(Microwave Technology Series 5) G. Gaussorgues (Auth.) - Infrared Thermography-Springer Netherlands (1994)

Infrared Thermography
Microwave Technology Series

The Microwave Technology Series publishes authoritative works for professional
engineers, researchers and advanced students across the entire range of microwave
devices, sub-systems, systems and applications. The series aims to meet the reader's
needs for relevant information useful in practical applications. Engineers involved
in microwave devices and circuits, antennas, broadcasting communications, radar,
infra-red and avionics will find the series an invaluable source of design and
reference information.
Series editors:
Michel-Henri Carpentier
Professor in 'Grandes Ecoles', France,
Fellow of the IEEE, and President of the French SEE
Bradford L. Smith
International Patents Consultant and Engineer
with the Alcatel group in Paris, France,
and a Senior Member of the IEEE and French SEE
Titles available
1. The Microwave Engineering Handbook Volume 1

Microwave components
Edited by Bradford L. Smith and Michel-Henri Carpentier

Microwave circuits, antennas and propagation

Microwave systems and applications
4. Solid-state Microwave Generation

J. Anastassiades, D. Kaminsky, E. Perea and A. Poezevara
5. Infrared Thermography
G. Gaussorgues
6. Phase Locked Loops

J.B. Encinas
7. Frequency Measurement and Control

Chronos Group
8. Microwave Integrated Circuits

Edited by I. Kneppo
Infrared Thermography
G. Gaussorgues
Technical Director, HGH lnfrared System
Massy, and
Director, Electro-oprics Laboratory of the French Navy,
Fruna
Translated by
s. Chomet
Department of Physics
King's College
Vniversity of London
VK
!~1
~--~
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
English language edition 1994
© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1994
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 1994
Original French language edition - La Therrrwgraphie lnfrarouge-

Principes, Technologies, Applications (3rd edition, revised) - © 1989
Technique et Documentation - Lavoisier
ISBN 978-94-010-4306-9 ISBN 978-94-011-0711-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-0711-2
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Contents
Colour and black and white plates showing thermograms and images recorded in
false colours appear at the end of the book
Foreword xiii
Historical Background xv
1 Revision of Radiometry 1
1.1 The radiometric chain 1
1.2 Radiant flux 2
1.3 Geometrical spreading of a beam 2
1.4 Radiance 3
1.5 Irradiance 4
1.6 Radiant exitance 5
1. 7 Radiant intensity of a source in a given direction 5
1.8 Quantity of radiation and exposure 5
1.9 Bouguer's law 6
1.10 Radiation scattering 6
1.11 Note on units 7
2 Origins of Infrared Radiation 8
3 Thermal Emission by Matter 11

3.1 Black-body radiation 11
3.1.1 Planck's law 12
3.1.2 Wien's law 13
3.1.3 Stefan-Boltzmann law 15
3.1.4 Exitance of black-body in a given spectral band 16
3.1.5 Evaluation of exitance of a body by the method of
reduced coordinates 17
3.1.6 Thermal derivation of Planck's law 22
3.1.7 Thermal contrast 23
3.2 Different types of radiator 24
3.3 Problems with the emissivity of a material 25
3.4 Thermodynamic equilibrium 26
vi Infrared Thermography
3.5 Problems with the reflectance of a material 26

3.6 Example of an application 30
3.6.1 Calculation of Te and Ee 32
3.6.2 Calculation of EO and To 34
3.7 Emissivity of materials 36
3.7.1 Spectral emissivity 36
3.7.2 Emissivity of dielectrics - the effect of temperature 37
3.7.3 Emissivity of metals - the effect of temperature 39
3.7.4 The effect of the angle of incidence on emissivity 40
3.7.5 Measurement of emissivity 42
3.7.6 The effect of emissivity in thermography 43
3.7.7 Emissivity of a rough surface 43
3.7.8 The emissivity of dihedrons and trihedrons 45
3.8 Emission from the interior of a medium 46
3.9 Other sources of infrared radiation 50
3.9.1 The Nernst filament (Nernst glower) 50
3.9.2 The globar 51
3.9.3 Electroluminescent junctions 51
3.9.4 Sources employing stimulated emission (lasers) 52
4 Transmission by the Atmosphere 61

4.1 Self-absorption by gases 62
4.2 Scattering by particles 67
4.3 Atmospheric turbulence 68
4.3.1 Diffraction by inhomogeneities 70
4.3.2 The structure function 71
4.3.3 Measurements of turbulence 74
4.4 Methods for calculating atmospheric transmission 75
4.4.1 The 'line-by-line' method 76
4.4.2 The band model method 76
4.4.3 Empirical methods employing band models 77
4.4.4 The multiparametric model 78
4.5 A practical method for calculating atmospheric transmission 78
4.5.1 Molecular absorption 78
4.5.2 Scattering by particles 81
4.5.3 Example of application 94
5 Optical Materials for the Infrared 103

5.1 Propagation of an electromagnetic wave in matter 103
5.2 Optical properties of a medium 109
5.2.1 Refraction 110
5.2.2 Dispersion 110
5.2.3 Absorption, transmission and reflection 111
5.3 Physical properties of optical materials 114
5.3.1 Hardness 115
Contents vii
5.3.2 Thermal properties 115

5.3.3 Cost of materials 116
5.4 Types of material 117
5.4.1 Glasses 117
5.4.2 Crystals 118
5.4.3 Plastics 118
5.4.4 Metals 118
5.5 Properties of some optical materials 119
5.5.1 Glasses 119
5.5.2 Crystals 125
6 Optical Image Formation 135

6.1 Geometrical optics 135
6.2 Aberrations of optical systems 136
6.2.1 Chromatic aberrations 136
6.2.2 Geometrical aberrations 139
6.3. Calculation of geometrical aberrations 159
6.3.1 Path of a marginal ray - imaging by an objective 160
6.3.2 The path of a principal - stop imaging 162
6.3.3 Paraxial rays - the Gaussian approximation 164
6.3.4 The third-order approximation 167
6.3.5 Spherical aberration 167
6.3.6 The case of aplanatic optics - the Abbe's sine condition 168
6.3.7 Calculation of coma 169
6.3.8 Astigmatism and field curvature 171
6.3.9 Distortion 172
6.4 Diffraction 173
6.4.1 Diffraction by an aperture 173
6.4.2 Image formation - linear filter theory 178
6.4.3 The optical transfer function 181
6.4.4 Optics for the infrared 188
6.4.5 Reflecting telescopes 188
6.4.6 Catadioptric telescopes 196
6.4.7 Evaluation of image-spot abberration for different simple
optical systems 196
6.4.8 Refractive optics 200
6.4.9 Simple germanium lens for A. = 10,um 201
7 Scanning and Imaging 213

7.1 Radiometers 213
7.2 Radiometers for spatial analysis 214
7.3 Thermography 220
7.4 Scanning methods 220
7.4.1 Line scanners 221
7.4.2 Image scanning 231
YIll Infrared Thermography
7.5 Imaging 232

