Boiler Automation Using PLC

ABSTRACT

This paper presents technical communication of automation industry which describes the
technical issues of automation control system in operation development, improving management
level and high efficiency process in boiler automation plant. In the boiler automation plant sensor
need to be controlled and monitored temperature regularly. Thus it becomes tedious job to
handle the plant manually. This project outlines the design and development of boiler automation
system using PLC and sensors. This paper outlines the various stages of operation involved in
the conversion of manually operated boiler towards a fully automated boiler. Over the years the
demand for high quality, greater efficiency and automated machines has increased in this
globalized world. The initial phase of the paper focuses on passing the inputs to the boiler at a
required temperature, so as to constantly maintain a particular temperature in the boiler. The
paper gives basic approach to move towards automation at higher level and totally digitize the
industry so we can obtain efficient output in less time.
 INTRODUCTION

Over the years the demand for high quality, greater efficiency and automated machines
has increased in the industrial sector. A boiler is a closed vessel which is used to provide heat.
Boilers are made up of different materials change with the passage of time due to demand in
increase strength of these pressurized vessels. Historically highest grade of wrought iron was
used to make boilers later on steel was used which is stronger and cheaper, with welded
construction, which is quicker and requires less labor. Fireboxes of these boilers are made of
copper, it was chosen because of its higher thermal conductivity and its better formability. Power
plants require continuous monitoring and inspection at frequent intervals. There are possibilities
of errors at measuring and various stages involved with human workers and also the lack of few
features of microcontrollers. Thus this paper takes a sincere attempt to explain the advantages the
companies will face by implementing automation into them. In order to automate a power plant
and minimize human intervention, there is a need to develop a system that monitors the plant and
helps reduce the errors caused by humans. While the PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is
used for the internal storage of instruction for the implementing function such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control through digital or analog input/ output
modules various types of machines processes.
PURPOSE OF BOILER AUTOMATION

Boiler is the foremost part in any power plant. It requires continuous monitoring and
inspection at frequent interval. In Power plants it has number of boiling section. This boiling
section produces the high temperature water of the steam. Boiler steam temperature in thermal
power plant is very complex and hard to control, due to poor knowledge of the working
principles; Boilers have many serious injuries and destruction of property. It is critical for the
safe operation of the boiler and the steam turbine. If the level is too low it may overheat boiler
tubes and damage them. If too high, a level may interfere with separating moisture from steam
and transfers moisture into the turbine, which reduces the boiler efficiency. Various controlling
mechanism are used to control the boiler system so that it works properly, many control
strategies have been applied to it. In order to automate a power plant and minimize human
intervention, there is a need to develop a Boiler Automation system. It is achieved by using
Programmable Logic Controller system that helps to reduce the errors caused by humans and
avoids the catastrophic failure.
 EXISTING METHOD

MANUAL OPERATION OF BOILER CONTROL

Power plants require continuous monitoring and inspection at frequent intervals. There are
possibilities of errors at measuring and various stages involved with human workers and also the
lack of few features of microcontrollers. Thus, we take a sincere attempt to explain the
advantages the companies will face by implementing automation into them. The boiler control
which is the most important part of any power plant, and its automation is the precise effort of
our work.In order to automate a power plant and minimize human intervention, there is a need to
develop PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) is also used for the internal storage of instruction
for the implementing function such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to
control through digital or analog input/ output modules various types of machines processes.
Systems are used to monitor and control a plant or equipment in industries such as
telecommunications, water and waste control, energy, oil and gas refining and transportation.

DRAWBACK OF CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM

• Conventional equipment systems are prone to errors due to the involvement of humans in the
data collection and processing using complicated mathematical expressions.

• Thus, what we require is a system that collects raw data, processes it and presents it in values
which can be verified and compared with the standard values.

• In the coding process of this implementation with micro-controller, it requires a fast and
efficient processing which on the other part depends on the length and sub-routines of the coding
process.
PROPOSED METHOD

A. AUTOMATED BOILER OPERATION

The main aim of our project is to automate the manually operated steam boiler. The
steam boiler is one of the most utility factor for all industrial plants. In Titan steam boiler,
which is running at the pressure of 10Kg/cm2 which is used in effluent treatment plant (ETP)
with the capacity of 600Kg. this boiler is operated manually using the control panel. While
controlling the boiler manually various factors needs to be considered which are very
sensitive to be operated and often leads to serious problems. To avoid this, we propose an
automated boiler that is operated and controlled using PLC (Programmable Logic
Controller). By automating the boiler operation, we could minimize the human intervention
and errors made by them during operation. Frequent examination of controls by the workers
is greatly reduced. This satisfies the high quality and greater efficiency of steam boiler which
is essential part of plant functioning.

B. ADVANTAGES

 Higher productivity,

 Superior quality of end product,

 Efficient usage of raw material sand energy,

 Improved safety in working condition.

 LITERATURE REVIEW

There are many different types of boiler, they are follow:

1. Fire-tube boiler.
2. Water-tube boiler
3. Superheated steam boiler

A. Fire-tube boiler

Fire tube boiler consists of boiler shell which is filled with water and these tubes are
horizontally positioned. Water is partially filled in the water tank and volume is inside the water
tank to accommodate the steam. Long horizontal tubes are called flues and these carry the hot
combustion gases through the water tank and heating the water. The furnace is situated at the one
end of the fire tube which elongates the path of the hot gases. Fire tube boilers are approximately
to 360 psig of steam pressure.

B. Water-tube boiler

In the water tube boilers tubes are positioned vertically in the firebox and through these
tubes water flows whish gets heated upon flowing through these tubes, these vertical pipes are
called risers and these extends from the water drum which is at the bottom of the boiler to the
steam heaters which are at the top of the boilers. Water tube boilers are preferred for the high
pressure application because of the high pressure steam/water is contained in smaller diameter
pipes which withstand the high pressure.

C. Superheated steam boiler

Reheating a steam which has been produced in the boiler becomes superheated steam,
this superheated steam is different from the initial steam which is called as saturated steam
because it has water vapor and condense less rapidly as compared to saturated steam. The
temperature of steam increases in the super heater section around 370 degree Celsius but its
pressure remains same. Superheated steam is mostly used to move turbine as superheating steam
removes all the droplets.
 Comprehensive historical perspectives of different boiler automation techniques are
discussed below. This survey provides critical reviews and highlights the concepts, advantages
and disadvantages among survey results. This contribution adds more thoughtful ideas in the
design and development of boiler automation techniques. In present situation conventional PID
control is being used for boiler control. These conventional controllers in power plants are not
very stable when there are fluctuations and, in particular, there is an emergency occurring.
Continuous processes in power plant and power station are complex systems characterized by
nonlinearity, uncertainty and load disturbances. The conventional controllers do not work
accurately in a system having nonlinearity in it. So, an intelligent control using PLC& SCADA is
developed to meet the nonlinearity of the system for accurate control of the boiler steam
temperature and pressure level. Embedded system based boiler automation system consist of
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication), PIC (Peripheral Interface Controller) and
different sensors which is capable of monitoring the entire boiler temperature and pressure. The
obtained temperature and pressure measured data are transferred through the PIC
microcontroller. The microcontroller read the available data and processed. If the temperature
and pressure exceeded the maximum value then the user will be able to get information about the
current temperature in any boiler by simply sending a boiler identification number [1], [3].

Microcontroller is programmed with the fuzzy knowledge base rule to control the boiler
temperature. The temperature sensor is interfaced with the microcontroller to monitor the steam
temperature and a level indicator circuit is used to indicate the water level inside the boiler
chamber which is interfaced with the microcontroller and the corresponding outputs are given as
the two inputs for the Fuzzy Inference System. After fuzzification of the inputs and applying
suitable rules and defuzzifying the output the microcontroller generates appropriate control
signals [2].

Fuzzy PID controller is used for temperature superheated steam of boiler based on the
fuzzy control methodology. The control process is simulated through the Simulink MATLAB
software. It shows that the system can demonstrate good control ability and dynamic effects even
in large delay and stochastic disturbance circumstances [4]. From the literature works that are
discussed; it is evident that have several disadvantages.
 In the proposed system the previous papers disadvantages are overcome by using PLC &
SCADA for boiler automation to monitor and control the boiler temperature, pressure and water
level in thermal power plant.
 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

METHODOLOGY

All the values can be filled up by the introduction of the automation technique into the power
plants. The automation technique involving the automatic control of all the processes which includes the
monitoring and inspection needs provides for a very efficient system. The automation process helps the
company having the power plant to reduce the amount of errors that occur , reduction in the human
resources, increased efficiency, and most importantly very cost effective.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

The above diagram represents the architecture of the designed system of the Boiler
Automation Using PLC. In this system a temperature sensor is used to monitor the temperature
of the boiler continuously. A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one or
more electric loads. . The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of
electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of
energy (e.g., mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. We used 24VAC for PLC and
24VDC for operation of relay.
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a digital computer used for the automation of
various electromechanical processes in industries. PLC consists of a microprocessor which is
programmed using the computer language. The program is written on a computer and is loaded
into the PLC via communication cable. These loaded programs are stored in nonvolatile memory
of the PLC. During the transition of relay control panels to PLC, the hard wired relay logic was
exchanged for the program fed by the user. Nexgenie PLC is a compact and genius PLC suitable
for small size machine control.

