1

What Do Whales Feel?

An examination of the functioning of the senses in cetaceans, the group of mammals comprising
whales, dolphins and porpoises
Some of the senses that we and other restricts the field of vision in baleen
terrestrial mammals take for granted are whales that they probably do not have
either reduced or absent in cetaceans or stereoscopic vision.
fail to function well in water. For example,
On the other hand, the position of the eyes
it appears from their brain structure that
in most dolphins and porpoises suggests
toothed species are unable to smell. Baleen
that they have stereoscopic vision forward
species, on the other hand, appear to have
and downward. Eye position in freshwater
some related brain structures but it is not
dolphins, which often swim on their side
known whether these are functional. It has
or upside down while feeding, suggests
been speculated that, as the blowholes
that what vision they have is stereoscopic
evolved and migrated to the top of the
forward and upward. By comparison, the
head, the neural pathways serving sense of
bottlenose dolphin has extremely keen
smell may have been nearly all sacrificed.
vision in water. Judging from the way it
Similarly, although at least some cetaceans
watches and tracks airborne flying fish, it
have taste buds, the nerves serving these
can apparently see fairly well through the
have degenerated or are rudimentary.
air-water interface as well. And although
The sense of touch has sometimes been preliminary experimental evidence
described as weak too, but this view is suggests that their in-air vision is poor, the
probably mistaken. Trainers of captive accuracy with which dolphins leap high to
dolphins and small whales often remark on take small fish out of a trainer’s hand
their animals’ responsiveness to being provides anecdotal evidence to the
touched or rubbed, and both captive and contrary.
free- ranging cetacean individuals of all
Such variation can no doubt be explained
species (particularly adults and calves, or
with reference to the habitats in which
members of the same subgroup) appear to
individual species have developed. For
make frequent contact. This contact may
example, vision is obviously more useful
help to maintain order within a group, and
to species inhabiting clear open waters
stroking or touching are part of the
than to those living in turbid rivers and
courtship ritual in most species. The area
flooded plains. The South American boutu
around the blowhole is also particularly
and Chinese beiji, for instance, appear to
sensitive and captive animals often object
have very limited vision, and the Indian
strongly to being touched there.
susus are blind, their eyes reduced to slits
The sense of vision is developed to that probably allow them to sense only the
different degrees in different species. direction and intensity of light.
Baleen species studied at close quarters
Although the senses of taste and smell
underwater - specifically a grey whale calf
appear to have deteriorated, and vision in
in captivity for a year, and free-ranging
water appears to be uncertain, such
right whales and humpback whales studied
weaknesses are more than compensated for
and filmed off Argentina and Hawaii -
by cetaceans’ well-developed acoustic
have obviously tracked objects with vision
sense. Most species are highly vocal,
underwater, and they can apparently see
although they vary in the range of sounds
moderately well both in water and in air.
they produce, and many forage for food
However, the position of the eyes so
using echolocation1. Large baleen whales
 2

primarily use the lower frequencies and are
often limited in their repertoire. Notable
exceptions are the nearly song-like
choruses of bowhead whales in summer
and the complex, haunting utterances of
the humpback whales. Toothed species in
general employ more of the frequency
spectrum, and produce a wider variety of
sounds, than baleen species (though the
sperm whale apparently produces a
monotonous series of high-energy clicks
and little else). Some of the more
complicated sounds are clearly
communicative, although what role they
may play in the social life and ‘culture’ of
cetaceans has been more the subject of
wild speculation than of solid science.

Questions 1-7
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

SENSE SPECIES ABILITY COMMENTS

toothed no evidence from brain structure
Smell
related brain structures are
baleen not certain present

nerves linked to
Taste some types poor their 1 ………are
underdeveloped

region around the blowhole very

Touch all yes
sensitive

probably do not have

2 ……….. yes
stereoscopic vision

dolphins, probably have stereoscopic

yes
porpoises vision 3 …..
Vision
probably have stereoscopic
4 ………. yes
vision forward and upward

bottlenose exceptional in 5 ………and

yes
dolphin good
 3

in air-water interface

boutu and beiji poor have limited vision

probably only sense direction

Indian susu no
and intensity of light

usually use 6 ……….;

most large baleen yes
repertoire limited

7 ………..
whales and
Hearing yes song-like
humpback
whales

use more of frequency spectrum;