7.6 Imaging with multi-element detectors 234
7.6.1 Two-dimensional scanning with a single detector 234
7.6.2 Scanning by a parallel array of n elements 235
7.6.3 Scanning using an array of p elements in series 239
7.6.4 Serial-parallel scanning with a two-dimensional array 240
7.7 Electronic imaging 240
7.7.1 The pyroelectric image tube 242
7.7.2 Pyroelectric arrays 243
7.7.3 Solid state arrays 243
8 Spectral Filtering 244

8.1 Spectral transmittance of materials 244
8.2 The properties of thin layers 246
8.3 Antirefiective thin films 249
8.3.1 Antirefiective coating using a single layer 249
8.3.2 Two-layer antirefiective coating 251
8.3.3 Multilayer antirefiective coating 251
8.3.4 Examples of surface treatments for improving the
transmission of materials 252
8.4 Filters 254
8.4.1 Different types of filter 255
8.4.2 Filter fabrication technologies 256
9 Radiation Detectors 261

9.1 Generalities 261
9.2 Characteristics of detectors 262
9.2.1 Current-voltage characteristic 262
9.2.2 Shape of signal 264
9.3 Noise 264
9.3.1 The spectral distribution and technological causes of noise 264
9.3.2 Signal-to-noise ratio 265
9.3.3 The noise equivalent power (NEP) 267
9.3.4 Detectivity 267
9.3.5 Detectivity limit of a perfect detector 268
9.4 Detector sensitivity 268
9.4.1 Local variation of sensitivity 268
9.4.2 Spectral sensitivity 268
9.4.3 Global sensitivity 269
9.4.4 Sensitivity as a function of frequency 270
9.5 Thermal detectors 271
9.5.1 Fluctuations 271
9.5.2 General principle of operation 271
9.5.3 Signal-to-noise ratio 273
Contents ix
9.5.4 Detectivity of heat detectors 273

9.6 Different types of thermal detector 274
9.6.1 Bolometers 274
9.6.2 Pyroelectric detectors 275
9.6.3 Thermopiles 276
9.6.5 Pneumatic detectors 276
9.7 Quantum detectors 276
9.7.1 Fluctuations 277
9.7.2 Detectivity of quantum detectors 278
9.8 Different types of quantum detector 280
9.8.1 Photoemissive detectors 280
9.8.2. Summary of solid state physics 282
9.8.3. Photoconductive detectors 284
9.8.4 Photovoltaic detectors 287
9.9 Applications of detectors 289
9.9.1 Spectral sensitivity range 289
9.9.2 Sensitivity 291
9.9.3 Noise and detectivity 292
9.9.4 Frequency response of detectors 293
9.9.5 Detector bias arrangements 294
9.9.6 Effect of detector field angle 295
9.9.7 Passivation of detectors 295
9.10 Multielement detectors 296
9.11 Detectors used in thermography 297
9.12 Charge coupled devices 298
9.12.1 Three-phase CCD 298
9.12.2 Two-phase CCD 299
9.12.3 Transfer efficiency 300
9.12.4 Reading of a detector array with a CCD 301
9.12.5 Imaging with a CCD matrix 301
9.12.6 Charge injection devices (Cms) 302
9.12.7 Spectral response and characteristics of CCD and
cm imaging devices 304
9.13 Infrared charge coupled devices (IRCCD) 304
9.13.1 HgTeCd detectors 305
9.13.2 Indium antimonide 306
9.13.3 Silicon-platinum Schottky diode 306
9.13.4 Performance of IRCCDs 307
9.14 Sprite detectors 308
9.15 Detector cooling 311
9.15.1 Cooling by liquified gas 311
9.15.2 Cooling by Joule-Thomson expansion 311
9.15.3 Cooling by cryogenic cycles 313
9.15.4 Thermoelectric cooling 316
x Infrared Thermography
10 Signal Processing 319

10.1 The analogue signal 319
10.2 Processing of analogue signals 323
10.3 Processing of digital signals 323
10.4 Example of application 324
10.4.1 Analogue acquisition 325
10.4.2 Digitisation of the signal 325
10.4.3 Visualisation 329
10.4.4 Architecture of image reconstruction 331
10.4.5 Image processing 333
10.4.6 Temperature calibration of images 334
10.4.7 Description of program 337
11 Characterisation of infrared systems 340

11.1 Generalities 340
11.1.1 Noise equivalent irradiance (NEI) 341
11.1.2 Thermal resolution 341
11.1.3 Spatial resolution 342
11.1.4 Spectral response 342
11.1.5 The signal- temperature relation 342
11.1.6 Temporal stability and drift 343
11.2 Characteristics of infrared detectors 343
11.2.1 Sensitivity 343
11.2.2 Time constant 344
11.2.3 Noise equivalent power (NEP) 344
11.2.4 Noise equivalent irradiance (NEI) 345
11.2.5 Detectivity 345
11.3 Calculation of the characteristics of infrared systems 347
11.3.1 Calculation of noise equivalent irradiance (NEI) 347
11.3.2 Calculation of noise equivalent temperature difference
(NETD) 351
11.4 Measurement of the characteristics of an infrared system 353
11.4.1 Measurement of NEI 354
11.4.2 Measurement of NETD 357
11.4.3 Measurement of MRTD 357
11.4.4 Measurement ofMDTD 359
11.4.5 Measurement of relative spectral response 359
11.4.6 Measurement of spatial resolution - the modulation
transfer function 360
11.4.7 Determination of the signal-temperature relation 363
11.4.8 Measurement of drift 368
11.5 Example: Characterisation of a system 369
11.5.1 Evaluation of NEI 370
11.5.2 Evaluation of NETD 372
11.5.3 Measurement of NEI 374
11.5.4 Measurement ofNETD 373
Contents xi
11.5.5 Measurement of spatial resolution 375

11.5.6 Determination of the signal-temperature relation 376
12 Imaging and Measurement 379

12.1 Spatial resolution 379
12.2 Thermal resolution 383
12.3 Imaging and measurement 383
12.3.1 Thermal imaging 384
12.3.2 Thermal measurements 384
12.3.3 Conclusion 386
12.4 Examples of applications 387
12.4.1 Spatial resolution 387
12.4.2 Thermal resolution 392
12.4.3 Temporal stability 393
12.4.4 Other characteristics 394
12.4.5 Recording of signals 395
13 Choosing the Spectral Band 397

13.1 Spectral emissivity 397
13.2 Radiated power 398
13.3 Thermal contrast 400
13.4 Atmospheric transmission 402
13.5 Radiation detectors 402
13.6 Stray radiation due to the measuring system itself 403
13.7 Conclusions 405
13.8 Two-band thermal imaging 407
14 Industrial and Military Applications 414

