Anatomi dan Physiology pernafasan

- consists of a supporting framework of bone and hyaline cartilage covered with muscle and
skin and lined by a mucous membrane

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- The interior structures of the external nose have three functions: (1) warming, moistening,
and filtering incoming air; (2) detecting olfactory stimuli; and (3) modifying speech
vibrations as they pass through the large, hollow resonating chambers. Resonance refers to
prolonging, amplifying, or modifying a sound by vibration.
- The internal nose is a large cavity beyond the nasal vestibule in the anterior aspect of the
skull that lies inferior to the nasal bone and superior to the mouth; it is lined with muscle
and mucous membrane. Anteriorly, the internal nose merges with the external nose, and
posteriorly it communicates with the pharynx through two openings called the internal
nares or choanae (ko¯- A¯ -ne¯) (see Figure 23.2b).
- Ducts from the paranasal sinuses (which drain mucus) and the nasolacrimal ducts (which
drain tears) also open into the internal nose. Recall from Chapter 7 that the paranasal
sinuses are cavities in certain cranial and facial bones lined with mucous membranes that
are continuous with the lining of the nasal cavity. Skull bones containing the paranasal
sinuses are the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillae. Besides producing mucus, the
paranasal sinuses serve as resonating chambers for sound as we speak or sing. The lateral
walls of the internal nose are formed by the ethmoid, maxillae, lacrimal, palatine, and
inferior nasal conchae bones (see Figure 7.9 on page 210); the ethmoid bone also forms the
roof. The palatine bones and palatine processes of the maxillae, which together constitute
the hard palate, form the floor of the internal nose. The space within the internal nose is
called the nasal cavity. The anterior portion of the nasal cavity just inside the nostrils, called
the nasal vestibule, is surrounded by cartilage; the superior part of the nasal cavity is
surrounded by bone. A vertical partition, the nasal septum, divides the nasal cavity into right
and left sides. The anterior portion of the nasal septum consists primarily of hyaline
cartilage; the remainder is formed by the vomer, perpendicular plate of the ethmoid,
maxillae, and palatine bones (see Figure 7.11 on page 213)
- When air enters the nostrils, it passes first through the vestibule, which is lined by skin
containing coarse hairs that filter out large dust particles. Three shelves formed by
projections of the superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae extend out of each lateral
wall of the nasal cavity. The conchae, almost reaching the nasal septum, subdivide each side
of the nasal cavity into a series of groovelike passageways—the superior, middle, and
 inferior meatuses (me¯-A¯ -tus-e¯z openings or passages; singular is meatus). Mucous
membrane lines the cavity and its shelves. The arrangement of conchae and meatuses
increases surface area in the internal nose and prevents dehydration by trapping water
droplets during exhalation.
- The olfactory receptors lie in a region of the membrane lining the superior nasal conchae
and adjacent septum called the olfactory epithelium. Inferior to the olfactory epithelium,
the mucous membrane contains capillaries and pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium with many goblet cells. As inhaled air whirls around the conchae and meatuses,
it is warmed by blood in the capillaries. Mucus secreted by the goblet cells moistens the
air and traps dust particles. Drainage from the nasolacrimal ducts also helps moisten the
air, and is sometimes assisted by secretions from the paranasal sinuses. The cilia move the
mucus and trapped dust particles toward the pharynx, at which point they can be
swallowed or spit out, thus removing the particles from the respiratory tract.

- Anatomy of Olfactory Receptors

- The nose contains 10–100 million receptors for the sense of smell or olfaction (ol-FAK-shun;
olfact- smell), contained within an area called the olfactory epithelium. With a total area of 5
cm2 (a little less than 1 in.2 ), the olfactory epithelium occupies the superior part of the
nasal cavity, covering the inferior surface of the cribriform plate and extending along the
superior nasal concha (Figure 17.1a).
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- The olfactory epithelium consists of three kinds of cells: olfactory receptors, supporting
cells, and basal cells (Figure 17.1b). Olfactory receptors are the first-order neurons of the
olfactory pathway. Each olfactory receptor is a bipolar neuron with an exposed knob-shaped
dendrite and an axon projecting through the cribriform plate and ending in the olfactory
bulb. The parts of the olfactory receptors that respond to inhaled chemicals are the
olfactory hairs, cilia that project from the dendrite. (Recall that transduction is the
conversion of stimulus energy into a graded potential in a sensory receptor.) Chemicals that
 have an odor and can therefore stimulate the olfactory hairs are called odorants. Olfactory
receptors respond to the chemical stimulation of an odorant molecule by producing a
generator potential, thus initiating the olfactory response. Supporting cells are columnar
epithelial cells of the mucous membrane lining the nose. They provide physical support,
nourishment, and electrical insulation for the olfactory receptors, and they help detoxify
chemicals that come in contact with the olfactory epithelium. Basal cells are stem cells
located between the bases of the supporting cells. They continually undergo cell division to
produce new olfactory receptors, which live for only a month or so before being replaced.
This process is remarkable considering that olfactory receptors are neurons, and as you have
already learned, mature neurons are generally not replaced. Within the connective tissue
that supports the olfactory epithelium are olfactory (Bowman’s) glands, which produce
mucus that is carried to the surface of the epithelium by ducts. The secretion moistens the
surface of the olfactory epithelium and dissolves odorants so that transduction can occur.
Both supporting cells of the nasal epithelium and olfactory glands are innervated by
branches of the facial (VII) nerve, which can be stimulated by certain chemicals. Impulses in
these nerves in turn stimulate the lacrimal glands in the eyes and nasal mucous glands. The
result is tears and a runny nose after inhaling substances such as pepper or the vapors of
household ammonia.

Physiology Olfactory
- Olfactory receptors react to odorant molecules in the same way that most sensory receptors
react to their specific stimuli: A generator potential (depolarization) develops and triggers
one or more nerve impulses. In some cases, an odorant binds to an olfactory receptor
protein in the plasma membrane of an olfactory hair (Figure 17.2). The olfactory receptor
protein is coupled to a membrane protein called a G protein, which in turn activates the
enzyme adenylate cyclase (see page 648). The result is the following chain of events:
production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) : opening of sodium ion
(Na
) channels : inflow of
Na :
depolarizing generator potential : generation of nerve impulse and propagation along axon
of olfactory receptor