toothed yes
have wider repertoire
 4

The Benefits of Being Bilingual

A what the listener hears could map onto

words in either language.
According to the latest figures, the
majority of the world’s population is now C
bilingual or multilingual, having grown up
Having to deal with this persistent
speaking two or more languages. In the
linguistic competition can result in
past, such children were considered to be
difficulties, however. For instance,
at a disadvantage compared with their
knowing more than one language can
monolingual peers. Over the past few
cause speakers to name pictures more
decades, however, technological advances
slowly, and can increase ‘tip-of-the-tongue
have allowed researchers to look more
states’, when you can almost, but not
deeply at how bilingualism interacts with
quite, bring a word to mind. As a result,
and changes the cognitive and neurological
the constant juggling of two languages
systems, thereby identifying several clear
creates a need to control how much a
benefits of being bilingual.
person accesses a language at any given
B time. For this reason, bilingual people
often perform better on tasks that require
Research shows that when a bilingual
conflict management. In the classic Stroop
person uses one language, the other is
Task, people see a word and are asked to
active at the same time. When we hear a
name the colour of the word’s font. When
word, we don’t hear the entire word all at
the colour and the word match (i., the word
once: the sounds arrive in sequential order.
‘red’ printed in red), people correctly name
Long before the word is finished, the
the colour more quickly than when the
brain’s language system begins to guess
colour and the word don’t match (i., the
what that word might be. If you hear ‘can’,
word ‘red’ printed in blue). This occurs
you will likely activate words like ‘candy’
because the word itself (‘red’) and its font
and ‘candle’ as well, at least during the
colour (blue) conflict. Bilingual people
earlier stages of word recognition. For
often excel at tasks such as this, which tap
bilingual people, this activation is not
into the ability to ignore competing
limited to a single language; auditory input
perceptual information and focus on the
activates corresponding words regardless
relevant aspects of the input. Bilinguals are
of the language to which they belong.
also better at switching between two tasks;
Some of the most compelling evidence for
for example, when bilinguals have to
this phenomenon, called ‘language co-
switch from categorizing objects by colour
activation’, comes from studying eye
(red or green) to categorizing them by
movements. A Russian-English bilingual
shape (circle or triangle), they do so more
asked to ‘pick up a marker’ from a set of
quickly than monolingual people,
objects would look more at a stamp than
reflecting better cognitive control when
someone who doesn’t know Russian,
having to make rapid changes of strategy.
because the Russian word for ‘stamp’,
marka, sounds like the English word he or D
she heard, ‘marker’. In cases like this,
It also seems that the neurological roots of
language co-activation occurs because
the bilingual advantage extend to brain
areas more traditionally associated with
 5

sensory processing. When monolingual E

and bilingual adolescents listen to simple
Such improvements in cognitive and
speech sounds without any intervening
sensory processing may help a bilingual
background noise, they show highly
person to process information in the
similar brain stem responses. When
environment, and help explain why
researchers play the same sound to both
bilingual adults acquire a third language
groups in the presence of background
better than monolingual adults master a
noise, however, the bilingual listeners’
second language. This advantage may be
neural response is considerably larger,
rooted in the skill of focussing on
reflecting better encoding of the sound’s
information about the new language while
fundamental frequency, a feature of sound
reducing interference from the languages
closely related to pitch perception.
they already know.

Questions 1-5
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.

Test Findings

Bilingual people engage both languages

Observing the 1 of Russian- English simultaneously: a mechanism known as
bilingual people when asked to select certain objects
2