14.1 Infrared thermography in nondestructive testing 414
14.1.1 Recapitulation 414
14.2 Thermography in industrial processes 418
14.2.1 Why use thermography for process control? 418
14.2.2 Thermographic methods in industrial processes 419
14.2.3 Thermographic systems for process control 421
14.2.4 Examples of applications 424
14.2.5 Conclusions 425
14.3 Acquisition, digitisation and processing in two-band image
processing 426
14.3.1 The two-band (bispectral) infrared camera 426
14.3.2 Measurement of the characteristics of a bispectral system 432
14.3.3 Data processing chain 437
14.3.4 Operation of the system 439
14.4 Infrared signatures - new acquisition and processing
techniques 443
14.5 Integrated systems for the nuclear industry 449
14.6 Conclusions 449
xii Infrared Thermography
15 Infrared Spectroradiometry 453

15.1 Spectroradiometry 453
15.1.1 Spectroradiometry by spectral dispersion 454
15.1.2 Fourier transform spectroradiometry 456
15.1.3 Spectroradiometry with interference filters 457
15.1.4 Limitations of spectroradiometry 458
15.2 An infrared spectroradiometer 459
15.2.1 Optics 460
15.2.2 Elimination of stray flux 462
16 Line Scanners 471

16.1 First generation thermography 471
16.2 Second generation thermography 472
16.3 The infrared line scanner 473
16.4 Description of the ATL 100 system 473
16.5 ATL 100 used for welding control 476
16.6 Example of application: control ofroll welding 478
16.6.1 Description of process and objective of measurement 478
16.6.2 Installation of the ATL 100 479
16.7 The HGH ATL infrared scanner 481
16.8 Applications of the ATL 020 482
16.8.1 Monitoring of the rolling process in steel industry 482
16.8.2 Glass industry 482
16.9 The Agema THP 5 and 6 infrared scanner 487
16.10 The HGH ATL 080 infrared scanner 488
17 Advances in Thermographic Systems 492

17.1 Agema (Sweden) 492
17.2 Avio-Nippon Avionics (Japan) 495
17.3 Inframetrics (USA) 496
17.4 Comparison of infrared sensitivities of different
thermographic systems 499
17.4.1 AGA 780SW 499
17.4.2 AGA 900SW 499
17.4.3 AVIO TVS 2000 499
17.5 Inframetrics 700 499
17.6 Cooling of detectors 501
Appendix 502
Bibliography 503
Index 505
Colour and Black and White Plates 509

Foreword
Spectral filter Detector
Object
a
Display unit
The infrared radiation emitted by a body carries specific information about

its material, its recent history and its configuration.
This information can be captured and processed by a suitable acquisition
system, and the results can then be employed to monitor and control certain
parameters that can only be measured indirectly or with great difficulty.
It is clear that each particular case of remote detection or measurement
of such parameters requires a system capable of producing the desired end
result.
This book describes the techniques that can be used to access the in-
formation contained by the material of a body by capturing the infrared
radiation emitted by it.
The radiometric measurement chain consists of the source of radiation
under investigation, the environment in which it is found, the medium
through which the radiation propagates and, finally, a properly specified
measurement system.
It is desirable to examine point by point the different links in this chain,
and to evaluate their performance, before we can understand the functional
possibilities and limitations of the system in relation to the required goal.
It would be hazardous to take measurements with equipment that is
poorly suited to the phenomena under investigation, and the results thus
obtained would not reflect the true possibilities of a judiciously chosen
method.
The acquisition chain will first be followed element by element in a va-
riety of possible configurations, and the properties of such systems will be
explored. We will then examine the characterization of the performance
that can be achieved by experimental methods.
Particular attention will be devoted to the qualitative and quantitative
aspects of infrared thermography, on the one hand, and to the analysis of
the different spectral aspects of operating conditions, on the other.
Finally, these concepts will be illustrated by examples of the use of
thermography in industrial and military applications.
Memorised result
Display of processed
data in real time
Data acquisition
(evidence of satifaJionl) and processing centre
)) J)
I
Vo Detector
Front optics
(;9ifIc~~)
/ l'
/ /' Object (optical signal)
Historical Background
In 1800, Sir William Herschel discovered the presence of thermal radiation

outside the spectrum of visible light.
With the help of a thermometer placed beyond the red part of the spec-
trum of visible light, produced by a prism, Herschel demonstrated the pres-
ence of invisible radiation whose energy could be detected by its heating
effect.
He proved subsequently that this radiation, christened infrared, obeyed
the same laws as visible light. However, it was not until 1830 that the first
detectors were developed for this type of radiation. They were based on
the principle of the thermocouple, and were called thermopiles.
The bolometer, which relies on a material whose electrical resistance
varies with temperature, made its appearance in 1880 and introduced a
significant improvement in infrared detection sensitivity.
Between 1870 and 1920, technological advances led to the development
of the first quantum detectors based on the interaction between radiation
and matter. The detection process thus ceased to depend on the creation
of an electrical signal due to the heating effect of radiation and, instead,
relied on the direct conversion of radiation into an electrical signal.
Photoconducting or photovoltaic detectors are found to have much
shorter response times and higher sensitivities. The subsequent chronology
was as follows.
1930 - 1944. Development of lead sulfide (PbS) detectors, specifically
for military needs. These detectors are sensitive in the 1.3-3 J.Lm band.
1940 - 1950. Extension of the spectral range to middle infrared, i.e., 3-5
J.Lm by the use of indium antimonide (InSb).
1960. Exploration of the far infrared, 8-14 J.Lm, by mercury-tellurium-
cadmium detectors (HgTeCd) .
The last type of detector requires cooling. Because of their higher sen-
sitivity and short response times, these quantum detectors have led to the
development of thermal imaging systems that rely on the detection of in-
frared radiation emitted by matter in the range 2-15 J.Lm.
1
Revision of Radiometry
vVe begin with some definitions employed in the quantitative measures

of visible radiation, which will enable us to classify the orders of magnitude
that we will encounter in our presentation .
1.1 THE RADIOMETRIC CHAIN
The ensemble of phenomena that accompany the emission of radiation by

a source, until it is absorbed by a detector, is called the radiometric chain.
Sources of radiation are the components of the radiometric chain that
generate radiation from another form of energy.
Radiation receivers or detectors are the components that transform the
received radiation into another form of energy.
2 Infrared Thermography
1.2 RADIANT FLUX

