PHIL 120 Tutorial Lab 2 (Week4) Exercises.

Draw argument diagrams for some of the arguments below.

Your TA will tell you which of these you should do in the
tutorial and the order in which you should do them. Some of
these are examples of “simple” arguments but many are
“extended” arguments or reasonings. Some might be “linked”
and others might be “convergent” or even “divergent”.

You will need an account on RATIONALE (the argument

diagramming website) to complete the argument diagrams.

(A)
I think everyone would agree that (1) life is worth protecting, and
that (2) the environment sustains all of us. It stands to reason, then,
that (3) we need to protect the environment. (4) One particular
threat to the environment is the emission of greenhouse gasses.
This is because (5) greenhouse gasses trap the energy of the sun,
causing the warming of the planet, and (6) the warming of the
planet could have catastrophic effects on the environment. So, we
just can’t avoid the conclusion that (7) we need to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
(B)
It only remains to me to examine into the manner in which I have
acquired this idea of God; for (1) I have not received it [the idea of
God] through the senses, since (2) it is never presented to me
unexpectedly, (3) as is usual with the ideas of sensible things when
these things present themselves, or seem to present themselves, to
the external organs of my senses; (4) nor is it likewise a fiction of
my mind, for (5) it is not in my power to take from or add anything
to it; and consequently the only alternative is that (6) it [the idea of
God] is innate in me, just as the idea of myself is innate in me.
(C)
(1) Medical researchers are constantly discovering new ways to
treat and cure diseases, and (2) the health of our citizens should be
a top national national priority. Thus, (3) doctors should be eligible
for government grants to support their research work.
(D)
(1) Eating animals is wrong for a variety of reasons. First, (2) many
animals are sentient creatures that have thoughts and emotions.
Second, (3) we should not cause animals to suffer if we don’t need
to. Finally, (4) raising animals for food uses resources, like grain,
that could be used to feed hungry people around the world.
(E)
(1) Taxing our earnings is the same as the government forcing us to
work without pay. Thus, since (2) it is morally wrong to force
someone to be a slave, (3) taxing our earnings is wrong.
(F)
Although (1) certain events in the subatomic realm occur at
random, I still say that (2) the universe as a whole displays a
marvelous order. Perhaps the best evidence for this is the
fact that (3) scientists continue to discover regularities that
can be formulated as laws
(G)
(1) It is not always moral to save more lives at the cost of one life.
For (2) if it is always moral to save more lives at the cost of one life,
then it is moral to remove the organs of a healthy person against his
wishes and transplant them into five people who need organ
transplants. But (3) it is not moral to perform such transplants
because (4) doing so violates the rights of the healthy person.
(H)
Although (1) some have argued that nuclear weapons introduce
nothing genuinely new into the disputes about the morality of war,
I believe that (2) nuclear weapons raise novel moral issues.
First, (3) nuclear weapons have new and undreamed-
of long-term effects since (4) the radioactive fallout pollutes the
environment and alters human genes. Second, (5) a nuclear war
could destroy human civilization in its entirety. Third, (6) in the
case of nuclear war, the dust caused by the explosions would
prevent the sun’s rays from reaching the earth’s surface. So, (7) a
nuclear war would result in a drastic lowering of the earth’s
temperature. In other words, (8) a nuclear war would result in a
“nuclear winter.” And (9) no human or human group has the
right to gamble with the very climate on which life itself is based
(I)
(1) A person cannot survive her own death, for (2) death means
losing consciousness and having one’s body be destroyed, e.g. by
eventual decay or by fire. So, (3) if she were to survive, that
would mean there would be someone, in Heaven, or Hades, or
wherever, that is identical to her. But (4) this “someone” would only
be a copy of her, and so (5) could not be identical to her.
(J)
Scientists agree that (1) there are laws of nature, such
as the law of gravitation. Now, (2) there cannot be a law unless
there is some authority, some lawgiver, who promulgates the law.
Therefore (3) there must be someone who promulgated the law of
gravitation and other natural laws. (4) This “someone” can only be
God.
(K)
(1) Morality, by definition, promotes the good, and so (2) the morally
right thing to do is the thing which maximizes the good. But, (3)
whatever else individuals prefer, we can see that it is
universally the case that we seek pleasure and avoid pain. So, (4)
pleasure is “The Good,” and hence (5) the morally right thing to do is the
thing which maximizes pleasure.
(L)
There are those who believe that (1) even if God isn't needed as the
author of moral rules, he is nevertheless required as the enforcer of
them, for (2) without the threat of divine punishment, people will not
act morally. But (3) this position is not sensible. In the first place (4) as a
fact about human beings, it is questionable. (5) There is no
unambiguous evidence that people who believe in God are more moral
than those who don't. (6) Not only have psychologists failed to find a
connection between frequency of religious worship and moral conduct
but as well (7) convicted criminals are much more likely to be believers
than they are to be atheists. (8) Second, the threat of divine punishment
cannot impose a moral obligation. (9) Might does not make right. (10)
Threats extort, they do not create a moral duty.
(M)
(1) The New England Journal of Medicine should not publish reports of
unethical science research for three reasons, no matter how small the
ethical violation and how important the scientific result. (2) The policy
of publishing only ethical research, if every journal followed it, would
prevent unethical science research. (3) Publication is an important part
of the reward system in medical research and (4) investigators will not
undertake unethical studies if they know they will not be rewarded.
Second (5) denying publication even when the ethical violations are
minor protects us from more serious wrongs. (6) If small lapses were
allowed this would lead to larger violations. And finally (7) refusing to
publish unethical work tells the rest of society that even scientists do
not consider scientific knowledge the primary measure of civilization.
(8) Although it is important, what is more important in a decent society
is how it is obtained.
(N)
(1) It is very unlikely that research using animals will be poorly done on
unhealthy and badly treated ones. (2) Before an experiment using
animals is done, its design is always reviewed by a committee of experts
that includes a veterinarian and (3) during the research the animal's
health and care are monitored. (4) Researchers need healthy animals for
study in science and medicine because (5) unhealthy ones can lead to
mistakes in the results. Furthermore, (6) research involving animals is
expensive and because (7) funding is limited in science, (8) only high
quality research is able to get financial support.
(O)
(1) Ethical subjectivism is the idea that the rightness or wrongness of an
action depends completely on what an individual or group believes is
right or wrong. (2) This view can't be sound. (3) The first thing that
must occur to someone who studies this view is that it allows that an
action can be both right and not right, or wrong and not wrong, at the
same time. This possibility exists because (4) individual subjective
beliefs can vary from one person to another, even when they are about
the same action. Hence (5) one and the same action can have opposite
moral characters -- they can be both right and not right, or wrong and
not wrong. (6) If subjectivism does generate such contradictory
conclusions it certainly can't be tenable.