Bilingual people are more able to handle tasks

A test called the 3 , focusing on
naming colours involving a skill called 4

When changing strategies, bilingual people have

A test involving switching between tasks
superior 5

The history of the poster

 6

The appearance of the poster has changed continuously over the past two centuries.
The first posters were known as ‘broadsides’ and were used for public and commercial announcements.
Printed on one side only using metal type, they were quickly and crudely produced in large quantities. As
they were meant to be read at a distance, they required large lettering.
There were a number of negative aspects of large metal type. It was expensive, required a large amount of
storage space and was extremely heavy. If a printer did have a collection of large metal type, it was likely
that there were not enough letters. So printers did their best by mixing and matching styles.
Commercial pressure for large type was answered with the invention of a system for wood type
production. In 1827, Darius Wells invented a special wood drill - the lateral router - capable of cutting
letters on wood blocks. The router was used in combination with William Leavenworth’s pantograpn
(1834) to create decorative wooden letters of all shapes and sizes. The first posters began to appear, but
they had little colour and design; often wooden type was mixed with metal type in a conglomeration of
styles.
A major development in poster design was the application of lithography, invented by AloisSenefelder in
1796, which allowed artists to hand-draw letters, opening the field of type design to endless styles. The
method involved drawing with a greasy crayon onto finely surfaced Bavarian limestone and offsetting that
image onto paper. This direct process captured the artist's true intention; however, the final printed image
was in reverse. The images and lettering needed to be drawn backwards, often reflected in a mirror or
traced on transfer paper.
As a result of this technical difficulty, the invention of the lithographic process had little impact on posters
until the 1860s, when Jules Cheret came up with his ‘three-stone lithographic process’. This gave artists
the opportunity to experiment with a wide spectrum of colours.
Although the process was difficult, the result was remarkable, with nuances of colour impossible in other
media even to this day. The ability to mix words and images in such an attractive and economical format
finally made the lithographic poster a powerful innovation.
Starting in the 1870s, posters became the main vehicle for advertising prior to the magazine era and the
dominant means of mass communication in the rapidly growing cities of Europe and America. Yet in the
streets of Paris, Milan and Berlin, these artistic prints were so popular that they were stolen off walls
almost as soon as they were hung. Cheret, later known as ‘the father of the modern poster’, organised the
first exhibition of posters in 1884 and two years later published the first book on poster art. He quickly
took advantage of the public interest by arranging for artists to create posters, at a reduced size, that were
suitable for in-home display.
Thanks to Cheret. the poster slowly took hold in other countries in the 1890s and came to celebrate each
society’s unique cultural institutions: the cafe in France, the opera and fashion in Italy, festivals in Spain,
literature in Holland and trade fairs in Germany. The first poster shows were held in Great

Questions 1-5
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
 7

Early Printing Methods

Features Problems

Metal type • produced large print

• cost, weight and 1
difficulties
• mixed styles

Wood type
• lacked both 3
• Darius's wood drill used in connection • mixed type
with another 2
• produced a range of letters

Lithography • letters drawn by hand

• design tool - a 4 • had to use a mirror or 5

to achieve correct image

Reducing the Effects of Climate Change

Mark Rowe reports on the increasingly ambitious geo-engineering projects being explored by scientists

A
Such is our dependence on fossil fuels, and such is the volume of carbon dioxide already
released into the atmosphere, that many experts agree that significant global warming is now
inevitable. They believe that the best we can do is keep it at a reasonable level, and at present
the only serious option for doing this is cutting back on our carbon emissions. But while a
few countries are making major strides in this regard, the majority are having great difficulty
even stemming the rate of increase, let alone reversing it. Consequently, an increasing
number of scientists are beginning to explore the alternative of geo-engineering — a term
which generally refers to the intentional large-scale manipulation of the environment.
According to its proponents, geo-engineering is the equivalent of a backup generator: if Plan
A - reducing our dependency on fossil fuels - fails, we require a Plan B, employing grand
schemes to slow down or reverse the process of global warming.
B
Geo-engineering; has been shown to work, at least on a small localised scale. For decades,
MayDay parades in Moscow have taken place under clear blue skies, aircraft having
deposited dry ice, silver iodide and cement powder to disperse clouds. Many of the schemes
now suggested look to do the opposite, and reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the planet.
The most eye-catching idea of all is suggested by Professor Roger Angel of the University of
Arizona. His scheme would employ up to 16 trillion minute spacecraft, each weighing about
one gram, to form a transparent, sunlight-refracting sunshade in an orbit 1.5 million km
above the Earth. This could, argues Angel, reduce the amount of light reaching the Earth by
two per cent.
 8

C
The majority of geo-engineering projects so far carried out — which include planting forests
in deserts and depositing iron in the ocean to stimulate the growth of algae - have focused on
achieving a general cooling of the Earth. But some look specifically at reversing the melting
at the poles, particularly the Arctic. The reasoning is that if you replenish the ice sheets and
frozen waters of the high latitudes, more light will be reflected back into space, so reducing
the warming of the oceans and atmosphere.
D
The concept of releasing aerosol sprays into the stratosphere above the Arctic has been
proposed by several scientists. This would involve using sulphur or hydrogen sulphide
aerosols so that sulphur dioxide would form clouds, which would, in turn, lead to a global
dimming. The idea is modelled on historic volcanic explosions, such as that of Mount
Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991, which led to a short-term cooling of global temperatures
by 0.5 °C. Scientists have also scrutinised whether it's possible to preserve the ice sheets of
Greenland with reinforced high-tension cables, preventing icebergs from moving into the sea.
Meanwhile in the Russian Arctic, geo-engineering plans include the planting of millions of
birch trees. Whereas the -regions native evergreen pines shade the snow an absorb radiation,
birches would shed their leaves in winter, thus enabling radiation to be reflected by the snow.
Re-routing Russian rivers to increase cold water flow to ice-forming areas could also be used
to slow down warming, say some climate scientists.
E
But will such schemes ever be implemented? Generally speaking, those who are most
cautious about geo-engineering are the scientists involved in the research. Angel says that his
plan is ‘no substitute for developing renewable energy: the only permanent solution'. And Dr
Phil Rasch of the US-based Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is equally guarded about
the role of geo-engineering: 'I think all of us agree that if we were to end geo-engineering on
a given day, then the planet would return to its pre-engineered condition very rapidly, and
probably within ten to twenty years. That’s certainly something to worry about.’