The flux is the instantaneous measure of the quantity of radiation.
It describes the output of a source propagating in the form of a beam
or received by a detector.
The flux manifests itself as radiant power and obeys the laws of propa-
gation in homogeneous non-absorbing media. The unit of flux is the watt
(abbreviated W).
1.3 GEOMETRICAL SPREADING OF A BEAM
Consider a source S and a detector R a distance d apart, and surface

elements dS and dR on the source and detector, respectively. Let dfls be
the solid angle subtended by dR at dS and dflR the solid angle subtended
by dS at dR . We then have
do _ dR cos OR
HS - tP
do _ dS cos OS
HR - d2
where Os and OR are the angles between the line joining dS to dR and
the normals N sand N R to dS and dR, respectively. The solid angles are
measured in steradians (sr). A complete sphere sub tends a solid angle of
411' steradians at its centre .
Source S Detector R
Fig. 1.1 Beam geometry
The geometrical spread of a thin beam subtended by dS and dR is

defined by
d2 C = dSdf"'lHS cos (J S = dRdoHR cos (JR = ----:;::----

dSdRcosOsCOS(JR
d2
(1.1)
The surface elements dS and dR must be situated in the same optical space
(object , image or intermediate).
Revision of Radiometry 3
Fig. 1.2
If the surface S is small and R is circular and sub tends an angle of 2a

at S, the geometrical spread is given by
G=7rSsin 2 a
where the units of G are m 2 sr. This form applies to the majority of mea-
suring instruments with circular pupils.
1.4 RADIANCE
If in the neighbourhood of the direction of propagation dS -+ dR, the flux
density is uniform, the radiance of a thin beam constrained by dS and dR
is defined by
(1.2)
where d2F is the element of flux carried by a thin beam with geometrical
spread d2G. If the medium is homogeneous and non-absorbing, the flux F,
the radiance L and the geometrical spread are conserved. The units of L
are W m- 2 sr- t .
For an extended beam, we have to integrate these relations over the
surfaces of the source and receiver:
F = JJ
SR
d2 F = JJ
SR
Ld 2G
If the radiance is uniform, the flux becomes
F=LG
When the medium in which the radiation propagates is absorbing, the ra-
tio of received to emitted fluxes gives the transmission factor of the medium
where T < 1, T = 1 and T > 1 for absorbing, non-absorbing and emitting

media, respectively. For an extended beam, we have
J JT LscPG
T _ FR _ ~R~::--=-::::-
J J L s d2G
;:..s
- Fs -
SR
The radiance is conserved on refraction
where n is the refractive index of the medium in which the geometrical

spread d2 G is evaluated.
This invariance implies
1.5 IRRADIANCE
This is defined as the local value of the ratio of the flux dFR received by
the detector and the area dR of the detector, i.e., the power received per
unit area (W m- 2 ) . Symbolically,
(1.3)
where the integral is evaluated over the half-space, E(x. Y) is in W m- 2

and X, Yare the spatial coordinates relative to the points at which the
e,
irradiance is evaluated. The quantities 1] define the direction of the beam.
Fig. 1.3 Irradiance

Fig. 1.4 Radiant exitance
1.6 RADIANT EXITANCE

This is defined as the local value of the ratio of the flux emitted by a source
and the area of the source. Symbolically,
R(x,Y) = dFs
dS = J (e, 1J)
L cosOsdns (1.4)
where the integral is evaluated over the half-space and R(x, Y) is in W m- 2 .

If the source has uniform luminance,
where the integral is evaluated over the half-space, we have
1. 7 RADIANT INTENSITY OF A SOURCE IN A GIVEN

DIRECTION
This is the ratio of the flux dFs emitted by a source, in the direction defined
the parameters (e, 1J) and the solid angle drl s within which the intensity is
evaluated:
dFs =
I({,T/) = drl s
JL(x'y) cos Os dS (1.5)
source
where L(x,Y) is the luminance distribution over the source.

The source intensity is therefore the power radiated per unit solid angle.
1.8 QUANTITY OF RADIATION AND EXPOSURE

The quantity of radiation is the integral of flux over a given time interval.
It has the dimensions of energy.
F = 1 t2
t,
F(t) dt
Its unit is the joule (J).

The exposure is the time integral of radiance, i.e., the energy received
1"
per unit surface area:
£ = £(t) dt
t,
1.9 BOUGUER'S LAW

Bouguer's law is the relation between the irradiance E of a receiving surface,
due to a source S, and the intensity I of that source in the direction of the
receiver lying at a distance d
E _ I COSBR
(1.6)
- d2
Source d
Fig. 1.5 Bouguer's law Detector
This inverse square dependence on distance from the source is valid if

the linear dimensions of the source are small compared with the distance
d.
1.10 RADIATION SCATTERING

Let us consider an area element dS that receives an element of flux
dFi (()i, <Pi) in an angular direction defined by (B i , <Pi)'
The reflection coefficient of the element. dS is given by
p-
dFr (Br,<Pr) - Rr (Br,<Pr) dS - Rr
-
- dF;(()i,<Pi) - E;(()i,<Pi) dS - E;
where dFr(Br,<Pr) is the flux reflected in the direction (Br,<Pr) and Rr is
the exitance of the surface dS under irradiance Ei when reflection is in-
dependent of the direction of re-emission (orthotropic scatterer) . We then
have
p
Rr f Lr (Br, <Pr) dD r cos Br
= - "-----''-------:::e-----
Ei Ei
where the integral is evaluated over the half-space, i.e.,
dS
Fig. 1.6 Scattering of radiation by a surface
so that
7rL
P=If
In the case of a perfect scatterer, P = 1 and L = E / 7r = R/7r, so that
E=R
Scattering indicatrix
The power reflection directivity of an element dS is generally defined in
terms of the bidirectional scattering indicatrix
dLr(()r, cPr) dL r (()r, cPr)
! (()j, cPj; ()r, cPr) = dE j (()j, cPj) = Li (()icPi) d0. i COS()i
where dL r (()r, cPr) is the radiance of dS in the direction (()r, cPr) due
to reflected radiation; the angular distribution of luminance is therefore
Li(()i, cPi).
The total reflected radiance in the direction (()r, cPr) is
Lr (()r, cPr) = JLj (()i, cPi)! (()i, cPi, ()r, cPr) d0.i COS()i
1.11 NOTE ON UNITS

The relative units of radiometric quantities are here expressed in the en-
ergy system. They were preceded historically by the photometric units
in the visible spectrum, the human eye being the first available detector.
This tradition continues in relation to visually measured quantities (optical
instruments, television) .
There is also a system of units for the quantitative measurement of
radiation that is based on counting light particles, i.e., photons (photonic
system) .
2
Origins of Infrared Radiation
Matter continuously emits and absorbs electromagnetic radiation. The

process of emission involves molecular excitations in the material, which
generate radiative transitions in its constituent particles.
The fundamental laws of classical electromagnetic theory show that the
electric field E due to a uniformly moving charge q is little different from
the static field
E=-q-
47rcor2
where the distance r at which observations are made is large compared
with the displacement of the charge and co is the permittivity of empty
space.
On the other hand, if the electric charge is accelerated, the Maxwell
Origins of Infrared Radiation 9
equation
aE
curlH = co at
shows that energy is liberated in the form of radiation.
A rise in temperature causes an increase in molecular excitation within
the material, which favours the acceleration of particular electrical charge
carriers and, hence, the generation of radiation .
The energy liberated in the form of radiation is
where>. is the wavelength, h = 6.63 X 10- 34 J s is Planck's constant and