Relay used as switch to operate boiler. We are use 24 VDC relay 655-T7NS5D-24 to
operate the boiler. It is Single Pole Double Terminal (SPDT) relay means having both NO
(Normally Open) and NC (Normally Close) terminal.

Boiler is an enclosed vessel in which water is heated and circulated until the water is turned
in to steam at the required pressure. The products of combustion are nothing but gases. These
gases which are at high temperature vaporize the water inside the boiler to steam.

As we have to measure high temperature for steam so we use 3 wire PT100 temperature
sensors. The output of sensor is connected to the analog module, because it gives the analog
signal.

The analog module is used for to convert the analog signal to digital signal, because the
output of the PLC is in the digital form. So that purposes we use NE42UX analog module. The
analog module is connected at the output of the PT100 because the output of the PT100 is in the
analog form. So the output of analog module is in digital form is connected to the PLC.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1 2 3 4 5 6

1N4007 LM7805
0-12VOLT/1AMP 1 3
Vin Vout
D D

230V AC
1N4007 GND
IC1
1K

2
1N4007 3MM LED
1000uF/35V 1000uF/10V

1N4007

+5V

MPX50 Pressure Sensor

+5V
OUT
GND 16X2 LCD

C C
10K
16X2 Charactor LCD
S1
10K

RW

VO
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7

RS

A
K
E
PT100

2
IC2

7
8
109
11
12
13
14

4
5
6

15
16

3
1
1 28 10K
PC6/(RESET) PC5/(ADC5/SCL) 220E
2 27
PD0/(RXD) PC4/(ADC4/SDA)
3 26
FLOAT Sensor PD1/(TXD) PC3/(ADC3)
4 25
PD2/(INT0) PC2/(ADC2)
5 24 +24V
2 PD3/(INT1) PC1/(ADC1)
6 23 P
1 PD4/(XCT/T0) PC0/(ADC0)
19
PB5/(SCK)
11 18
PD5/(T1) PB4/(MISO)
UP 12 17
PD6/(AIN0) PB3/(MOSI/OC2) RLY1
13 16 V+ NC
VCC PD7/(AIN1) PB2/(SS/OC1B)
15 COM To PLC Input 1
PB1/(OC1A) K
14 NO
PB0/(ICP1) V-
DN 7
VCC
B B
21 Q1
AREF R3 RLY2
9 20 BC547 V+ NC
PB6/(X1,TOSC1) AVCC
OK COM To PLC Input 2
8 K NO
GND V-
10 22
PB7/(X2,TOSC2) GND
16MHz
ATMEGA88PA

33PF 33PF Q2
R4 BC547

A A

Title

Size Number Revision

B
Date: 18-Mar-2018 Sheet of
File: C:\Users\Lenovo\Downloads\Circuit 2018 (24).Ddb
D rawn By:
1 2 3 4 5 6

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The above diagram represents the circuit implementation of the boiler automation system.
In this system all the circuit components require regulated power for their working functionality.
To fulfill this requirement of the circuit we have designed a power supply unit to provide
regulated power supply to the circuit components. The supply is provided through mains i.e.,
230v. The supply is stepped down to 12v from 230v through transformer. Hence at the secondary
terminal of the transformer we get 12v AC. This ac output of the transformer is converted into
DC with the help of the full bridge rectifier. The output of the rectifier is 12v DC. This 12v is
provided to the regulator IC. This regulator IC used is LM7805. The input to the regulator is
provided at pin no 1 of the regulator and the output is taken out at pin no 3 of the regulator IC.
The ground is provided at pin no 2 of the regulator. The 5v from one IC is provided to the
controller. An LED is connected in between the regulator and the controller to indicate whether
the power is on or off. The capacitor at the input and the output of the regulator is used to
remove the ripples in the signal i.e., this are filter capacitor.
 Circuit implemented of the system consists of a microcontroller to control the complete
circuit action of the unit and to collect the data from the sensor network, process the data and to
control the desired operation of the system. To complete all these functions we have used an
ATMEGA88PA microcontroller in this work. This microcontroller requires regulated 5V power
supply for its operation. This power supply is provided by the power supply unit in the system.
Generally controller works on a stable frequency to produce machine cycles to execute the
firmware stored in the memory. To obtain this frequency an external oscillator is connected to
the pin number 9 and 10 i.e. OSC1 and OSC2 of the controller IC as shown in the circuit
diagram of the system. This is a crystal oscillator designed using a 16MHz crystal with two
parallel capacitors as shown in the circuit diagram. A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator
circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create
an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep
track of time, to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize
frequencies. A reset switch is connected to the reset pin i.e. pin number 1 of the controller IC.
This switch is used to reset the microcontroller during the fluctuation in the power supply or due
to any malpractice during its operation. A reset input is used to reset a microcontroller. Resetting
puts the microcontroller into a known state such that the program execution starts from address 0
of the program memory.

The hardware of the system consists of a pressure sensor interfaced with the
microcontroller used to monitor the pressure in the boiler. This pressure sensor is interfaced with
the microcontroller and is connected to the pin number 23 of the controller IC as shown in the
above circuit diagram of the system. In this work we have used MPX50 pressure sensor for the
above stated function of the system. This sensor continuously measures the pressure and
provides the signal to the microcontroller for the comparison with the threshold value. The
required power supply for the operation of this sensor is provided by the power supply unit in
this system. This sensor requires regulated 5V supply provided by the power supply unit.
 Here we have used a temperature sensor to continuously monitor the temperature of the
boiler chamber. This temperature sensor is also interfaced with the microcontroller and provides
the monitored data to it. Here in this system we have used PT100 temperature sensor for this
purpose and is connected to the pin number 24 in port C of the controller IC. This is an analog
sensor provides analog signal to the ADC of the controller IC. This sensor also requires regulated
5V supply for working and this power supply is provided by the power supply unit designed and
connected in this system.

To measure and monitor the level of the liquid in the boiler a float sensor is used in this
system. This sensor is interfaced with the microcontroller as shown in the circuit diagram of the
system. The sensor provides signal to the microcontroller when the liquid level decreases the
threshold level set in the firmware of the system. This sensor is connected to the pin number 2 in
port D of the controller IC.

In this system the user can set the temperature of the boiler as per the requirement. For
this we have interfaced three keys in the system used to increase the temperature, to decrease the
temperature and to give input the set value to the controller IC respectively. These keys are
connected to the microcontroller 3, 4 and 5 pin numbers in port D as shown in the circuit
diagram of the system.

The system consists of two relays used as switch to turn on and off the pump and heater
of the boiler. These relays are interfaced with the microcontroller through transistors as shown in
the circuit diagram of the system. These relays are connected to the input terminals of the PLC to
control the pump and heater in the boiler through PLC interfaced in the system. The transistors
through which the relays are interfaced with the microcontroller are connected to the pin
numbers 25 and 26 of the controller IC as shown in the circuit diagram of the system. To
interface the relays with the microcontroller we have used BC547 NPN transistors in the system.
 The hardware of the system consists of a LCD display used to display the status of the
system parameters monitored by the system. This is a 16x2 LCD display interfaced with the
microcontroller. This display will show the input temperature set by the user, the pressure
monitored by the pressure sensor and liquid level in the boiler. Also it will display the status of
the pump and heater used in the boiler. This LCD display is interfaced in 4 bit mode with the
microcontroller. In 4-bit mode, only four data pins of LCD are connected to the controller. This
mode, thus, saves four pins of the controller unlike 8-bit mode. In 4-bit mode only 4 bit data is
send to LCD. Since 8-bit microcontrollers contains data in 8-bit form so we divide our data in to
two nibbles (1 nibble=4-bits). First higher 4-bits (nibble) are send to LCD and then the lower 4-
bits (nibble). Only D4, D5, D6, D7 data pins of LCD are used in 4-bit mode. D1, D2, D3, D4 are
left empty. D4 is our least significant bit and D7 is Highest significant bit.
WORKING

Boiler Automation system which consists of PLC and sensors to monitor and control the entire
operation of boiler. Here Resistive Temperature detector PT 100 (RTD PT 100) is used to
measure the temperature, RT pressure switch is used to measure the pressure inside the boiler
and float switches are used to detect the feed water level inside the boiler. In this system a
pressure sensor is used to monitor the pressure of the liquid in the boiler. This pressure sensor
provides signal to the microcontroller continuously. The microcontroller receives this signal
from the pressure sensor and compares it with the threshold value set in the firmware of the
system. When the output of the pressure sensor crosses the set value the corrective action will be
taken by the system to maintain the pressure of the boiler.