Questions 4-10
Complete the table below.
Choose ONE WORD from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 4-10 on your answer sheet.

GEO-ENGINEERING PROJECTS
Procedure Aim

put a large number to create a 4

of tiny spacecraft into that would reduce the amount
orbit far above Earth of light reaching Earth

place 5 to encourage 6
in the sea to form
 9

to create 7
release aerosol sprays
that would reduce the amount
into the stratosphere
of light reaching Earth

fix strong 8
to prevent icebergs moving into the sea
to Greenland ice sheets

plant trees in Russian Arctic

to allow the 9
that would lose their leaves
to reflect radiation
in winter

change the direction of to bring more cold water into

10 ice-forming areas

Sheet glass manufacture: the float process

Glass, which has been made since the time of the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, is little more than a
mixture of sand, soda ash and lime. When heated to about 1500 degrees Celsius (°C) this becomes a
molten mass that hardens when slowly cooled. The first successful method for making clear, flat glass
involved spinning. This method was very effective as the glass had not touched any surfaces between
being soft and becoming hard, so it stayed perfectly unblemished, with a 'fire finish'. However, the process
took a long time and was labour intensive.
Nevertheless, demand for flat glass was very high and glassmakers across the world were looking for a
method of making it continuously. The first continuous ribbon process involved squeezing molten glass
through two hot rollers, similar to an old mangle. This allowed glass of virtually any thickness to be made
non-stop, but the rollers would leave both sides of the glass marked, and these would then need to be
ground and polished. This part of the process rubbed away around 20 per cent of the glass, and the
machines were very expensive.
The float process for making flat glass was invented by Alistair Pilkington. This process allows the
manufacture of clear, tinted and coated glass for buildings, and clear and tinted glass for vehicles.
Pilkington had been experimenting with improving the melting process, and in 1952 he had the idea of
using a bed of molten metal to form the flat glass, eliminating altogether the need for rollers within the
float bath. The metal had to melt at a temperature less than the hardening point of glass (about 600°C), but
could not boil at a temperature below the temperature of the molten glass (about 1500°C). The best metal
for the job was tin
 10

Questions 1-8
ADDRESSED
Complete the table and diagram below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet.

Early methods of producing flat glass

Method Advantages Disadvantages

• Glass remained • Slow

1
2 •3

• Could produce glass sheets

• Glass was 5
Ribbon of varying 4 • 20% of glass rubbed away
• Non-stop process • Machines were expensive

Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth

"I am from a large, poor family and for many years we have done without breakfast. Ever since I
joined the Street Kids International program I have been able to buy my family sugar and buns for
breakfast. I have also bought myself decent second-hand clothes and shoes."
Doreen Soko
'We’ve had business experience. Now I'm confident to expand what we've been doing.
I've learnt cash management, and the way of keeping money so we save for re- : investment.
Now business is a part of our lives. As well, we didn't know each other before - now we've made new
friends.'
Fan Kaoma
Participants in the Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative Program, Zambia

Introduction
Although small-scale business training and credit programs have become more common throughout
the world, relatively little attention has been paid to the need to direct such opportunities to young
people. Even less attention has been paid to children living on the street or in difficult circumstances.
Over the past nine years, Street Kids International (S.K.I.) has been working with partner
organisations in Africa, Latin America and India to support the economic lives of street children, The
purpose of this paper is to share some of the lessons S.K.I. and our partners have learned.
 11

Background
Typically, children do not end up on the streets due to a single cause, but to a combination of factors:
a dearth of adequately funded schools, the demand for income at home, family breakdown and
violence. The street may be attractive to children as a place to find adventurous play and money.
However, It is also a place where some children are exposed, with little or no protection, to
exploitative employment, urban crime, and abuse.