c = 3.0 X 108 ms- 1 is the speed of light .
The wavelength of emitted radiation varies inversely with the transition
energy. It is important to note that, in the infrared region, the wavelengths
are long and the radiation energy is low . It is therefore clear that difficulties
will be encountered in the detection of infrared radiation.
If the material allows all possible transitions (thermal excitation of
molecules), each atom provides a certain amount of radiant energy which
statistically can take all possible values; the wavelength distribution will
therefore be uniform and the radiation is then said to have a continuous
spectrum.
Certain substances allow only a few well-defined transitions (quantum
transitions of electrons in atoms). The emission then takes the form of
discrete wavelengths and is said to have a line spectrum.
The absorption of radiation by matter results in the opposite process,
the absorption being more or less selective, depending on the wavelength
and the material. The spectrum of radiation is divided arbitrarily into a
number of regions that correspond to the operating ranges of particular
sources and detectors.
The following table illustrates the electromagnetic spectrum:
Cosmic Gamma
X-rays
Ultra- '"
:0
.;;; Infrared Radio
rays rays violet
;;:
I I I I I I I I lUHF~H~ I I I I
HF MF LF
wavelength x, frequency v (HZ)
The infrared spectrum is emitted by substances ,at temperatures nor-

mally found on the surface of the Earth. All bodies radiate copiously at
these so-called normal temperatures. An object will not appear to be dark
in the infrared unless it is cooled . To reduce by 1% the amount of radiation
generated at ,.... 4 J.Lm by a body at 20°C, its temperature must be reduced
by 100 0 •
The infrared spectrum can be divided into three large regions according
to the detectors used to capture it. Near infrared is detected by special
photographic emulsions (up to 1 pm), by photoemissive cells and by pho-
toconductive and photovoltaic detectors. Middle infrared is detected by
thermal, photoconductive and photovoltaic detectors. Radiation in the far
infrared can be measured by thermal detectors.
Visible Near iofranod I Middle: iofrared I Far infranod
0.35 IBD 0.75 IBD 15 !JIll 1000 !JIll
Infrared wavelengths are usually measured in microns (pm) . The wave

number is commonly employed, notably in spectroscopy, and is defined by
1
u=-
>.
where). is in metres or
10 4
).=-
).
where). is in microns.
A.,urn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
In.. em'l 10000 5000 3333 2500 2000 1667 1429 1250 1111 1000 909 833 769 714 668
3
Thermal Emission by Matter
3.1 BLACK-BODY RADIATION
Thermal emission by solids is usually treated in terms of the concept of a

black body, defined to be an object capable of totally absorbing all incident
radiation, whatever its wavelength.
The practical realisation of a black body needs to be understood. There
are two possible approaches. First, there is the completely closed cavity,
i.e., a cavity in the interior of a solid, accessed by a hole, the dimensions of
which are very small in comparison with those of the cavity. The system be-
haves as a radiation trap. Second, there is the perfectly absorbing surface.
Special treatments of surfaces and paints can be used tu convert any object
to a perfect absorber to a good approximation. By Kirchhoff's laws (1860),
Radiation
Fig. 3.1 A black body
such an object is also an emitter of radiation of all wavelengths. It transfers

energy to the surroundings until a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is
reached.
Fig. 3.2 Radiator surface element
3.1.1 Planck's law

The emission of radiation by a black body is described by Planck's law
which employs the concepts of statistical thermodynamics and takes the
form
dR(>., T)
(3.1)
d>' exp (he/>. kT) - 1
where dR(>.,T)/d>' is the spectral exitance, i.e., the power emitted per
unit area per unit wavelength, h = 6.6256 X 10- 34 J s (or W s2) is Planck's
= =
constant, k 1.38054 x 1O- 23 J K- 1 is Boltzmann's constant, e 2.998 x
108 m S-l is the speed of light and T is the absolute temperature of the
black body in degrees Kelvin (K). The temperature conversions are:
degrees Celsius = (OF - 32) x ~
degrees Kelvin =oC + 273.16

degrees Fahrenheit =oC x ~ + 32
Thermal Emission by Matter 13
The spectral exitance of a black body depends on wavelength and on

temperature. It is convenient to represent Planck's law in the form of a
family of curves
We note that two special cases of this law were known before Planck.
(a) For short wavelengths, i.e., AT ~ he/k, we can use use the approxi-
mation:
exp (he/AkT) - 1 "" exp he/>. kT
so that
(3.2)
This is Wien's law, valid for >'T < 5000 JlmK.

(b) For long wavelengths, i.e., AT ~ he/k, the exponential term is small,
so that
he ) he
exp(he/>'kT)-1~ ( 1+ >.kT+"· -1~ >'kT
Hence
dR (A, t) "'" 2 kT\-4 (3.3)
dA ,..., 1I'e "
This is the Rayleigh-Jeans relation valid for AT > 105 Jl m K but in signif-
icant disagreement in the ultraviolet, where the spectral exitance tends to
infinity.
Example: For T = 1 OOOK, and he/k = 14388JlmK, the wavelength
A = 5 Jlm corresponds to >'T = =
5000 Jlm K (Wien), whereas A 100 Jlm
gives AT = 105 /LmK (Rayleigh-Jeans).
3.1.2 Wien's law

The spectral exitance curve dR(>., T)/dA at constant temperature T passes
through a maximum. The displacement of this maximum as a function
of temperature is described by Wien's law, obtained by differentiating
Planck's law:
2898
>'max = TJlm (3.4)
(3.5)
where T is in degrees Kelvin.

Thus an object at an ambient temperature T ~ 290 K has its spectral
exitance maximum at Amax ~ 10 Jlm, while the Sun, whose apparent tem-
perature is 6000 K, has a maximum at Amax = 0.5 Jlm (we see here Nature
working to perfection: this wavelength is exactly at the centre of the visible
10
11~~~~~~~~~0~.0~1~~~~~0~--!.' 1 ~~~~~
'/ / /1/
1
/ l/iiL
/ / / f//I
'1
/ I I I/llt! f II
i
lO
10 ~
Planck's law I v
10 9 peclral exitan ce j'I JI I~ ry '/II
of a black bod y :
t::: dRp.. , T)ld)" = h P } I !!11<1" lY L L
10
8
E-~~' ~'~~'/~~~I~r/I~/I
R / /-~'/~'/~A~~I:J.tiiiIII~/~/~
I / 1 1'1 / / L / I
107 I / ll/'/ I 1/ / /IJi///1/ f/!i W / l~\
106 1 1;/1,/ / /.
" '/ / /
/1/1 11.j / l // //jpz Y \
/ " r!J
,
l
'i
'e 'I I, I IIII I I' / 1/ / 1 "l\l [1m!'
10
4
r/iL,!/~i~/~/I'/~'1j,~(ff~/~/ljiA~!./Ih'~:/~/~~1!r~~j\I:.
II~I\\~!
_L I/ /I/VI A / / /' ~" 1\\ll\lI\lIr
I III, If/ I I If II /If!f1 / / /' /. /":'/\.\~-\\\\\I\\IH
I /, ,(./ , L if / /, '/ j jt/III/ / // 1// 0/

'PPJ.,II\
" _ 'L \/ , / / /)
10 /,'/1/ / I I I Ill I//J/V //11 y ' / ' '~
Fig. 3.3 Planck's Law

dR(AT)
dA
0 .5 10 38
Fig. 3.4 Wien's law Wavelength, J.lm
spectrum) . We recall that liquid nitrogen (T = 77 K) produces maximum

radiation at Amax = 38 J.lm.
The displacement of emission towards shorter wavelengths (visible or
not) with increasing temperature is satisfactorily explained by Wien's law .
3.1.3 Stefan-Boltzmann law