The system also monitors the temperature of the boiler continuously. For this a PT100
temperature sensor is used in this system. The output of the sensor is provided to the
microcontroller continuously for the comparison with the threshold value set in the memory. The
microcontroller compares these two values i.e. output of the sensor and threshold value. If the
temperature of the boiler exceeds the threshold value the heater of the boiler will be turned off by
the system. This will be achieved by providing signal to the relay through microcontroller and to
the PLC by means of this relay. The PLC receives this signal and turns the heater off. And if the
temperature of the boiler decreased compare to the threshold value the microcontroller will again
trigger the relative relay of the heater and turns it on to maintain the temperature of the boiler.

The user can set the temperature of the boiler as per the requirement. This is achieved by the
keypad interfaced in this system. The keypad consists of three keys. When the user wants to
increase the temperature of the boiler the first key marked as UP should be pressed by the user
upto the required level and then press third key marked as OK to set the temperature. And when
the user needs to decrease the temperature of the boiler the second key marked as DOWN should
be pressed by the user and then OK key to set the temperature. In this manner the user can set the
temperature as per the requirement of the system and the product to be manufactured.

The boiler consists of a liquid consider water in this system. It is necessary to measure the level
of the water in the boiler. For this we have used a float sensor in this system. This float sensor
moves upward and downward according to the level of the water in the boiler. If the float sensor
moves in downward direction represents that water level is low in the boiler. The microcontroller
receives this signal from the sensor and provides the signal to the relay to operate the water
pump connected in this system. When the water level decreases, the microcontroller triggers the
relay and turns the pump on to supply the water to the boiler as per the requirement. When the
water level reaches the desired value the microcontroller will again provide the signal to the
relay and turns the relay off to stop the water supply.

The hardware of the system consists of a 16x2 LCD display used for display purpose. This LCD
display will show all the measured value of the boiler for the better output product. The LCD
display will show the measured temperature, pressure and water level in the boiler. Also it will
display the status of the water supplier pump and heater used in the boiler i.e. whether the water
pump is in ON condition or in OFF condition. Similarly it also will display the ON and OFF
condition of the heater used in the boiler and controlled by the PLC system.
 HARDWARE COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

INTRODUCTION

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are members of the computer family capable of
storing instructions to control functions such as sequencing, timing, and counting, which control
a machine or a process. The PLC is composed of two basic sections, the Central Processing
Unit(CPU) and the Input/Output (I/O) interface system. The PLC measures input signals coming
from a machine and through the internal program provides output or control back to the machine.
Ladder logic is the programming language used to represent electrical sequences of operation. In
hardwired circuits the electrical wiring is connected from one device to another according to
logic of operation. In a PLC the devices are connected to the input interface, the outputs are
connected to the output interface and the actual wiring of the components is done electronically
inside the PLC using ladder logic. This is known as soft wired. PLC is a device that is capable of
being programmed to perform a controlling function. Before the advent of PLC, the problem of
industrial control was usually solved by relays or hardwired solid-state logic blocks. These are
very flexible in design and easy for maintenance personal to understand. However, they involved
a vast amount of interconnection. For the wiring cost to be minimized, relays and logic blocks
had to be kept together. This led to development of control panel concept for larger and more
complex logic control system. The PLC was first conceived by group of engineers from
hydramatic division of GM in 1968.This was designed to provide flexibility in control based on
programming and executing logic instruction. Adopting the ladder diagram programming
language, simplifying maintenance and reducing the cost of spare parts inventories realized
major advantages.

PLC HISTORY

In the late 1960's PLCs were first introduced. The primary reason for designing such a
device was eliminating the large cost involved in replacing the complicated relay based machine
control systems. Bedford Associates (Bedford, MA) proposed something called a Modular
Digital Controller (MODICON) to a major US car manufacturer. Other companies at the time
proposed computer based schemes, one of which was based upon the PDP-8. The MODICON
084 brought the world's first PLC into commercial production. When production requirements
changed so did the control system. This becomes very expensive when the change is frequent.
Since relays are mechanical devices they also have a limited lifetime which required strict
adhesion to maintenance schedules. Troubleshooting was also quite tedious when so many relays
are involved. Now picture a machine control panel that included many, possibly hundreds or
thousands, of individual relays. The size could be mind boggling. How about the complicated
initial wiring of so many individual devices! These relays would be individually wired together
in a manner that would yield the desired outcome. Were there problems You bet! These "new
controllers" also had to be easily programmed by maintenance and plant engineers. The lifetime
had to be long and programming changes easily performed. They also had to survive the harsh
industrial environment. That's a lot to ask! The answers were to use a programming technique
most people were already familiar with and replace mechanical parts with solid-state ones.

In the mid70âÄ¢s the dominant PLC technologies were sequencer state-machines and the
bit-slice based CPU. The AMD 2901 and 2903 were quite popular in Modicon and A-B PLCs.
Conventional microprocessors lacked the power to quickly solve PLC logic in all but the
smallest PLCs. As conventional microprocessors evolved, larger and larger PLCs were being
based upon them. However, even today some are still based upon the 2903.(ref A-B's PLC-
3)Madison has yet to build a faster PLC than their 984A/B/X which was based upon the
2901.Communications abilities began to appear in approximately 1973. The first such system
was Madison’s Mudbug.

The PLC could now talk to other PLCs and they could be far away from the actual machine
they were controlling. They could also now be used to send and receive varying voltages to
allow them to enter the analog world. Unfortunately, the lack of standardization coupled with
continually changing technology has made PLC communications a nightmare of incompatible
protocols and physical networks. Still, it was a great decade for the PLC! The 80âÄ¢s saw an
attempt to standardize communications with General Motor's manufacturing automation protocol
(MAP). It was also a time for reducing the size of the PLC and making them software
programmable through symbolic programming on personal computers instead of dedicated
programming terminals or handheld programmers. Today the world's smallest PLC is about the
size of a single control relay!

The 90âÄ¢s have seen a gradual reduction in the introduction of new protocols, and the
modernization of the physical layers of some of the more popular protocols that survived
the1980's. The latest standard (IEC 1131-3) has tried to merge plc programming languages under
one international standard. We now have PLCs that are programmable in function block
diagrams, instruction lists, C and structured text all at the same time! PC's are also being used to
replace PLCs in some applications. The original company who commissioned the
MODICON084 has actually switched to a PC based control system.

PLC HARDWARE

A programmable logic controller consists of the following components:-Central Processing

Unit (CPU). Memory, Input modules. Output modules and Power supply. APLC hardware block
diagram is shown in Figure. The programming terminal in the diagram is not a part of the PLC,
but it is essential to have a terminal for programming or monitoring a PLC. In the diagram, the
arrows between blocks indicate the information and power-flowing-directions.

Fig: PLC-Hardware-Block –Diagram

CPU

Like other computerized devices, there is a Central Processing Unit (CPU) in a PLC. The CPU,
which is the brain of a PLC, does the following operations:

* Updating inputs and outputs. This function allows a PLC to read the status of its input
terminals and energize or de-energize its output terminals.

* Performing logic and arithmetic operations. A CPU conducts all the mathematic and logic
operations involved in a PLC.

* Communicating with memory. The PLCâÄ¢s programs and data are stored in memory. Whena
PLC is operating, its CPU may read or change the contents of memory locations.

* Scanning application programs. An application program, which is called a ladder logic

program, is a set of instructions written by a PLC programmer. The scanning function allows the
PLC to execute the application program as specified by the programmer.

* Communicating with a programming terminal. The CPU transfers program and data between
itself and the programming terminal. A PLC CPU is controlled by operating system software.
The operating system software is a group of supervisory programs that are loaded and stored
permanently in the PLC memory by the PLC manufacturer.

Memory

Memory is the component that stores information, programs, and data in a PLC. The
process of putting new information into a memory location is called writing. The process of
retrieving information from a memory location is called reading. The common types of memory
used in PLCs are Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM). A ROM
location can be read, but not written. ROM is used to store programs and data that should not be
altered. For example, the PLCs operating programs are stored in ROM.A RAM location can be
read or written. This means the information stored in a RAM location can be retrieved and/or
altered. Ladder logic programs are stored in RAM. When a new ladder logic program is loaded
into a PLCs memory, the old program that was stored in the same locations is over-written and
essentially erased. The memory capacities of PLCs vary. Memory capacities are often expressed
in terms of kilo-bytes (K). One byte is a group of 8 bits. One bit is a memory location that may
store one binary number that has the value of either 1 or 0. (Binary numbers are addressed in
Module 2). 1K memory means that there are 1024 bytes of RAM. 16K memory means there are
16 x 1024 =16384 bytes of RAM.

