1

 A material is permeable if it contains continuous

voids,
 All materials such as rocks, concrete, soils, etc.
are permeable,
 Flow of water through them follows
approximately same laws,
 Difference between flow of water through
permeable materials lies in “degree of flow”
 Permeability of a soil is a soil property which
describes quantitatively the ease with which
water flows through that soil
2
 water

Loose soil Dense soil

- easy to flow - difficult to flow
- less resistance - more resistance
- high permeability - low permeability

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Decisive effect on problems involving
 Excavations of open cuts in sands below W.T.
 Estimates of the rate of flow of water into the cut to
keep the area free from water by pumping are
required
 Seepage through earth embankment dams
 Where a clay core is sometimes used to inhibit
seepage loss
 Stability of foundations
 Where a quick release of pore water pressure by
drainage will increase shearing resistance
 Subgrade drainage
 Rate of consolidation of compressible soils
 Steady flow in fluids means that flow parameters such
as pressure, head or velocity do not vary with time.
 Unsteady (transient) flow refers to flow conditions
which vary with time.
 One-dimensional flow is the type of flow where fluid
parameters are same at all points in a section
perpendicular to the flow direction, but can vary from
section to section along the direction of flow.
 Two-dimensional flow means parameters vary in two
coordinate directions.
 Three-dimensional flow means fluid parameters are a
function of three coordinate directions.
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Flow of water through soil follows the laws of fluid mechanics
The energy of a fluid particle is
made of:
1. Kinetic energy fluid particle

- due to velocity
z
2. Strain energy
- due to pressure
datum
3. Potential energy
- due to elevation (z) with respect to a
datum
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 Expressing energy in unit of length:
Total head at any point in water under steady flow condition
may be expressed as

Velocity head
fluid particle
+
Total head = Pressure head
z
+
Elevation head datum

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 For flow through soils, velocity (and thus
velocity head) is very small. Therefore,

0
fluid particle
Velocity head
+
z
Total head = Pressure head
+ datum
Elevation head

Total head = Pressure head + Elevation head

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 Pressure heads

where,
pA and pB = pressure
heads,
VA and VB = velocity,
g - acceleration due to
gravity,
γw = unit weight of
water,
L = length of flow

Elevation heads

Velocity heads
As the water flows from A to B, energy is dissipated in overcoming the soil
resistance and hence is the head loss which is represented by the difference in
the total heads HA and HB

Loss of head

Hydraulic gradient (i) between the two points, A

and B is the total head loss per unit length.

length AB, “along” the stream line

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At any point within the flow regime:

Pressure head = pore water pressure/w

Elevation head = height above the selected datum

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Definition of Head at a Point
u w ( P)
h ( P)   z( P ) (1)
w

Note
z(P)
z is measured vertically up
from the datum

Datum
 Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

2m u w ( P)  4 w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

2m u w ( P)  4 w
1m X z( P )  1
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

2m u w ( P)  4 w
1m X z( P )  1
5 m thus
P 4 w
1m h( P)   1  5m
Impermeable stratum w
 Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

u w ( X)  w
2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

u w ( X)  w
2m
1m X z ( X)  4
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

u w ( X)  w
2m
1m X z ( X)  4
5 m thus
P w
1m h ( X)   4  5m
Impermeable stratum w
 Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

u w ( X)  w
2m
1m X z ( X)  4
5 m thus
P w
1m h ( X)   4  5m
Impermeable stratum w

The heads at P and X are identical. Does this imply that the head
is constant throughout the region below a static water table?
 Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the water table

2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( P) = 4 w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( P) = 4 w
1m X z( P) = -4
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( P) = 4 w
1m X z( P) = -4
5m thus
P
1m 4 w
Impermeable stratum h( P) = - 4 = 0m
w
 Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( X)  1 w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( X)  1 w
1m X z( X)  -1
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( X)  1 w
1m X z( X)  -1
5m thus
P
1m w
h ( X)  - 1  0m
Impermeable stratum w
 Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( X)  1 w
1m X z( X)  -1
5m thus
P
1m w
h ( X)  - 1  0m
Impermeable stratum w

Again, the head at P and X is identical, but the value is

different with change in datum
 Head
• The value of the total head depends on the choice of datum

• Differences in TOTAL head are required for flow (not pressure)

2m It can be helpful to consider

imaginary standpipes
1m X
placed in the soil at the
5m points where the head is
P
1m required
Impermeable stratum

The total head is the elevation of the water level in the

standpipe “above the datum”
 In laminar flow each particle travels along a
definite path which never crosses the path of
other particles
 In turbulent flow the paths are irregular and
twisting, crossing and re-crossing at random.