This law is obtained by integrating of Planck's law between A = 0 and
A = 00. It gives the total exitance of a black body at given temperature T:
(3.6)
where
u =2~5k4/15c2h3
= 5.67 X 10- 12 W cm- 2 K- 4
= 5,67 X 10- 8 W m- 2 K- 4 (3.7)
is Stefan's constant. Physically, R t represents the area under the curve
For example, if we wish to determine the radiation generated by the

human body at approximately T = 300 K we have
RT = 5.7 x 10- 12 x (300)4 = 0.05 W cm- 2

The heat lost by radiation from 2 m 2 of skin is
P = 0.05 x 2 x 104 :::::: 1 kW

which assumes that the skin is a black body, which is valid in the infrared.
We note, however, that this loss of energy is compensated by the absorption
of radiation from the surroundings, in particular, clothes.
3.1.4 Exitance of a black body in a given spectral band

The exitance of a black body between Aa and Ab is obtained by integrating
Planck's law over the spectral interval:
The following table gives the values of exitance of a black body, cal-
culated for the spectral band ~A = Ab - Aa at temperatures normally
encountered in thermography.
f>'~ dR d>. ( W.cm· 2
A,j1.m dr"' )
..
)..
A. A~ T=280oK T:290oK T:300oK T:3'OoK T : 750 0 K T:'OOOOK
2,76.10
.4
4,11.10
.4
5,97.10 8,48.10
·4
5,84.10
.,
3 5
.4
3 5,5 5,44.10 7,87. 10. 4 1,11 .10.3 1,54 . 10. 3 7,09 . 10·'
.4 4
3,~ 5 2,88.10 3,97. let 5,75 .10. 4 8,13. 10. 4 4,42 • 10"
.4
3,5. 5,5 5,36 . 10.4 7,73.10 1,09.10. 3 '.50 . 10. 3 5.68 10·' 2,38
4 5 2,38. 10. 4 3,49.10. 4 5,01.10. 4 7,02. 10 4 2,8, 10· i
4 5,5 5,06. 1()' 7,25. 10" 1,02.10.3 1,39 . 10. 3 4,15 10. '
.3 ·3
8 10 4,20. 10 5,12. 10. 3 6,15.10 7,32.10. 3 1,74 10·'
.3 .2 ·1
8 12 8,59.10 1,03. 10 1,22 .10. 2 1,43. 10• 2 2,74 10
B 14 1,26 . 10
.2
1,48 . 10. 2 1,74.10. 2 2,01. 10. 2 3,34 ,°., 6,05
·3 10. 2
10 12 4.39. 10. 3 5,17.10. 3 6,02 . 10 6,95.10. 3 9,99
·2
10 14 8,35.10. 3 9,72.10. 3 1,12 .10 1,28. 10. 2 1,60 10"
·3
12 14 3,96. 1 0 4,55.10. 3 ,
519. 10• 3 5,86.10. 3 6,04 10. 2
We note that the quantities given above in energy units can in certain
cases be expressed in terms of the number of photons. This refers above
all to those cases where emission occurs between discrete energy levels and
the emitted quantum is the photon (in W)
W= he
A
The spectral energy exitance given by Planck's law can be expressed in
terms of the number of photons emitted per second per square centimetre
RAb:j(.~bdR~T) d~
Spectral exitance .\G Aa d).
Fig. 3.5 Exitance of black body

>- >.. Ab
Wavelength
of radiating surface per unit wavelength, obtained by dividing dR(>..,T)/d>..
by the energy of the photon:
dP (>..,T) dR(>.., T) >.. 21rc>" -4

(3.8)
d>" d>" hc exp(hc/>..kT) - 1
Under these conditions, Wien's law becomes
>..' _ 3663 (pm) (3.9)

max - T
dP , 7 4 1 2 1
d>" (>"m, T) = 2.1 X 10 X T (s- cm- pm- ) (3.10)
and Stefan's law becomes

Pt = (,'T 3 (3.11)
(1' = 1.52 X 1011 s- l cm- 2 K- 3 (3.12)
3.1.5 Evaluation of the exitance of a body by the method of

reduced coordinates
Planck's law presents a complex problem when we need to calculate the
energy exitance of a black body. It is often convenient, to use the reduced
coordinates, defined by Wien's law:
_ dR(>.., T)/dR(>..m, T)
Y- d>" d>"
Planck's equation then takes the form
Extract from the tables of Charles Fabry (Introduction to Photometry)