Input modules and output modules

A PLC is a control device. It takes information from inputs and makes decisions to
energize or de-energize outputs. The decisions are made based on the statuses of inputs and
outputs and the ladder logic program that is being executed. The input devices used with a PLC
include pushbuttons, limit switches, relay contacts, photo sensors, proximity switches,
temperature sensors, and the like. These input devices can be AC (alternating current) or DC
(direct current). The input voltages can be high or low. The input signals can be digital or analog.
Differing inputs require different input modules. An input module provides an interface between
input devices and a PLCs CPU, which uses only a low DC voltage. The input module âÄ¢s
function is to convert the input signals to DC voltages that are acceptable to the CPU. Standard
discrete input modules include 24 V AC, 48 V AC, 120 V AC, 220 V AC, 24 VDC, 48 V DC,
120 V DC, 220 V DC, and transistor-transistor logic (TTL) level. The devices controlled by a
PLC include relays, alarms, solenoids, fans, lights, and motor starters. These devices may require
different levels of AC or DC voltages. Since the signals processed in a PLC are low DC voltages,
it is the function of the output module to convert PLC control signals to the voltages required by
the controlled circuits or devices. Standard discrete output modules include 24 V AC, 48 V AC,
120 V AC, 220 V AC, 24 V DC, 48 V DC, 120 VDC, 220 V DC, and TTL level.

Power Supply

PLCs are powered by standard commercial AC power lines. However, many PLC
components, such as the CPU and memory, utilize 5 volts or another level of DC power. The
PLC power supply converts AC power into DC power to support those components of the PLC.

Programming Terminal
 A PLC requires a programming terminal and programming software for operation. The
programming terminal can be a dedicated terminal or a generic computer purchased anywhere.
The programming terminal is used for programming the PLC and monitoring the PLCs
operation. It may also download a ladder logic program (the sending of a program from the
programming terminal to the PLC) or upload a ladder logic program (the sending of a program
from the PLC to the programming terminal). The terminal uses programming software for
programming and talking to a PLC.
WORKING OF PLC

Bringing input signal status to the internal memory of CPU

* The field signals are connected to the I/P module. At the output of I/P module the field status
converted into the voltage level required by the CPU is always available.

*At the beginning of each cycle the CPU brings in all the field I/P signals from I/P module
&stores into its internal memory called as PII, meaning process image input.

*The programmable controller operates cyclically meaning when complete program has been
scanned; it starts again at the beginning of the program.

I/O BUS

A PLC works by continually scanning a program. We can think of this scan cycle as
consisting of 3 important steps. There are typically more than 3 but we can focus on the
important parts and not worry about the others. Typically the others are checking the system and
updating the current internal counter and timer values.

Step 1-Check Input Status-First the PLC takes a look at each input to determine if it is on or off.
In other words, is the sensor connected to the first input on How about the second input How
about the third... It records this data into its memory to be used during the next step.

Step 2-Execute Program-Next the PLC executes your program one instruction at a time. May be
your program said that if the first input was on then it should turn on the first output. Since it
already knows which inputs are on/off from the previous step it will be able to decide whether
the first output should be turned on based on the state of the first input. It will store the execution
results for use later during the next step.

Step 3-Update Output Status-Finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It updates the
outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of executing your
program during the second step. Based on the example in step 2 it would now turn on the first
output because the first input was on and your program said to turn on the first output when this
condition is true.
Process Control and Automation Process Control

The process of recognizing the state of the process at all times, analyze the information
according to the set rules and guidelines and accordingly actuate the control elements is referred
to as process control.

RECOGNISING THE STATUS

In control of process all these actions can be taken manually with human involvement or
in a semiautomatic or fully automatic manner. Automation -Automation is basically the
delegation of human control functions to technical equipment aimed towards achieving:

- Higher-productivity.

-Superior quality of end product.

-Efficient usage of energy and raw materials.

-Improved safety in working conditions etc. Methods adopted for Process Control and
Automation

-Manual control

-Hard wired logic control

-Electronics control

-PLC control

-Manual Control Hardwired Control

-This was considered to be the first step towards automation.

- Here the contractor & relays together with timers & counters were used.

Electronics Control

-With the advent of electronics, the logic gates started replacing the relays & auxiliary
contractors in the control circuits & timers.
- With changes, the benefits are:

1) Reduced space requirements

2) Energy saving

3) Less maintenance and hence greater reliability etc.

-With electronics, the implementation of changes in the control logic as well as reducing the
project lead-time was not possible.

Programmable Logic Controller:

- With microprocessor and associated peripherals chips, the process of control and automation
went a radical change.

- Instead of achieving the desired control or automation through physical wiring of control
devices, in PLC it is through a program or software. Thus these controllers are referred to as
programmable logic controllers.

- The programmable controllers have experienced an unprecedented growth as universal element.

It can be effectively used in applications ranging from simple control like replacing small
number relays to complex automation problem.
PROGRAMMING THE PLC

Ladder Logic

Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLCs. The ladder logic has been
developed to mimic relay logic. The decision to use the relay logic diagrams was a strategic one.
By selecting ladder logic as the main programming method, the amount of retraining needed for
engineers and trades people was greatly reduced. Modern control systems still include relays, but
these are rarely used for logic. A relay is a simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a
switch, as pictured in Fig. When a voltage is applied to the input coil, the resulting current
creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field pulls a metal switch (or reed) towards it and the
contacts touch, closing the switch. The contact that closes when the coil is energized is called
normally open. The normally closed contacts touch when the input coil is not energized. Relays
are normally drawn in schematic form using a circle to represent the input coil. The output
contacts are shown with two parallel lines. Normally open contacts are shown as two lines, and
will be open (non-conducting) when the input is not energized. Normally closed contacts are
shown with two lines with a diagonal line through them. When the input coil is not energized the
normally closed contacts will be closed (conducting).

Fig: Simple Relay Layouts and Schematics

Relays are used to let one power source close a switch for another (often high current)
power source, while keeping them isolated. An example of a relay in a simple control application
is shown in Figure. In this system the first relay on the left is used as normally closed, and will
allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input A. The second relay is normally open
and will not allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input B. If current is flowing
through the first two relays then current will flow through the coil in the third relay, and close the
switch for output C. This circuit would normally be drawn in the ladder logic form. This can be
read logically as C will be on if A is off and B is on.

Fig: A Simple Relay Controller.

The example in Figure does not show the entire control system, but only the logic. When
we consider a PLC there are inputs, outputs, and the logic. Figure 4 shows a more complete
representation of the PLC. Here there are two inputs from push buttons. We can imagine the
inputs as activating 24V DC relay coils in the PLC. This in turn drives an output relay that
switches 115V AC that will turn on a light. Note, in actual PLCs inputs are never relays, but
outputs are often relays. The ladder logic in the PLC is actually a computer program that the user
can enter and change. Notice that both of the input push buttons are normally open, but the
ladder logic inside the PLC has one normally open contact, and one normally closed contact. Do
not think that the ladder logic in the PLC needs to match the inputs or outputs. Many beginners
will get caught trying to make the ladder logic match the input types.
Fig: A Simple Ladder Logic Diagram

There are other methods for programming PLCs. One of the earliest techniques involved
mnemonic instructions. These instructions can be derived directly from the ladder logic diagrams
and entered into the PLC through a simple programming terminal. An example of mnemonics is
shown in Figure. In this example the instructions are read one line at a time from top to bottom.
The first line 00000 has the instruction LDN (input load and not) for input A. This will examine
the input to the PLC and if it is off it will remember a 1 (or true), if it is on it will remember a
0(or false). The next line uses an LD (input load) statement to look at the input. If the input is off
it remembers a 0, if the input is on it remembers a 1 (note: this is the reverse of the LDN).

The AND statement recalls the last two numbers remembered and if they are both true the
result is a 1; otherwise the result is a 0. This result now replaces the two numbers that were
recalled, and there is only one number remembered. The process is repeated for lines 00003 and
00004, but when these are done there are now three numbers remembered. The oldest number is
from the AND, the newer numbers are from the two LD instructions. The AND in line
00005combines the results from the last LD instructions and now there are two numbers
remembered. The OR instruction takes the two numbers now remaining and if either one is a 1
the result is a 1; otherwise the result is a 0. This result replaces the two numbers, and there is
now a single number there. The last instruction is the ST (store output) that will look at the last
value stored and if it is 1, the output will be turned on; if it is 0 the output will be turned off.