Children who work on the streets are generally involved in unskilled, labour-intensive tasks which
require long hours, such as shining shoes, carrying goods, guarding or washing cars, and informal
trading. Some may also earn income through begging, or through theft and other illegal activities. At
the same time, there are street children who take pride In supporting themselves and their families and
who often enjoy their work. Many children may choose entrepreneurship because it allows them a
degree of independence, is less exploitative than many forms of paid employment, and is flexible
enough to allow them to participate in other activities such as education and domestic tasks.

Street Business Partnerships

S.K.I. has worked with partner organisations in Latin America, Africa and India to develop innovative
opportunities for street children to earn income.
• The S.K.I. Bicycle Courier Service first started in the Sudan. Participants in this enterprise were
supplied with bicycles, which they used to deliver parcels and messages, and which they were
required to pay for gradually from their wages. A similar program was taken up in Bangalore, India.
• Another successful project, The Shoe Shine Collective, was a partnership program with the
Y.W.C.A. in the Dominican Republic. In this project, participants were lent money to purchase shoe
shine boxes. They were also given a safe place to store their equipment, and facilities for individual
savings plans.
• The Youth Skills Enterprise Initiative in Zambia is a joint program with the Red Cross Society and
the Y.W.C.A. Street youths are supported to start their own small business through business training,
life skills training and access to credit.

Lessons learned
The following lessons have emerged from the programs that S.K.I. and partner organisations have
created.
• Being an entrepreneur is not for everyone, nor for every street child. Ideally, potential participants
will have been involved in the organisation's programs for at least six months, and trust and
relationship building will have already been established.
• The involvement of the participants has been essential to the development of relevant programs.
When children have had a major role in determining procedures, they are more likely to abide by and
enforce them.
• It is critical for all loans to be linked to training programs that include the development of basic
business and life skills.
• There are tremendous advantages to involving parents or guardians in the program, where such
relationships exist. Home visits allow staff the opportunity to know where the participants live, and to
understand more about each individual’s situation.
• Small loans are provided initially for purchasing fixed assets such as bicycles, shoe shine kits and
basic building materials for a market stall. As the entrepreneurs gain experience, the enterprises can
 12

be gradually expanded and consideration can be given to increasing loan amounts, The loan amounts
in S.K.I. programs have generally ranged from US$30-$100.
• All S.K.I. programs have charged interest on the loans, primarily to get the entrepreneurs used to the
concept of paying interest on borrowed money. Generally the rates have been modest (lower than
bank rates).

Conclusion
There is a need to recognise the importance of access to credit for impoverished young people seeking
to fulfil economic needs. The provision of small loans to support the entrepreneurial dreams and
ambitions of youth can be an effective means to help them change their lives. However, we believe
that credit must be extended in association with other types of support that help participants develop
critical life skills as well as productive businesses.

Questions 5-8
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.

Organisations
Country Involved Type of Project Support Provided

5 • S.K.I. courier service • provision of 6

• loans
Dominican • S.K.I.
7 • storage facilities
Republic • Y.W.C.A.
• savings plans