:!:::!::::::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::_::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;::::t:~;::!:=:::~:::~:~:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::.:.:~:~:::::::!:::!:::::::::::;:::
" 1
" 1
" 1 1
0,10 4,17 10-15 0 , 81 89,04 1,41 77,77 2,55 21,96
0,15 7,91 10-' 0,82 90,26 1,42 77,01 2,60 20,83
0,20 1,31 10-' 0,83 91,40 1,43 76,26 2,65 19,76
0,84 92,46 1,44 75,51 2,70 18,75
0,21 O,It8 10-' 0,85 93,45 1,45 74,76 2,75 17,79
0,22 0 , 437 10-'
0,23 0,931 10-' 0 , 86 94,35 1,46 74,01 2,80 16,88
0,24 1,85 10-' 0,87 95,19 1,47 73,21 2,85 16,05
0 , 25 3,45 10-' 0,88 95,95 1,48 72,52 2,90 15,28
0,89 96,63 1,49 71 , 78 2,95 14,53
0,26 6,10 10-' 0,90 97,24 1,50 3,00 13,83 10-1
71,04
0,27 0,102 10- 2
0,28 0,162 0,91 97,78 1,51 3,10 12,57 10-1
70,30
0,29 0,254 0,92 98,26 1,52 69,56 3,20 11,41
0,30 0,380 10-2 0,93 98,68 1,53 68,83 3,30 10 , 38
0,94 99,04 1,54 68,10 3,40 9,47
0 , 31 0,550 10-2 0,95 99 , 34 1,55 67,38 3,50 8,66
0,32 0,774
0,33 1,062 0,96 99,59 1,56 66,66 3,60 7,92
0,34 1,425 0,97 99,78 1,57 65,94 3,70 7,26
0,35 1,870 0,98 99,90 1,58 3,80 6,67 10-:1.
65,22
0,99 99,97 1,59 3,90 6,14 10-1
64,51
0,36 2,410 1,00 100,00 1,60 63,80 10-2 "4,00 5,65
0,37 3,051
0,38 3,801 I.OJ 99,98 1,61 63,10 10- 2 4,50 3,83
0,39 4,667 1,02 99,91 1,62 62,41 5,00 2,68
0,40 5,648 1,03 "99,79 1,63 61,73 6,00 1,421
1,04 99,63 1,64 61,05 7,00 0,820
0,41 6,76 1,05 99,44 1,65 60,38 8.00 O.50~ 10-'
0,42 8,00 9,00 0,327 10-1
0,43 9 , 36 1,06 99.20 1,66 59,72 10,00 0,223
0,44 10,84 1,01 98,92 1,67 59,06
0,45 12 , 45 10-2 1,08 98,60 1,68 58,40 15,00 4,78 10-·
1,09 98,26 1,69 57,75 20,00 1,58 10-·
0,46 14,18 10-~ 1,10 97,88 10-2 1,70 30,00 32,S 10-'
57,11
0,47 16 , 02 40,00 10,5 10-1
0,48 17,97 I, l l 97,47 ICr 2 1,71 56,47 50",00 4,36 10- 1
0,49 20,03 I, J2 97,04 1,72 55,84
0,50 22,17 1,13 96,59 1,73 55,21
1,14 96,12 1,14 54,59
0,51 24,39 1,15 95,63 1,75 53,98
0,52 26,70
0,53 29,06 1,16 95,11 1,76 53,37
0,54 31,48 1,17 94,56 1,77 52,76
0,55 33 , 95 J,'8 93,99 1,78 52,16
1,19 93,39 1,79 51,57
0,56 36,45 1,20 92,77 I,SQ 50,99
0,57 38,98
0,58
0,59
41,52
44,08
1,21
1,22
92,14 1,82 49,84 Spectral energy
91,50 1,84 48,70
0,60 46,63 10-2 1,23 90,85 1,86 47,60
10- 2
1,24 90,19 1,88 46,52 distribution
0,61 49,17 1,25 89,51 1,90 45,46
0,62 51,70
0,63 54 , 20 1,26 88,82
of a black body
1,92 44,43
0,64 56,67 1,27 88,12 1,94
59,08 43,42
0,65 1,28 87,41 1,96 42,43
1,29
0,66 61,45 1,30
86,70
85,98
1,98 41,47
X:-
~
2,00 40,S4
0,67
0,68
63,78
66,06 1,31 85,26 2,05
Am
68,25 38,27
0,69 1,32 84,53 2,10
70,42 36,14
0,70 1, 33 83,79 2,15
1,34 83,05
34,14 dR()" T)
2,20 32,~8
0,71 72,48 1, 35 82,30
0,72 74,48
2,25 30,53 d>'
76,42 1,36
Y:
0,73 81,55 2,30 28,87 dR(Am,T)
0,74 78,28 1,37 80,80 2,35 27,31
0,75 80,05 1,38 80,04 2,40
1,39 79,29
25,85 d).
2,45 24,47
0,76 81,74 1,40 78,53 2,50 23,18
0,77 83,36
0,78 84,91
0,79 86,36
0,80 87,74
x x x
0,10 5,5 • 10-1 B 1,32 44,83 5,0 96 , 61

0,20 0,04 • 10- 6 1,34 45,93 6,0 97,89
1,36 47,01 7,0 98,61
0,22 0,31 1,38 48,07 8,0 99,03
0,24 1,6 1,40 49,11 9,0 99,30
0,26 6,4 10,0 99,48
0,28 20,3 1,42 50,13
0,30 54,7 1,44 51,14 15,0 99,84
1,46 52,12 20,0 99,927
0,32 1,28 x 10-" 1,48 53,08 30,0 99,978
.
0,34 2,69 1,50 54,03 40,0 99,991
0,36 5,17 50,0 99,995
0,38 10,21 1,52 54,95 infini 100,000 10- 2
0,40 15,4 1,54 55,86
1,56 56,75
0,42 24,3 1,58 57,61
0,44 36,6 1,60 58,46
0,46 53,0
0,48 74,1 1,62 59,29
0,50 1,005 • 10- 2 1,64 60,10
1,66 60,90
0,52 1,33 1,68 61,68
0,54 1,71 1,70 62,43
0,56 2,16
0,58 2,67 1,72 63,17
0,60 3,25 1,74 63,90
1,76 64,61
Area under the
0,62 3,90 1,78 65,30
0,64 4,61 1,80 65,98 10- 2 energy distribution
0,66 5,39
0,68 6,22 1,82 66,65 • 10- 2 curve
0,70 7,12 1,84 67,29
1,86 67,92 of a black body
0,72 8,07 1,88 68,54
0,74 9,08 1,90 69,15
f"
0,76 10,14
0,78 11,23 1,92 69,75
0,80 12,37 1,94 70,33 YdX
1,96 70,89 0
0,82 13,55 1,98 71,43 Z=
ly
0,84 14,75 2,00 71,96 00
0,86 15,98
0,88 17,23 2,1 74,48 dX
0,90 18,50 2,2 76,72
2,3 78,73
0,92 19,78 2,4 80,53
0,94 21,08 2,5 82,14
0,96 22,39
0,98 23,69 2,6 83,58
1,00 25,00 10-2 2,7 84,88
2,8 86,05
1,02 26,32 • 10-2 2,9 87,11
1,04 27,63 3,0 88,07
1,06 28,94
1,08 30,25 3, I 88,93
1,10 31,55 3,2 89,72
3,3 90;44
1,12 32,83 3,4 91,10
1,14 34,09 3,5 91,70
1,16 35,34
1,18 36,58 3,6 92,24
1,20 37,81 3,7 92,74
3,8 93,20
1,22 39,02 3,9 93,62
1,24 40,22 4,0 94,01
1,26 41,40
1,28 42,56
1,30 43,71
so that
x- 5
Y = 142.3 exp.
496/ x- 1 (3.13)
The function y = f( x) is tabulated above (the numerical values are taken

from L'introduction a la photometrie by Charles Fabry).
The exitance of a black body between two wavelengths Aa and Ab, i.e.,
the energy exitance, is given by
In terms of the reduced coordinates

dR(>., T) dR(A m , T)
dA = y dA
dA = '\m dx
The above integral can then be written in the form
where
and
We saw above that Stefan's law leads to the following expression for
total exitance of a black body:
Rt = 1
o
00
dR(>., T) dA
d)"
= ur
or, in terms of the the reduced coordinates,
R - dR(A m , T),\ roo d

t - d'\ m io Y x
r
we now define
Z(x) = Xc:, Y dx
b
(3.14)
fo ydx
This normalised function represents the area under the plot of the spectral
exitance of a black body in terms of the reduced coordinates between Xa
and Xb • The values of the function Z(x) are also listed in Fabry's tables.
We can thus calculate the energy emitted per unit surface area of the
black body between, for example, )..a = 7.3 /lm and '\6 = 8.6 /lID at T =
1273K (i.e., 1000°C).
L-_ _ _ _~~-----_ X : -
~
x. x.. >.m
Fig.3.6 A plot of the function Z(x)
The total exitance of a black body is given by Stefan's law:
where
2898 2898
Am =T = 1273 = 2.27 pm
The reduced variables are
All 7.3
XII = Am = 2.27 = 3.2
Ab 8.6
Xb = Am = 2.27 = 3.8
The two relations
l ~b dR(A,
~.
dA
T) dA = dR(Am, T) A
dA
X.
Y
d
m
l Xb
X
[00 dR(A, T) dA = r = dR(Am,T) \ [00 d

10 dA U dA Am 10 Y z
give
(3.15)
so that
R = R~: = 5.67 x 10- 12 x (1,273)4 x 10 12 (0.932 - 0.897)

dR
dr
Fig. 3.7 Spectral distribution of black-body radiation
where Z(3.8) = 0.932, Z(3.2) = 0.897 and hence R = 0.524 W cm- 2 .