PLC Structure

PLC Divided into 4 parts, I/O Modules, CPU, Memory and Programming Terminal. It
operates by examining the input signals from a process and carrying out logic instructions and
Producing output signals to drive process equipment. The Standard interfaces built-in to PLC
directly connected to process actuators & transducers without the need for intermediate circuitry
or relays. It requires short installation & commissioning times and it has Specific features for
industrial control:

1. Noise immune equipment.

2. Modular plug-in construction.

3. Standard I/O connections & signal levels.

4. Easily understood programming language.

5. Ease of programming & reprogramming in-plant.

6. Capable of communicating with other PLCs, computers & intelligent devices.

7. Competitive in both cost & space occupied with relay & solid-state logic systems.
Features:

The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe condition(dust,
moisture, heat, cold, etc) and have the facility for extensive input/output (I/O)arrangements.

These connect the PLC to sensors and actuators.

PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables (such as temperature and pressure),and the
positions of complex positioning systems. Some even use machine vision.

On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders,
magnetic relays or solenoids, or analog outputs

The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the PLC may have external
I/O modules attached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.

ADVANTAGE OF PLC

 Cost effective for controlling complex system.

 Smaller physical size than hard-wired solutions.
 Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly.
 PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions.
 Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
 Diagnostics are centrally available.
 Troubleshooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
 Applications can be immediately documented.
 Applications can be duplicated faster and less expensively.
 Reliable components make these likely operate for several years successfully.
 Communication is possibilities.

DISADVANTAGE OF PLC

Programmable controllers are not equipped with enough memory to store big amounts of
data. In this field the communication system need to be more developed.
ATMEGA88PA Microcontroller:

The ATmega88PA is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR

enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the
ATmega88PA achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the system designer
to optimize power consumption versus processing speed.

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers.
All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two
independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The
resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster
than conventional CISC microcontrollers.

The ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P provides the following features:

4K/8Kbytes of In-System Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities,
256/512/512/1Kbytes EEPROM, 512/1K/1K/2Kbytes SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32
general purpose working registers, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal
and external interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface,
an SPI serial port, a 6-channel 10-bit ADC (8 channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages), a
programmable Watchdog Timer with internal Oscillator, and five software selectable power
saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters,
USART, 2-wire Serial Interface, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. In Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer
continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is
sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except
asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In Standby
mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This
allows very fast start-up combined with low power consumption.
Features:

High Performance, Low Power Atmel®AVR® 8-Bit Microcontroller Family

Advanced RISC Architecture

̶ 131 Powerful Instructions – Most Single Clock Cycle Execution

̶ 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

̶ Fully Static Operation

̶ Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20MHz

̶ On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

High Endurance Non-volatile Memory Segments

̶ 4/8/16/32KBytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash program memory

̶ 256/512/512/1KBytes EEPROM

̶ 512/1K/1K/2KBytes Internal SRAM

̶ Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

̶ Data retention: 20 years at 85 C/100 years at 25 C(1)

̶ Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation

̶ Programming Lock for Software Security

Atmel® QTouch® library support

̶ Capacitive touch buttons, sliders and wheels

̶ QTouch and QMatrix® acquisition

̶ Up to 64 sense channels

Peripheral Features

̶ Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler and Compare Mode

̶ One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and

Capture Mode

̶ Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

̶ Six PWM Channels

̶ 8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package

Temperature Measurement

̶ 6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package

Temperature Measurement

̶ Programmable Serial USART

̶ Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

̶ Byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface (Philips I2C compatible)

̶ Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator

̶ On-chip Analog Comparator

̶ Interrupt and Wake-up on Pin Change

Special Microcontroller Features

̶ Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

̶ Internal Calibrated Oscillator

̶ External and Internal Interrupt Sources

̶ Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby, and
Extended Standby

I/O and Packages

̶ 23 Programmable I/O Lines

̶ 28-pin PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, 28-pad QFN/MLF and 32-pad QFN/MLF

Operating Voltage:

̶ 1.8 - 5.5V

Temperature Range:

̶ -40 C to 85 C

Speed Grade:

̶ 0 - 4MHz@1.8 - 5.5V, 0 - 10MHz@2.7 - 5.5.V, 0 - 20MHz @ 4.5 - 5.5V

Power Consumption at 1MHz, 1.8V, 25 C

̶ Active Mode: 0.2mA

̶ Power-down Mode: 0.1μA

̶ Power-save Mode: 0.75μA (Including 32kHz RTC)

Pin Configurations:

Pin Descriptions:

1.1.1 VCC

Digital supply voltage.

1.1.2 GND

Ground.

1.1.3 Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tristated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can
be used as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the
inverting Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock
source, PB7...6 is used as TOSC2...1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit
in ASSR is set.

1.1.4 Port C (PC5:0)

 Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The PC5...0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running.

1.1.5 PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is un-
programmed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum
pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not
guaranteed to generate a Reset.

1.1.6 Port D (PD7:0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active, even if the clock is not running.

1.1.7 AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6...4 use digital supply voltage, VCC.

1.1.8 AREF

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

1.1.9 ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D
converter. These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:-

FIG.CRYSTAL

DESCRIPTION:-

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to
provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz
crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators."

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are small
devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones.
Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators,and oscilloscopes.

Pierce Oscillator:-

A simplified schematic of the oscillator circuit used in Figure 1. Note that the typical 2-pin
crystal has been replaced by its equivalent circuit model.

• Co is the pin-to-pin capacitance. Its value is associated with the crystal electrode design and the
crystal holder.
• Rs is the motion resistance. Its value is specified by the crystal manufacturer.

• Cs is the motion capacitance and Ls is the motion inductance, which are not specified, and are
functions of the crystal frequency.

• Rbias is a feedback resistor, implemented on-chip in Chrontel products, which provides DC

bias to the inverting amplifier.

• C1 and C2 are total capacitance-to-ground at the input and output nodes of the amplifier,
respectively. If external capacitance is not added, the values of the internal capacitance C1 and
C2, including pin parasitic capacitance, are each approximately 15pF to 20pF.
Series and Parallel Resonance:-

There is no such thing as a “series cut” crystal as opposed to a “parallel cut” crystal. The same
crystal can be made to oscillate in series resonance mode or parallel resonance mode. The
frequency of osillation of a crystal is usually specified by the manufacturer as either the series
resonance frequency or the parallel resonance frequency. A crystal can oscillate in series
resonance, meaning that Ls is resonating with Cs, and the resonance frequency is then simply
Some oscillator circuits are designed for series resonance and the oscillation frequency shall
equal the specified series resonance value. These series mode oscillators, however, are more
sensitive to temperature and component variations. In fact, most crystals oscillators in today's
ICs are of the parallel resonance type. The oscillation frequency of a parallel mode oscillator is
always higher than fseries. The actual oscilation frequency of a parallel mode oscillator is
dependent on the equivalent capacitance seen by the crystal.

Where

At parallel resonance, the crystal behaves inductively and resonates with capacitance shunting
the crystal terminals. Depending on the application, especially in microprocessors where Pierce
oscillators are used predominantly, a crystal manufacturer may specify parallel resonance
frequency instead of series resonance frequency. Since f parallel is a function of the load
capacitance Ceq, it should also be specified along with f parallel.

For PC CPU clock and VGA clock applications, the frequency accuracy required is usually not
very stringent and can easily be satisfied with a 14.318 MHz crystal that has been specified for
operation in either series or parallel resonance modes.

Crystal Power Dissipation:-

This is one of the more important specifications for a crystal. In operation, if the power
dissipated in the crystal exceeds the specified drive level, the crystal may have long term
reliability problems. The oscillation frequency may shift from the desired value, and in extreme
cases the crystal may crack and stop oscillating altogether. For the circuit in Figure 1, crystal
dissipation is given by

Using typical values for Rs, Ceq and V equals 5V, P equals approximately 876 W.

Since increasing the value of C1 and C2 would result in increased power dissipation in the
crystal, it is not recommended that extra capacitance be added to pins XTAL1 and XTAL2 of the
clock chip unless it is absolutely necessary to tune the frequency to a desired value. In the case
that additional capacitances are added, a crystal with a higher drive level should be chosen
according to the above equation.
Temperature sensor

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD PT 100) is used to sense the temperature

variation. It is a passive circuit element whose resistance increases with increasing temperature
in a predictable manner. A PT-100 is a precision platinum resistor that exhibits 100 ohm at
00c.Fig.3 shows the typical RTD. To measure the resistance, it is essential to convert it to a
voltage and use the voltage to drive a differential input amplifier. The differential input amplifier
will reject the common mode noise on the leads of the RTD and provide the greatest voltage
sensitivity. The RTD signal is usually measured one of two ways: either by connecting the RTD
element in one leg of a Wheatstone bridge excited by a constant reference voltage or by
connecting it in series with a precision current reference and measuring the corresponding IR
voltage drop.