• S.K.I. • business training

Zambia • The Red Cross setting up small businesses •8 training

• Y.W.C.A. • access to credit
 13

The Development of Plastics

When rubber was first commercially produced in Europe during the nineteenth century, it
rapidly became a very important commodity, particularly in the fields of transportation and
electricity. However, during the twentieth century a number of new synthetic materials,
called plastics, superseded natural rubber in all but a few applications.
Rubber is a polymer—a compound containing large molecules that are formed by the
bonding of many smaller, simpler units, repeated over and over again. The same bonding
principle—polymerization—underlies the creation of a huge range of plastics by the chemical
industry.
The first plastic was developed as a result of a competition in the USA. In the 1860s, $10,000
was offered to anybody who could replace ivory—supplies of which were declining—with
something equally good as a material for making billiard balls. The prize was won by John
Wesley Hyatt with a material called celluloid. Celluloid was made by dissolving cellulose, a
carbohydrate derived from plants, in a solution of camphor dissolved in ethanol. This new
material rapidly found uses in the manufacture of products such as knife handles, detachable
collars and cuffs, spectacle frames and photographic film. Without celluloid, the film industry
could never have got off the ground at the end of the 19th century.
Celluloid can be repeatedly softened and reshaped by heat, and is known as a thermoplastic.
In 1907, Leo Baekeland, a Belgian chemist working in the USA, invented a different kind of
plastic, by causing phenol and formaldehyde to react together. Baekeland called the material
Bakelite, and it was the first of the thermosets—plastics that can be cast and moulded while
hot, but cannot be softened by heat and reshaped once they have set. Bakelite was a good
insulator, and was resistant to water, acids and moderate heat. With these properties it was
soon being used in the manufacture of switches, household items such as knife handles, and
electrical components for cars.
Soon chemists began looking for other small molecules that could be strung together to make
polymers. In the 1930s British chemists discovered that the gas ethylene would polymerize
under heat and pressure to form a thermoplastic they called polythene.
Polypropylene followed in the 1950s. Both were used to make bottles, pipes and plastic bags.
A small change in the starting material—replacing a hydrogen atom in ethylene with a
chlorine atom—produced PVC (polyvinyl chloride), a hard, fireproof plastic suitable for
drains and gutters. And by adding certain chemicals, a soft form of PVC could be produced,
suitable as a substitute for rubber in items such as waterproof clothing. A closely related
plastic was Teflon, or PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene). This had a very low coefficient of
friction, making it ideal for bearings, rollers, and non-stick frying
pans. Polystyrene, developed during the 1930s in Germany, was a clear, glass-like material,
used in food containers, domestic appliances and toys. Expanded polystyrene—a white, rigid
foam—was widely used in packaging and insulation. Polyurethanes, also developed in
Germany, found uses as adhesives, coatings, and—in the form of rigid foams—as insulation
materials. They are all produced from chemicals derived from crude oil, which contains
exactly the same elements—carbon and hydrogen—as many plastics.
The first of the man-made fibres, nylon, was also created in the 1930s. Its inventor was a
chemist called Wallace Carothers, who worked for the Du Pont company in the USA. He
found that under the right conditions, two chemicals— hexamethylenediamine and adipic
acid—would form a polymer that could be pumped out through holes and then stretched to
form long glossy threads that could be woven like silk. Its first use was to make parachutes
 14

for the US armed forces in World War H. In the post-war years nylon completely replaced
silk in the manufacture of stockings. Subsequently many other synthetic fibres joined nylon,
including Orion, Acrilan and Terylene. Today most garments are made of a blend of natural
fibres, such as cotton and wool, and man-made fibres that make fabrics easier to look after.
The great strength of plastic is its indestructibility. However, this quality is also something of
a drawback: beaches all over the world, even on the remotest islands, are littered with plastic
bottles that nothing can destroy. Nor is it very easy to recycle plastics, as different types of
plastic are often used in the same items and call for different treatments. Plastics can be made
biodegradable by incorporating into their structure a material such as starch, which is
attacked by bacteria and causes the plastic to fall apart. Other materials can be incorporated
that gradually decay in sunlight—although bottles made of such materials have to be stored in
the dark, to ensure that they do not disintegrate before they have been used.

Questions 1-7
Complete the table below
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passages for each answer
Write your answer in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

Date of
Name of plastic Original region Property Common use
invention

Celluloid 1860s US 1 ……….

3 ………….
Can be cast and
2 ………….. 1907 US moulded but cannot
be softened by heat
household items
and car parts

Polythene 1930 4 ……………… Bottles

Rigid PVC 5 ……………..

Polystyrene 1930s Germany 6 …………. Food container

Adhesives, coatings
Polyurethanes Germany 7 ………..foams
and insulation
 15
Stepwells
A millennium ago, stepwells were fundamental to life in the driest parts of India. Although many have
been neglected, recent restoration has returned them to their former glory. Richard Cox travelled to
north-western India to document these spectacular monuments from a bygone era.
However, some important sites in Gujarat
have recently undergone major restoration,
and the state government announced in
June last year that it plans to restore the
stepwells throughout the state.
In Patan, the state’s ancient capital, the
stepwell of Rani Ki Vav (Queen’s
Stepwell) is perhaps the finest current
example. It was built by Queen Udayamati
during the late 11th century, but became
silted up following a flood during the 13th
century. But the Archaeological Survey of
India began restoring it in the 1960s, and
today it’s in pristine condition. At 65
metres long, 20 metres wide and 27 metres
deep, Rani Ki Vav features 500 distinct
sculptures carved into niches throughout
the monument, depicting gods such as
Vishnu and Parvati in various incarnations.
Incredibly, in January 2001, this ancient
structure survived a devastating earthquake
that measured 7.6 on the Richter scale.
Another example is the Surya Kund in
Modhera, northern Gujarat, next to the Sun
Temple, built by King Bhima I in 1026 to
honour the sun god Surya. It resembles a
tank (kund means reservoir or pond) rather
than a well, but displays the hallmarks of
stepwell architecture, including four sides
of steps that descend to the bottom in a
stunning geometrical formation. The
terraces house 108 small, intricately carved
shrines between the sets of steps.
Rajasthan also has a wealth of wells. The
ancient city of Bundi, 200 kilometres south
of Jaipur, is reknowned for its architecture,
including its stepwells. One of the larger
examples is Raniji Ki Baori, which was
built by the queen of the region,
Nathavatji, in 1699. At 46 metres deep, 20
metres wide and 40 metres long, the
intricately carved monument is one of 21
baoris commissioned in the Bundi area by
Nathavatji.
In the old ruined town of Abhaneri, about
95 kilometres east of Jaipur, is Chand
Baori, one of India’s oldest and deepest
wells; aesthetically, it’s perhaps one of the
most dramatic. Built in around 850 AD
next to the temple of Harshat Mata, the
baori comprises hundreds of zigzagging
steps that run along three of its sides,
steeply descending 11 storeys, resulting in
a striking geometric pattern when seen
from afar. On the fourth side, covered
verandas supported by ornate pillars
overlook the steps.
Still in public use is Neemrana Ki Baori,
located just off the Jaipur–Dehli highway.
 16