Since pores of most soils are small, flow

through them is invariably ‘laminar’,
In fractured rock, stones, gravels and very
coarse sands, turbulent flow conditions may
exist 30
 Results from Reynolds experiment on
fluid flow in a tube

vαi

where,
NR = Reynolds Number taken as 2000 as the maximum value for the flow to
remain always laminar,
D = diameter of pipe,
vc = critical velocity below which the flow always remains laminar,
γo= unit weight of fluid at 4 °C,
μ = viscosity of fluid,
g = acceleration due to gravity
 Darcy’s Law for water flow through soil

Dh

Soil Sample

DL
Darcy, in 1856, found that the flow (volume per unit time) was
 proportional to the head difference Dh

 proportional to the cross-sectional area A

 inversely proportional to the length of sample DL

Darcy’s law is valid for saturated soil samples under laminar flow
 Darcy’s Law

Dh
Thus Q  kA (2a)
DL
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.
 Darcy’s Law

Dh
Thus Q  kA (2a)
DL
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.

Equation (2a) may be written as

Q  k Ai
 Darcy’s Law

Dh
Thus Q  kA (2a)
DL
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.

Equation (2a) may be written as

Q  k Ai
or v=ki (2b)

where i = Dh/DL the hydraulic gradient

v = Q/A the Darcy or superficial velocity
 Typical permeability values

10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12

Gravels Sands Silts Homogeneous Clays

Fissured & Weathered Clays

Typical Permeability Ranges (metres/second)

Soils exhibit a wide range of permeabilities and while particle

size may vary by about 3-4 orders of magnitude, permeability
may vary by about 10 orders of magnitude.
 Permeant Fluid Properties
 Soil Characteristics
1. Grain-size
2. Void ratio
3. Degree of saturation
4. Presence of entrapped air and other foreign
matter.

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 From Darcy’s law

applicable to relatively
pervious or coarse grained
soils

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 Measurement of permeability
Standpipe of
cross-sectional
area a

porous disk
H1
H
Sample H2
L of area A

Fig. 5 Falling Head Permeameter

 Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval dt a
dH
The flow in the standpipe = - a
dt
H1
H
Sample H2
L of area
A
 Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval dt a
dH
The flow in the standpipe = - a
dt
H1
H
The flow in the sample = kA H
L
Sample H2
L of area
A
 Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval dt a
dH
The flow in the standpipe = - a
dt
H1
H
The flow in the sample = kA H
L
Sample H2
and thus L of area
dH H A
-a  kA (4a)
dt L
 Falling head permeameter
Solution Standpipe
of area
dH H
-a  kA (4a) a
dt L

Equation (4a) has the solution:

H1
kA H
-aln( H )  t (4b)
L H2
Sample
L of area
A
 Falling head permeameter
Solution Standpipe
of area
dH H
-a  kA (4a) a
dt L

Equation (4a) has the solution:

H1
kA H
-aln( H )  t (4b)
L H2
Sample
L of area
Initially H=H1 at time t=t1 A
Finally H=H2 at time t=t2.

aL ln( H1 / H 2 )
k (4c)
A t 2 - t1
Static Situation (No flow)

hw

z At X,
L
X v = whw + satz
soil

u = w (hw + z)
v ' = ' z
 Downward
Flow
At X,
v = whw + satz flow

… as for static
case u = w h w
u = w hw + w(L-hL)(z/L)
hw
hL
= w hw + w(z-iz)
z
L
= w (hw+z) - wiz X
soil
Reduction due to flow

v ' = ' z + wiz

u = w (hw+L-hL)
Increase due to flow
 Upward
Flow flow
At X,
v = whw + satz hL
… as for static
case
u = w hw + w(L+hL)(z/L)
hw u = w hw
= w hw + w(z+iz)
z
L
= w (hw+z) + wiz X
soil
Increase due to flow

v ' = ' z - wiz u = w (hw+L+hL)

Reduction due to flow

 During upward flow, at X:
flow

v ' = ' z - wiz

hL
' 
  wz - i
 w  hw

Critical hydraulic gradient (ic)

z
L
X
If i = ic, the effective stresses is zero.
soil

i.e., no inter-granular contact & thus

failure.
- Quick
condition