Fig: Resistance Temperature Detector

MPX50 Integrated Silicon Pressure Sensor

The MPXx5050 series piezo-resistive transducer is a state-of-the-art monolithic silicon

pressure sensor designed for a wide range of applications, but particularly those employing a
microcontroller or microprocessor with A/D inputs. This patented, single element transducer
combines advanced micromachining techniques, thin-film metallization, and bipolar processing
to provide an accurate, high level analog output signal that is proportional to the applied
pressure.

Features

• 2.5% Maximum Error over 0° to 85°C

• Ideally suited for Microprocessor or Microcontroller-Based Systems

• Temperature Compensated Over -40° to +125°C

• Patented Silicon Shear Stress Strain Gauge

• Durable Epoxy Unibody Element

• Easy-to-Use Chip Carrier Option

LEVEL FLOAT SWITCH

Wide application scope, Strong generality Float switch ( Cable Float Level switch) series
apply to branch water, sewage, acid – base solution of less than medium concentration oils and
situations requiring on pollution ( for example food and drinks industry), diesel oil gasification
kitchen range, and automatic fuel feeding

Easy Installation and convenient adjustment method Float switch (Water level Controller,
Tank level Switch) series can be adjusted at will with the locating piece moving up and down,
only one screw is needed to secure the signal cable to finish installation.

Stable and durable, no need maintain

Cable float level switch (Water Level Controller, Tank Lever Switch) Series can be used for long
time after it being installed. Almost no maintenance and repairing problem would happen during
its operation period.

Simple construction and reliable performance

Technical And Specifications :

Microswitch : 10(8)A250V ~10(4)A380V

Switch Currency : ≥50 000 switch workings tested by VDE specialization

Protective Connection : T70U 88

Protection : Waterproof

Medium Temperature : 70˚C

Medium Working Pressure : Max. 1 bar

Circuit breaking Capacity : Directly KW with 250V

Material of the float : Polipropylene

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide
range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in
various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi
segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no
limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations
and so on. A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In
this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data. 16 Characters x 2 Lines Built-in HD44780 Equivalent LCD Controller
Works directly with ATMEGA, ARDUINO, PIC and many other microcontroller/kits. 4 or 8 bit
data I/O interface Low power consumption.

Features:
Drive method: 1/16 duty cycle
Display size: 16 character * 2 lines
Character structure: 5*8 dots.
Display data RAM: 80 characters (80*8 bits)
Character generate ROM: 192 characters
Character generate RAM: 8 characters (64*8 bits)
Both display data and character generator RAMs can be read from MPU.
Internal automatic reset circuit at power ON.
Built in oscillator circuit.
 Fig 3.12 LCD display 16X2

Table 3.3 Pin description of LCD

 DESIGN ASPECTS OF POWER SUPPLY
Power supply is the first and the most important part of our project. For our project we
require +5V regulated power supply with maximum current rating 1A.

Following basic building blocks are required to generate regulated power supply.

TRANSFORMER:
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power. Step-
up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies
use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low voltage.

FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost)
equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio
of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil
which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field
and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal
the outgoing power:

Giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in
one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is
attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an
impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary
circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.
Absolute Maximum Ratings:-

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

CALCULATIONS FOR POWER SUPPLY DESIGNING:

Specifications of 7805 vtg regulator:

Polarity = +ve

Output vtg : +5v

Output current :1.5A

Output of bridge rectifier for rectification :

Output: 12Vdc = vrms

Vm=vrms x sq. rt of 2

= 12x sq.rt of 2

= 16.97

Vm= PIV =16.97

Value of Filter capacitor :

C= (IxT)/V

T=1/2πf

= 1/2 x3.14×50 hz

Output current of 7805 =1.5 A

C=(1.5 x 3.1847 x10-3 )/5

= 955.41×10-6

=1000 µf
RECTIFIER:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power
supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum
tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to
the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave
rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full
wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes (1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct,
in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward
bias only.
FILTER:
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this
filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies
for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply.
This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can
be relatively high.below figure can show how the capacitor chages and discharges.
 COMPONENT DISCRIPTION:
Resistor:

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are formed
and the part is inserted into the board. In automated assembly the leads are cut and formed.

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as

a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust
signal levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Resistors can have fixed
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable
resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented withinintegrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors
are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance will fall within a manufacturing tolerance.

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is
attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 =
0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the
relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
 The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1
kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage

Resistor color-coding:-

One decade of the E12 series (there are twelve preferred values per decade of values) shown with
their electronic color codes on resistors

A 100 kΩ, 5% axial-lead resistor

A 0 Ω resistor, marked with a single black band

A 2260 ohm, 1% precision resistor with 5 color bands (E96 series), from top 2-2-6-1-1; the last
two brown bands indicate the multiplier (x10), and the 1% tolerance. The larger gap before the
tolerance band is somewhat difficult to distinguish.

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.

 band A is the first significant figure of component value (left side)

 band B is the second significant figure (some precision resistors have a third significant
figure, and thus five bands).
 band C is the decimal multiplier
 band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

For example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4 (yellow
in table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms. Gold signifies that
the tolerance is ±5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between 4,465 and 4,935 ohms.

Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component
failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-HDBK-199 for further details.

Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, or an
additional band indicating temperature coefficient, in units of ppm/K.

All coded components will have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are
optional.

The standard color code per EN 60062:2005 is as follows:

Temp.
Significant
Color Multiplier Tolerance Coefficient
figures
(ppm/K)

Black 0 ×100 – 250 U

Brown 1 ×101 ±1% F 100 S

Red 2 ×102 ±2% G 50 R

Orange 3 ×103 – 15 P

Yellow 4 ×104 (±5%) – 25 Q

Green 5 ×105 ±0.5% D 20 Z

 Blue 6 ×106 ±0.25% C 10 Z

Violet 7 ×107 ±0.1% B 5 M

Gray 8 ×108 ±0.05% (±10%) A 1 K

White 9 ×109 – –

Gold – ×10-1 ±5% J –

Silver – ×10-2 ±10% K –

None – – ±20% M –

Resistors use preferred numbers for their specific values, which are determined by
their tolerance. These values repeat for every decade of magnitude: 6.8, 68, 680, and so forth. In
the E24 series the values are related by the 24th root of 10, while E12 series are related by the
12th root of 10, and E6 series by the 6th root of 10. The tolerance of device values is arranged so
that every value corresponds to a preferred number, within the required tolerance.

Zero ohm resistors are made as lengths of wire wrapped in a resistor-shaped body which can be
substituted for another resistor value in automatic insertion equipment. They are marked with a
single black band.

The 'body-end-dot' or 'body-tip-spot' system was used for radial-lead (and other cylindrical)
composition resistors sometimes still found in very old equipment; the first band was given by
the body color, the second band by the color of the end of the resistor, and the multiplier by a dot
or band around the middle of the resistor. The other end of the resistor was colored gold or silver
to give the tolerance, otherwise it was 20%.
CAPACITOR:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energyelectrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or
conductive electrolyte, etc. The "nonconducting" dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge
capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer
etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to
collect on one plate and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been
attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor.
However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement
current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance. Capacitance is
expressed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential
difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when the
conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown
voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[10] The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor
depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric
field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[11] and the
dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one
coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[12]

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[10]

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for
a given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large
capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a basic pn-

junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

On October 7, 2014, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi
Amano and Shuji Nakamura for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has
enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources" or, less formally, LED lamps.
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials.

