-hemp/silica

nanocomposites the loading of silica increases the wear resistance as compared with un-
filled EP/sisal-hempp composite. So existence of silica in EP/sisal-hemp composite acts
as an effective barrier to avoid the large scale disintegration of epoxy.
In this examination, the water absorption of composite was conducted. The
investigation demonstrates that the water absorption of EP/sisal-hemp/silicacomposites
is lesser than the unfilled EP/sisal-hemp composite.Water absorption decreases with

increasing content of silica.

SEM micrographs showed the evidence for the failure of thecomposites.Failure
features such as fiber-matrix de-bonding, dis-orientated fiber pull out were noticed. The
better adhesion between fiber-matrix by the integration of silica was noticed on 2wt%
silica filled composites.

5.0.8 Scope for future work

The present investigation has been completed utilizing basic hand lay-up strat-
egy.Be that as it may, the exploration work can be broadened assist by considering
different strategies for composite creation as pressure forming method and the effect of
assembling procedures on the performance of composites can comparably be analysed.

The present work has been done on fiber fortify with epoxy resin. It can be like-
wise finished with other polymer matrix as polyster resin and furthermore can polyester
resin with various grade.
Thermal tests additionally can be perform over the same work.

The impact of silica filler material on machinability of composites might be

studied.
The effect of at least two nano fillers on mechanical, thermal and tribological
properties of the composites can be studied.

53
CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES