MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY ATOMIC BONDING

Common Metallic Crystal Structures Primary Bonds
Body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal Ionic (e.g., salts, metal oxides)
close-packed. Covalent (e.g., within polymer molecules)
Metallic (e.g., metals)
Body- CORROSION
Centered A table listing the standard electromotive potentials of
Cubic metals is shown on page 81.
(BCC) For corrosion to occur, there must be an anode and a
cathode in electrical contact in the presence of an
electrolyte.
Anode Reaction (oxidation) of a Typical Metal, M
Mo → Mn+ + ne–
Possible Cathode Reactions (reduction)
Face- ½ O2 + 2 e– + H2O → 2 OH–
Centered ½ O2 + 2 e– + 2 H3O+ → 3 H2O
Cubic 2 e– + 2 H3O+ → 2 H2O + H2
(FCC) When dissimilar metals are in contact, the more electroposi-
tive one becomes the anode in a corrosion cell. Different
regions of carbon steel can also result in a corrosion
reaction: e.g., cold-worked regions are anodic to non-cold-
worked; different oxygen concentrations can cause oxygen-
deficient region to become cathodic to oxygen-rich regions;
Hexagonal grain boundary regions are anodic to bulk grain; in
multiphase alloys, various phases may not have the same
Close-Packed galvanic potential.
(HCP)
DIFFUSION
Diffusion coefficient
D = D e −Q ( RT ) , where
o

D = the diffusion coefficient,

Number of Atoms in a Cell
BCC: 2 Do = the proportionality constant,

FCC: 4 Q = the activation energy,

HCP: 6 R = the gas constant [1.987 cal/(g mol⋅K)], and

Packing Factor T = the absolute temperature.
The packing factor is the volume of the atoms in a cell THERMAL AND MECHANICAL PROCESSING
(assuming touching, hard spheres) divided by the total cell Cold working (plastically deforming) a metal increases
volume. strength and lowers ductility.
BCC: 0.68 Raising temperature causes (1) recovery (stress relief), (2)
FCC: 0.74 recrystallization, and (3) grain growth. Hot working allows
these processes to occur simultaneously with deformation.
HCP: 0.74
Quenching is rapid cooling from elevated temperature,
Coordination Number preventing the formation of equilibrium phases.
The coordination number is the number of closest neigh-
boring (touching) atoms in a given lattice. In steels, quenching austenite [FCC (γ) iron] can result in
martensite instead of equilibrium phases—ferrite [BCC (α)
iron] and cementite (iron carbide).

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 MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER (continued)

TESTING METHODS where:

Standard Tensile Test ε = strain,
Using the standard tensile test, one can determine elastic t = time,
modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and A = pre-exponential constant,
ductility (% elongation). (See Mechanics of Materials
section.) σ = applied stress,
Endurance Test n = stress sensitivity,
Endurance tests (fatigue tests to find endurance limit) apply For polymers below, the glass transition temperature, Tg, n
a cyclical loading of constant maximum amplitude. The plot is typically between 2 and 4, and Q is ≥100 kJ/mol. Above
(usually semi-log or log-log) of the maximum stress (σ) and Tg, n is typically between 6 and 10 and Q is ~ 30 kJ/mol.
the number (N) of cycles to failure is known as an S-N plot. For metals and ceramics, n is typically between 3 and 10,
The figure below is typical of steel, but may not be true for and Q is between 80 and 200 kJ/mol.
other metals; i.e., aluminum alloys, etc.
STRESS CONCENTRATION IN BRITTLE
MATERIALS
σ When a crack is present in a material loaded in tension, the
stress is intensified in the vicinity of the crack tip. This
ENDURANCE LIMIT phenomenon can cause significant loss in overall ability of a
member to support a tensile load.
K I = yσ π a
KNEE

KI = the stress intensity in tension, MPa m(1/2),

LOG N (CYCLES)
y = is a geometric parameter,
The endurance stress (endurance limit or fatigue limit) is y = 1 for interior crack
the maximum stress which can be repeated indefinitely y = 1.1 for exterior crack
without causing failure. The fatigue life is the number of
cycles required to cause failure for a given stress level. σ = is the nominal applied stress, and
a = is crack length as shown in the two diagrams below.
Impact Test
The Charpy Impact Test is used to find energy required to
fracture and to identify ductile to brittle transition.

a
2a

Exterior Crack (y = 1.1) Interior Crack (y = 1)

The critical value of stress intensity at which catastrophic
crack propagation occurs, KIc, is a material property.
Impact tests determine the amount of energy required to
cause failure in standardized test samples. The tests are
repeated over a range of temperatures to determine the Representative Values of Fracture Toughness
ductile to brittle transition temperature. Material KIc (MPa•m1/2) KIc (ksi•in1/2)
Creep A1 2014-T651 24.2 22
Creep occurs under load at elevated temperatures. The A1 2024-T3 44 40
general equation describing creep is: 52100 Steel 14.3 13
dε 4340 Steel 46 42
= Aσ n e− Q ( RT )
dt Alumina 4.5 4.1
Silicon Carbide 3.5 3.2

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 MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER (continued)

HARDENABILITY ♦
Hardenability is the "ease" with which hardness may be
attained. Hardness is a measure of resistance to plastic
deformation.
♦

COOLING RATES FOR BARS QUENCHED IN AGITATED OIL

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND TENSILE

STRENGTH
For steels, there is a general relationship between Brinell
JOMINY HARDENABILITY CURVES FOR SIX STEELS hardness and tensile strength as follows:
TS (psi) 500 BHN
TS (MPa) 3.5 BHN
♦
ASTM GRAIN SIZE
SV = 2PL
N (0.0645 mm2 ) = 2(n −1)

N actual N
=
(
Actual Area 0.0645 mm 2
, where
)
SV = grain-boundary surface per unit volume,
PL = number of points of intersection per unit length
between the line and the boundaries,
N = number of grains observed in a area of 0.0645 mm2,
and
n = grain size (nearest integer > 1).

♦ Van Vlack, L., Elements of Materials Science & Engineering, Addison-Wesley

Pub. Co., Inc., 1989.

COOLING RATES FOR BARS QUENCHED IN AGITATED WATER

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 MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER (continued)

COMPOSITE MATERIALS CONCRETE

ρc = Σ fiρi Portland Cement Concrete
Cc = Σ fici Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, fine aggregate,
−1 coarse aggregate, air, and water. It is a temporarily plastic
⎡ fi ⎤ material, which can be cast or molded, but is later converted
⎢ ∑ E ⎥ ≤ E c ≤ ∑ f i Ei to a solid mass by chemical reaction.
⎣ i ⎦
Water-cement W/C ratio is the primary factor affecting the
ρc = density of composite, strength of concrete. The figure below shows how W/C,
Cc = heat capacity of composite per unit volume, expressed as a ratio by weight, affects the compressive
Ec = Young's modulus of composite, strength for both air-entrained and non-air-entrained
concrete. Strength decreases with an increase in W/C in both
fi = volume fraction of individual material, cases.
ci = heat capacity of individual material per unit
♦

AVERAGE 28-DAY COMPRESSIVE

volume, and 8,000
Ei = Young's modulus of individual material. 6,000
Also, for axially oriented long fiber reinforced composites,

STRENGTH, PSI
NO ADDED AIR
4,000
the strains of the two components are equal.
(∆L/L)1 = (∆L/L)2 RECOMMENDED
2,000
∆L = change in length of the composite, PERCENT
L = original length of the composite. ENTRAINED AIR

HALF-LIFE 1,000
0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
N = Noe –0.693t/τ, where W/C BY WEIGHT
No = original number of atoms,
N = final number of atoms, Concrete strength decreases with increase in water-
cement ratio for concrete with and without entrained air.
t = time, and
τ = half-life. (From Concrete Manual, 8th ed., U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1975.)

Density Young's Modulus Water Content affects workability. However, an increase in

E/ρ water without a corresponding increase in cement reduces
Material ρ E
N⋅m/g
Mg/m3 GPa the concrete strength. Air entrainment is the preferred
Aluminum 2.7 70 26,000 method of increasing workability.
Steel 7.8 205 26,000 ♦
Magnesium 1.7 45 26,000 6,000 IN AIR AFTER 28 DAYS CONTINUOUSLY MOIST CURED

Glass 2.5 70 28,000

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, PSI

IN AIR AFTER 14 DAYS

Polystyrene 1.05 2 2,700 5,000 IN AIR AFTER 7 DAYS

Polyvinyl Chloride 1.3 <4 < 3,500 IN AIR AFTER 3 DAYS

4,000
Alumina fiber 3.9 400 100,000
Aramide fiber 1.3 125 100,000
3,000
Boron fiber 2.3 400 170,000 STORED CONTINUOUSLY IN LABORATORY AIR

Beryllium fiber 1.9 300 160,000

2,000
BeO fiber 3.0 400 130,000
Carbon fiber 2.3 700 300,000
1,000
Silicon Carbide fiber 3.2 400 120,000 0 3 7 14 28 90 180
AGE, DAYS

Concrete compressive strength varies with moist-curing conditions.

Mixes tested had a water-cement ratio of 0.50, a slump of 3.5 in.,
cement content of 556 lb/yd3, sand content of 36%, and air content of 4%.

♦ Merritt, Frederick S., Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, 1983.

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 MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER (continued)

POLYMERS
Classification of Polymers Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Polymers
Polymers are materials consisting of high molecular weight The curve for the elastic modulus, E, or strength of
carbon-based chains, often thousands of atoms long. Two polymers, σ, behaves according to the following pattern:
broad classifications of polymers are thermoplastics or
thermosets. Thermoplastic materials can be heated to high
temperature and then reformed. Thermosets, such as
vulcanized rubber or epoxy resins, are cured by chemical or

Log E or log σ
thermal processes which cross link the polymer chains,
preventing any further re-formation.
Amorphous Materials and Glasses
Silica and some carbon-based polymers can form either
crystalline or amorphous solids, depending on their Tg Tm
Temperature
composition, structure, and processing conditions. These
two forms exhibit different physical properties. Volume Polymer Additives
expansion with increasing temperature is shown
Chemicals and compounds are added to polymers to
schematically in the following graph, in which Tm is the
improve properties for commercial use. These substances,
melting temperature, and Tg is the glass transition
such as plasticizers, improve formability during processing,
temperature. Below the glass transition temperature,
while others increase strength or durability.
amorphous materials behave like brittle solids. For most
common polymers, the glass transition occurs between Examples of common additives are:
–40°C and 250°C. Plasticizers: vegetable oils, low molecular weight
polymers or monomers
Fillers: talc, chopped glass fibers
Flame retardants: halogenated paraffins, zinc
borate, chlorinated phosphates
Glasses or Amorphous
Materials Ultraviolet or visible light resistance: carbon black
Volume

Oxidation resistance: phenols, aldehydes

Crystalline
Materials

Temperature Tg Tm

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