The following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and
material:

Voltage
Color Wavelength [nm] Semiconductor material
drop [ΔV]

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.63
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
1.63 < ΔV <
Red 610 < λ < 760 Aluminium gallium indium
2.03
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.03 < ΔV < Aluminium gallium indium
Orange 590 < λ < 610
2.10 phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.10 < ΔV < Aluminium gallium indium
Yellow 570 < λ < 590
2.18 phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Green 500 < λ < 570 Traditional green:

1.9[72] < ΔV <
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
 4.0 Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

2.48 < ΔV < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue 450 < λ < 500
3.7 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate—under development

2.76 < ΔV <

Violet 400 < λ < 450 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
4.0

Dual blue/red LEDs,

2.48 < ΔV <
Purple Multiple types blue with red phosphor,
3.7
or white with purple plastic

Diamond (235 nm)[73]

Boron nitride (215 nm)[74][75]
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[76]
Ultraviolet λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium
nitride (AlGaInN)—down to 210 nm[77]

Pink Multiple types ΔV ~ 3.3[78] Blue with one or two phosphor layers:
yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor added
 afterwards,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye
over top.[79]

White Broad spectrum ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

COMPONENT COSTING:

COMPONENT SPECIFICATION COST/ITEM

TRANSFORMER 12-0-12V 2A 200/-
RESISTOR 2.2K,10K,470K,100E 1/-
CAPACITOR 1000uF, 100uF, 33Pf 5/-
DIODE IN4007 2/-
LED 3mm 5/-
SWITCH PUSH TO ON 10/-
CRYSTAL 16MHz 25/-
MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA88PA 350/-
REGULATOR LM7805 15/-
LCD 16X2 250/-
PRESSURE SENSOR MPX50 350/-
FLOAT SENSOR 350/-
TEMPERATURE SENSOR PT100 350/-
PLC
RELAY 24V SPDT 40/-
TRANSISTOR BC547 5/-
SWITCH TOGGLE 10/-
 PCB DESIGNING:

For a certain number of projects, including first-prototype, surface mount 'breadboarding',

layout experimentation, rapid multiple-revisions, and 1-hour deadlines doing your own PCB
etching can be quick, clean, and very very inexpensive. The method set up in the Media Lab
basement is somewhat-similar to that of large pcb manufacture shops, except in scale and
automation. There is no system for through-hole plating, automated drilling/routing or multilayer
design. However, you can make precisely aligned doublesided boards with simple registration
techniques.

When To Use

A tool is only good towards the application it was designed for. Using the etcher for something
other than what its good for will frustrate you and waste time.

When using the spray etcher is a good idea:

 You need the boards quickly

 The substrate is 1/16" with 1oz or 2oz copper either FR4 or paper
phenolic (preferred)
 The design is single sided
 There are many surface mount parts
 The design is double sided, with no hidden vias (vias underneath surface
mount parts) or through-hole part vias (vias that also serve as through-
hole component holes) that you cannot solder on both sides
 You can visually scan for shorts
 The design follows a 12/12 mil rule (this is probably not true, I'm sure
10/10 or even 8/8 is fine, but yield will drop) That is, 12mil minimum
trace width, and 12mil minimum trace distance.
 You only need a few boards, or are willing to live with a yield as low as
50%
 Drill hole locations can be imprecise (up to 10 mils off!)
Conversely, when using the spray etcher is a bad idea:

 You dislike wet chemistry/cleaning

 Are using exotic substrates
 There are many vias, or throughhole parts, and you dont want to drill
holes/solder vias.
 You want the boards to be perfect without checking for shorts or opens
 You need printed overlays, multiple layers, through hole plating or solder
masks.
 You want many parts. Remember that for $200 you can just about get as
many boards as your heart desires, and from a reputable PCB
manufacturer.

Getting the Layout Ready

In this step you will prepare your layout for etching. For this step you will need: a quality laser
printer, a sheet of transluscent paper.

The photoresist method we use in PCB etching is a positive process, which means that when UV
light hits the resist, it softens, and then is washed away. What remains is a positive of the PCB
design. What this boils down to is that you will want a positive printout of your PCB design
(black where there will be copper). Preferably mirrored. Most all PCB design tools let you print
out your layout mirrored. Or you can mirror your entire design in the software. Whichever. Also,
if possible, have it print white holes where you will drill, these will be your drill guides. Because
the drill holes will not be precise, make your annular rings (the copper around a drill hole) larger
than normal. Since you will lose as many as half of the design to exposure/development/etching
flaws, tile 2-3 times layouts as many as you want.

In Eagle: After your design is ready, go to the CAM Processor, and open the "layout2.cam" job.
As output select PS. Change the extention to ".ps" as well. Be sure that Mirror is selected but
that Fill Pads is not. Then open the ps with any free postscript viewer and print it. (Also you
could print it to "Gerber274x" and use a gerber viewer, or any other format you can print.)

After you have verified the above, print your design to a high quality (600dpi at least) laser
printer, in monochrome mode, onto a white piece of paper. Double check that it is as you want it,
in the correct orientation, enough tiling, mirrored, dark ink, slightly smaller than the PCB you
have, etc. Now print it onto translucent paper, there is a box of it in the cabinet underneath the
etcher, in a thin cardboard sleeve.

etcher, in a thin cardboard sleeve.

This photo has notes. Move your mouse over the photo to see them.

Left, plain paper test. Right, translucent paper. Both are mirrored.

In this picture, I have two layouts I want to etch. I tiled one three times and one twice. The one I
tiled three times has a very fine pitch IC (TSSOP-16) so it is less likely to come out. On the left
is opaque laser print. On the right, translucent paper. Note that the design (noticably the text) is
mirrored.
Exposing the Board

This step transfers your layout design to a positive-resist PCB by exposing UV light to the
sensitized PCB with the printout as a mask. For this step you will need: a presensitized positive
photoresist copper clad board, scissors, tape, a UV bulb and thin plate glass or exposure unit.
This step takes 5-10 minutes.

First cut out the layout leaving a few millimeters of space on the edges. If you are going to
perform the exposing and etching in the same session, go ahead and turn the etching machine on
now, since it takes 10 minutes to warm up.

Cut the translucent paper, leaving at least a few mm boarder

Next, locate an unused PCB. There is a bag of them in the cabinet underneath the etcher. You
may need to cut a larger board down using a metal shear. Using a larger PCB than necessary is
wasteful, and exhausts the chemicals faster than a board that is well-fit. You can also purchase
your own stash of PCB material in many different substrates, thicknesses, etc. and, of course,
that is encouraged. (See "Where to Purchase Supplies, at bottom")
The best PCBs are those that have a plastic sticky sheet protecting them (some are just sold in a
plastic bag) so that they can be handled, drilled and sheared without excess UV exposure. The
plastic is easy to peel off:

The underlying substrate should be a greenish colour

Place your design on top of the exposed resist, ink-side down, so that it appears not-mirrored
when you look through the paper at the board. Placing the ink closest to the resist means less
light can leak around and cut into thin traces. Next, tape down the design on two edges, so that
the tape does not overlap any of the layout, but holds the paper flat.
Use any plain tape to tape down two opposite sides without overlapping the layout

now take it to be exposed under a UV lamp. As an arbitrary measure, a 15W Sylvania "350
Blacklight" UV 24" flourescent bulb, 3" above a FOTOBOARD2-brand board, with a 1/8" clear
glass plate (to keep the paper totally flat) over the board, 10 minutes will give good exposure.
[When a more permanent fixture is found, it will be calibrated.]

After it has been exposed, peel off one piece of tape and flip it open, to look at the photoresist.
Well exposed photoresist is a paler green, and you will be able to see the layout in the original,
yellower green, faintly. If you don't see anything, retape that side, and try a few more minutes
under the lamp.
The unexposed part is faintly visible, on the right side.

Once you think you're done exposing, lift off the design and put it away in case you want to
make another set of boards. You are ready to perform the chemical processing. If you need to do
this part later, or you have other boards to expose, place this board in an opaque container (like
in an envelope, face down, in a drawer or some such.)

Developing the Board

In this step, the exposed photoresist is removed chemically using developer, leaving a positive of
your layout in photoresist on copper. For this step you will need: gloves, apron, sink, dev tray,
developer, small soft sponge. This step takes 3 minutes.

Take the board over to your processing area. Put on the apron and a pair of 'rubber gloves'. These
wet chemicals can splash, some stain, and they are not good to drink. Find the dev tray and the
bottle of developer, (both marked DEV) and make sure the tray is clean. There is one set of large
trays (for > 5x7") and one small set, use the ones that fits best. Place the board face up in the tray
and pour developer in until there is about 1/4" (or enough to cover) in the tray.
Carefully pour into a tray. The developer is green from use, it starts out clear

Almost immediately the board will start to 'leak' resist as it is attacked by developer. Agitate the
board with your hand, and swirl the developer around to make sure there is a flow around the
board. It should be developed in 1/2 to 1 minute. If you leave it in too long, some of the finer
traces wont come out. Leaving it in too little means that there will be a very thin, invisible, layer
of resist left that will stop the etching process and force you to repeat this step. Use a soft sponge
to wipe the photoresist away.
Before rinsing, rub down the board with a soft cloth or sponge soaked in developer

Rinse the board in cold water to clean off the developer (stop bath), the parts that are to be etched
should look like completely clean copper, no residue. If you feel a slimy/slippery coating, or see
a bluish coating, you need to develop more. If none of the resist came off, you'll need to realign
your paper and re-expose the board. Pour the developer back into the bottle, and rinse off the
tray. The board is now ready to etch.

A well developed board has solid green traces and a clean copper background

First Rinse

In this step, the board is spray rinsed to prepare it for etching. This step takes 2 minutes.