Constructed in around 1700, it’s nine
storeys deep, with the last two levels
underwater. At ground level, there are 86
colonnaded openings from where the
visitor descends 170 steps to the deepest
water source.
Today, following years of neglect, many of
these monuments to medieval engineering
have been saved by the Archaeological
Survey of India, which has recognised the
importance of preserving them as part of
the country’s rich history. Tourists flock to
wells in far-flung corners of northwestern
India to gaze in wonder at these
architectural marvels from 1,000 years
ago, which serve as a reminder of both the
ingenuity and artistry of ancient
civilisations and of the value of water to
human existence.

Questions 9-13
Complete the table below

Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.

Stepwells Date Features Other notes

Restored in the 1990s

Late 11th As many as 500 sculptures Excellent condition, despite
Rani Ki Vav
century decorate the monument
the 9 of 2001.

Steps on the 10
Surya Kund 1026 looks more like a 11
produce a geometric pattern
then a well.
Carved shrines.

One of 21 baoris in the area

Raniji Ki
1699 Intricately carved monument commissioned by Queen
Baori
Nathavatji

Old, deep and very dramatic

Steps take you down 11
Chand Baori 850 AD Has 12 which provide
storeys to the bottom
a view to the steps.

Neemrana Ki
1700 Has two 13 levels. Used by public today
Baori
 17

Children’s Literature
Stories and poems aimed at children have an exceedingly long history:lullabies, for example,
were sung in Roman times, and a few nursery games and rhymes are almost as ancient. Yet
so far as written-down literature is concerned, while there were stories in print before 1700
that children often seized on when they had the chance, such as translations of Aesop’s
fables, fairy-stories and popular ballads and romances, these were not aimed at young people
in particular. Since the only genuinely child-oriented literature at this time would have been a
few instructional works to help with reading and general knowledge, plus the odd Puritanical
tract as an aid to morality, the only course for keen child readers was to read adult literature.
This still occurs today, especially with adult thrillers or romances that include more exciting,
graphic detail than is normally found in the literature for younger readers.

By the middle of the 18th century there were enough eager child readers, andenough parents
glad to cater to this interest, for publishers to specialize in children’s books whose first aim
was pleasure rather than education or morality. In Britain, a London merchant named Thomas
Boreham produced Cajanus, The Swedish Giant in 1742, while the more famous John
Newbery published A Little Pretty Pocket Book in 1744.1ts contents—rhymes, stories,
children’s games plus a free gift (‘A ball and a pincushion’)——in many ways anticipated the
similar lucky-dip contents of children’s annuals this century. It is a tribute to Newbery’s flair
that he hit upon a winning formula quite so quickly, to be pirated almost immediately in
America.

Such pleasing levity was not to last. Influenced by Rousseau, whose Emile(1762) decreed
that all books for children save Robinson Crusoe were a dangerous diversion, contemporary
critics saw to it that children’s literature should be instructive and uplifting. Prominent among
such voices was Mrs. Sarah Trimmer, whose magazine The Guardian of Education (1802)
carried the first regular reviews of children’s books. It was she who condemned fairy-tales for
their violence and general absurdity; her own stories, Fabulous Histories (1786) described
talking animals who were always models of sense and decorum.

So the moral story for children was always threatened from within, given the way children
have of drawing out entertainment from the sternest moralist. But the greatest blow to the
improving children’s book was to come from an unlikely source indeed: early 19th century
interest in folklore. Both nursery rhymes, selected by James Orchard Halliwell for a folklore
society in 1842, and collection of fairy-stories by the scholarly Grimm brothers, swiftly
translated into English in 1823,soon rocket to popularity with the young, quickly leading to
new editions, each one more child-centered than the last. From now on younger children
could expect stories written for their particular interest and with the needs of their own
limited experience of life kept well to the fore.