First check to see that the machine is on. If not, turn the machine on.
The Rota-Spray machine, the wash tank is on the left, the etching tank on the right.
The on button is in the top left corner.

Once on, the left LED display should display "oC" and then something like "23" which means
the etchant is at 23degC. Now load the board into the board holding apparatus, placing it near the
center, and securing the plastic nuts. Make sure the board won’t fall out and into the tank.
The board holder can hold many small boards, but make sure they cant fall out

Slide the board holder, with the copper facing right, into the wash tank. Attach the water hose
(black, with white plastic spring-end) to the sink faucent, and turn on the cold water.
The connector is a little difficult to use, requiring that you simultaneously push down on the ring
while pressing the brass fitting into the faucet head. Two handed might be easier at first.

Turn on the wash spray to clean off the board. You can move the holder up and down to make
sure the board is sprayed off.

Make sure the water drains cleanly into the sink. This is the older setup, in the current lab there
should be a PVC drainage pipe into the large sink so there shouldnt be any drain problems

Etching the Board

In this step, the board is placed in an etcher, which is a machine that washes warm ferric chloride
(or another etchant) over the board, eating away any exposed copper. For this step you will need
to make sure the etchant is warm enough to use. This step takes 2minutes.

Move the holder into the etching tank, again facing to the right. Check that the temperature
monitor reports 42-45 degrees C, and that the fluid well feels warm. also make sure the top is
secured so that there is very little chance FeCl will spray out the top. By default the timer is set
for 1:30 minutes, which I've found satisfactory. You can also change the time if necessary (for
different weights of copper). Turn on the spray pump by pressing start. The entire tank will turn
reddish brown as the etchant removes the copper from your board. After the time is up, remove
the holder and quickly put it in the wash tank again. Be careful as there will be a lot of FeCl
dripping off the holder and you dont want it going anywhere but in the machine or the sink.

The board is very messy at this point, so do the move quickly and carefuly

Second Rinse

Turn on the wash spray again, moving the holder around so that the entire board and holder are
completely cleaned off. After the water runs clean, remove the board and examine it. There may
be parts that didn't etch, or overetched. Depending on your patience and yield, you may decide to
re-etch a subset of your boards.
There are some traces of unetched copper on the right. Since I only needed one PCB, I just threw
it away.

Examine all the boards carefully to determine which ones have shorts/opens/missing traces/etc,
and which ones are good for use. Shut off the water faucet, run the spray to clean out the hose,
turn off the machine and disconnect the hose from the faucet.

Strip

In this step, the remaining photoresist is stripped away, leaving only copper. For this step you
will need chemical stripper and/or a scrub pad. This step takes 2 minutes.

Place the board face up in the STRIP tray, and coat it with resist stripper. This may be in a bottle
or in a 'shoepolish' dispenser. Rub in the chemical first with the soft sponge, then with with a
plastic scrub pad. The green resist should come off, revealing copper underneath. Make sure -all-
of the resist is removed, as it smells very bad when it gets hot (when soldering.) If there is no
stripper, you can just scrub it off with a green scrub pad. If the stripper came from a bottle, pour
it back in. Rinse off the board and tray.
You can easily remove the resist with just a green scouring pad

Tinning

This step is optional but is very helpful for soldering to your board. For this step you will need:
tinning liquid mix. This step takes 2-10 minutes.

Find the bottle of tinning liquid, and the TIN tray. Place the board in the tray copper up, and pour
in enough tinning liquid to cover the board, the copper should immediately turn a silvery color. If
you intend to reflow solder, you may want to leave it for 15 minutes, otherwise, 3-5 is probably
fine. Use this time to clean up the area around the etcher, rinse off surfaces and clean and dry any
trays. When the board is done, remove and rinse it. Pour the tinning liquid back into the bottle
and clean the tray. Throw away the gloves, and put the apron back. Make sure the area looks
better than it did when you got there.
The exposed copper will turn silver almost immediately, tin will aid soldering and stop oxidation

Drilling

In this step, any holes or vias in the PCB are drilled out. For this step you will need: a drill press
that can run at 2000+ RPM, high-speed carbide wire-gauge drill bits. This step takes 3-10
minutes, depending on number of holes in pcb.

If your PCB is FR4 laminate, you may want to find a dust mask for this step, since fiberglass
dust is carcinogenic. Chances are, you're using paper phenolic which is much safer. There is a
box of HSS carbide drill bits in a box underneath the etcher, they are packaged in plastic boxes
of 10. Find the boxes of closest size to your board holes. In general, .020"/75ga is good for RF
vias, .028"/70ga is good for signal vias, .035"/65ga is good for DIP/LEDs/Resistors/Capacitors,
etc., .042"/58ga is good for TO-220/heavier diodes/etc., .060"/53ga for heavier wires and power
components, and .086"/44ga for mounting holes or anything else. Other drill sizes are available
for purchase, of course.
Left, these are inexpensive resharpened drill bits $7.50 a box. Right, 70 gauge is as small as
you'll need

Place the first drill bit in the chuck, and tighten it well. Find a piece of wood to place underneath
the board for support. While the drill is running, adjust the speed to 2000RPM or higher.

The drill press in the media lab shop is more than sufficient, adjust it only while running

Drill all holes of one size at a time. Try to position the drill bit right in the center of the hole, or
at least, try not to drill through any copper traces. The drill bits might break, especially if they
sub-35mil. Holding the board steady while drilling through it helps. The bits only cost 75 cents
so just throw them away when broken, but if you break more than 5, you should purchase a
replacement set.
You can drill a hole a second if you dont clamp down the board, but breakage is more likely

After all the drilling, replace the bits in their boxes, and put the box back underneath the etcher.

Shearing

In this step, the tiled layouts are seperated. For this step you will need a metal shear (this step
could also be done with a band saw.) This step takes 2 minutes.

Shear or cut the good boards out, leaving a few mm on each edge. The edges may be filed or
sanded.
A metal shear, such as the one outside the shop, is good for this. Go slowly and use the middle.
ADVANTAGES IN PROPOSED MODEL

 Increase in life span of boiler.

 Higher performance.
 Safe and solid operation.
 Immense degree of integration.
 Wastage of Coal will be reduced.

APPLICATIONS

The main advantage of using PLCs is the drastic reduction in the requirement of electrical
components in terms of number of switches, relays, wiring, etc. the applications of this project
are solely the applications of a boiler i.e., production of steam and using it for numerous
processes like rotating the generator fins and hence producing power for commercial or
industrial purposes.
CONCLUSION

Boiler Automation using PLC was designed and implemented. Sensors are used to
measure the temperature and maintained. If the temperature exceeds predefined value then the
entire setup will shut down and power supply gets automatically OFF to release the temperature
and maintained. If the temperature goes below predefined value then the entire setup will get ON
and power supply gets automatically ON to increase the temperature and maintained.
 REFERENCES

[1] Gowtham.N, Jayandhan.V.K, Karthik.K, PLC SCADA based boiler control operation

[2] H. P. Patil, C. K. Satpute, S. S. Vaishampayan, Dr. A.D. Rahulkar, control of boiler operation
using PLC-SCADA, Volume 1, Issue 7, March-2014, ISSN (Online): 2347 – 4718

[3] Aizaz Hussain, Imran Tahir, Boiler automation (2005-NUST-BEE-60), (2006-NUST-BEE

115)

[4] S.Kalaivani, M. Jagadeeswari, PLC & SCADA Based Effective Boiler Automation System
for Thermal Power Plant, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering
& Technology (IJARCET) Volume 4 Issue 4, April 2015.

[5] T.Karuppiah, Sivasankaran V, Azha , Periasamy, Muruganand S―Embedded System Based

Industrial Power Plant Boiler Automation Using GSM Technology‖ IJARCCE Vol. 2, Issue 8,
August 2013.

[6] Anabik Shome, Dr. S.Denis Ashok ―Fuzzy Logic Approach for Boiler Temperature &
Water Level Control‖ International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 3,
Issue 6, June-2012.

[7] K. Ghousiya Begum Mercy D, Kiren Vedi H, Ramathilagam V ―An Intelligent Model
Based Level Control of Boiler Drum‖ IJETAE Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013.

[8] Chuntanman, Jia Li,Lanying Wang,Yantao Chi ―The fuzzy PID control system for
superheated steam temperature of boiler‖ Strategic Technology (IFOST) , IEEE International
Conference ,Volume 2, pp. 967-970, June-2011.

[9] Ezell, Barry, ―Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems for Water Supply and Its
Vulnerability to Cyber Risks‖ available on the internet at:
http://watt.seas.virginia.edu/~bce4k/home.html.

[10] Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) details are available at:

http://world.keyence.com/products/programmable_logic_controllers/plc.html.