What eventually determined the reading of older children was often not the availability of
special children’s literature as such but access to books that contained characters, such as
young people or animals, with whom they could more easily empathize, or action, such as
exploring or fighting, that made few demands on adult maturity or understanding.

The final apotheosis of literary childhood as something to be protected from unpleasant

reality came with the arrival in the late 1930s of child-centered best-sellers intend on
entertainment at its most escapist. In Britain novelist such as Enid Blyton and Richmal
Crompton described children who were always free to have the most unlikely adventures,
 18

secure in the knowledge that nothing bad could ever happen to them in the end. The fact that
war broke out again during her books’ greatest popularity fails to register at all in the self-
enclosed world inhabited by Enid Blyton’s young characters. Reaction against such dream-
worlds was inevitable after World War II, coinciding with the growth of paperback sales,
children’s libraries and a new spirit of moral and social concern. Urged on by committed
publishers and progressive librarians, writers slowly began to explore new areas of interest
while also shifting the settings of their plots from the middle-class world to which their
chiefly adult patrons had always previously belonged.

Show workspace

Questions 1-5
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from Reading Passage
for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.

DATE FEATURES AIM EXAMPLE

Not aimed at young Education and

Before 1700 Puritanical tract
children morality

Collection
By the middle A Little Pretty Pocket Book
of 1 and Read for pleasure
of 18th century (exported to 2 )
games

Early Growing interest To be more Nursery rhymes

19thcentury in 3 children-centered and 4

Stories of harm- Enid Blyton and

Late 1930s Entertainment Richarnal Crompton’s
free 5 novels

Obtaining Linguistic Data

B
 19

In all cases, someone has to act as a source of language data - an informant Informants are
(ideally) native speakers of a language, who provide utterances for analysis and other kinds
of information about the language (e.g. translations, comments about correctness, or
judgements on usage). Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own
informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against
their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is
considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics. But a linguist's personal
judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which
point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as
informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child
speech.
C
Many factors must be considered when selecting informants - whether one is working with
single speakers (a common situation when languages have not been described before), two
people interacting, small groups or large-scale samples. Age, sex, social background and
other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of
language used. The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting (e.g. the
level of formality) are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants
(e.g. their fluency and consistency). For larger studies, scrupulous attention has been paid to
the sampling theory employed, and in all cases, decisions have to be made about the best
investigative techniques to use.
D
Today, researchers often tape-record informants. This enables the linguist's claims about the
language to be checked, and provides a way of making those claims more accurate ('difficult'
pieces of speech can be listened to repeatedly). But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data
is never easy. People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound
quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recording procedures have thus been devised to
minimise the 'observer's paradox' (how to observe the way people behave when they are not
being observed). Some recordings are made without the speakers being aware of the fact - a
procedure that obtains very natural data, though ethical objections must be anticipated.
Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as
keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique G is to
introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style
(e.g. asking older informants about how times have changed in their locality).
E
An audio tape recording does not solve all the linguist's problems, however. Speech is often
unclear and ambiguous. Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by
the observer's written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about
the context in general, A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of
what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have
limitations (the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcriptions always benefit from any
additional commentary provided by an observer.
F
Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their
informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviours. With a bilingual
informant, or through use of an interpreter, it is possible to use translation techniques (‘How
 20

do you say table in your language?'). A large number of points can be covered in a short time,
using interview worksheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain
information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set of questions may be
used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the
informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation,
such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame (e.g. I_see a car), or
feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction ('Is it possible to say / no can see?').
G
A representative sample of language, compiled for the purpose of linguistic analysis, is
known as a corpus. A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about
frequency of usage, and it provides accessible data for the use of different researchers. Its
range and size are variable. Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking
extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of
material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature. The size of the corpus depends on
practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take
up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech.
Sometimes a small sample of data will be enough to decide a linguistic hypothesis; by
contrast, corpora in major research projects can total millions of words. An important
principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and
always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the
language, through either introspection or experimentation.

Questions 6-10
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 6-10 on your answer sheet.

METHODS OF OBTAINING
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
LINGUISTIC DATA

method of enquiry not

6 as informant convenient
objective enough

necessary with 7 the number of factors to be

non-linguist as informant
considered
and child speech

allows linguists’ claims to be

recording an informant 8 of sound
checked

videoing an informant allows speakers’ 9 10 might miss

to be observed certain things