We note that a simple calculation shows that three quarters of the total
energy emitted by a black body at temperature T is situated in the spectral
band between Amax and infinity.
3.1.6 Thermal derivation of Planck's law
It is interesting to consider the spectral exitance of a black body as a

function of temperature. Differentiating Planck's equation with respect to
temperature T, we obtain
a(dR/dA) (he/k) exp(he/ AkT) dR

aT (AT2)[exp(he/AkT) - 1] dA
In thermography, and in thermal imaging generally, objects at T '" 300 K

appear in the spectral band centred on A = 10 J1.m, whereas those at T '"
750 K appear in the band centred on A = 4 J1.m.
In these two cases, AT", 3 000 J1.m K (Wien's approximation) and, since
he/k = 14388J1.mK, the exponential term exp(he/AkT) is dominant, so
that
a(dR/dA) he dR
--'--;::"a=T---'- ~ -Ak-T-2 -dA (3.16)
The thermal derivative of the exitance in a spectral band ~A = Ab - Aa

is given in the table for different values of Aa and Ab and the average tem-
perature T of the object (after Lloyd, Thermal Imaging Systems, Plenum
Press).
[c~r5 [c:f5
0,4 0,.
0,3 0,3
0,2 q2
0,1 0,1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Fig. 3.8 Thermal contrast 3-5 #Lm Fig. 3.9 Thermal contrast 8-14#Lm
3.1.7 Thermal Contrast

Consider an infrared image of an object at an apparent temperature To,
superimposed on a background at a temperature Tf . The thermal contrast
in a spectral band ./l,\ is defined by
(3.17)
The thermal contrast for ./l,\ = 3.5 - 5 I'm and 8-14 I'm is plotted in
Figs.3.8 and 3.9. It is clear that the contrast in the 3.5-5 I'm band is
greater than in the 8-14 I'm band.
m tcro ns
to 'a
(dR/d~)
bT
dA Wcm - 2 K - 1
= 280 K = 310 K
'" ~b T 0 T = 290 0 K T = 3000 K T 0
3 5 1,1 .10- 5 1,54.10 - 5 2,1 .10 - 5 2,8 1,10 - 5
3 5,5 2,01.10 - 5 2,73. 10 - 5 3,6210 - 5 4,72 .10 - 5

3,5 5 1,0610 - 5 1,47, 10 - 5 210 - 0 2,65' 10 - "
3,5 5,5 1,97.10 - 5 2,66·10 -' 3,52,10 - 5 4,57 .10 - 5
4 5 9,18·1O - b 1,26,10 - 5 1,69' 10 - " 2,23'10 - '
4 5,5 1,83, 10 - 5 2,45 ' 10 -" 3,22·10 -' 4,14 ·10 - "
8 10 8,47 ·1 0-" 9,65 ,10-" 1,09,10 - 4 1,21,10 - 4
8 12 1,58. 10 - 4 1,77. 10 - 4 1,97.10 - 4 2,17,10 - 4
8 14 2,1510 - 4 2,38.10 - 4 2,62,10 - 4 2,86. 10 - 4
10 12 7,34.10 - 5 8,08·10- ' 8,8 110 - " 9,55.10 - 5
10 14 1,3 .10 - 4 1,42.10 - 4 1.53 .10 - 4 1,65, 10 - 4
12 14 5,67,10 - 5 6,1 ·10 - ' 6,5210 - ' 6,92·10 -'
S(.\) , ,.-_ _.,.p-_ _ _ _ _ _ _-. Black body
,'"\/\
~----,
\
I-_~i,-'- - -...-t-I~/--~I:__--__1 Grey body
Spectral
,"
I I I ,
I I I ,
emissivity , I I '
" \,-,,'"\\
/ '. Selective body
, '-
oV~------------------- Mirror
Wavelength
Fig. 3.11 Spectral emissivity
3.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RADIATOR

Normal objects are not generally black bodies and the above laws do not
apply to them unless certain corrections are made.
Non-black bodies absorb only a fraction A of incident radiation; they
reflect a fraction 'R and transmit a fraction T. These different factors are
selective, i.e., they depend on the wavelength.
Consider an object of this kind, exposed to a given amount of incident
radiation . When the system is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the
energy released into the ambient medium as radiation plus energy reflected
and transmitted, must equal the energy introduced into the system by
absorption.
It is thus necessary to introduce the spectral emissivity £(>') whose role
is to balance the absorptance A(>.), where
A(>.) = c(>.) (3.18)
Incident
energy
Fig. 3.10 Radiant energy balance
£(>') + 'R(>') + r(>.) = 1 (3.19)

Some special case are listed below:
opaque body: T(>.) = Oandc(>.) + 'R(>') = 1
shiny body: 'R (>.) large and c(>.) almost zero
blackbody: c(>.) = 1 and'R (>.) = 0 T (>.) =0
grey: body £( >.) = constant and 'R( >.) = constant
The spectral exitance of any body can thus be expressed in terms of

Planck's law:
dR (A, T) = (A) dRbb (A, T)

dA C dA
The power radiated through the surface S of a body at a temperature

T in a given spectral band ~A is given by (in W)
3.3 PROBLEMS WITH THE EMISSIVITY OF A MATERIAL
The power (or optical flux), which can only be measured by an infrared
detector, is an a priori unknown function of the emissivity and temperature
of the radiating elements. We note once again that the emissivity depends
on the direction of observation relative to the radiating surface and on the
temperature of the surface.
In most cases, the emissivity of a material is given at normal incidence,
integrated over all wavelengths:
Ct-
_ Joooc(A)~dA _
(oodR(A,T) -
1
uT4
1 00
c(A)
dR(A,T)
dA dA
Jo dA dA 0
The emissivity of metals is generally low, and increases with tempera-

ture. This increase continues until the surface of the warm metal becomes
oxidised.
Other materials have high emissivity values, often above 0.8. They de-
crease with temperature. In all cases, the emissivity depends on the state of
the surface material. We will return to the concept of emissivity in Section
3.7.
3.4 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

Consider a body in thermal equilibrium with the surrounding medium, and
suppose that it receives solar radiation whose spectral exitance dR/d>. cor-
responds to that of a black body at Ts = 6000 K. If the absorptance for the
solar spectral distribution is As, its temperature will increase progressively,
and faster if As is large.
JS>.
SOLill" J-o""
.,.,
l"ilel; .'"
Jilt·
101)
Fig. 3.12 Thermodynamic equilibrium
The body will thus reach temperature Tc slightly higher than the ambi-
ent temperature, and will transfer energy to the surrounding medium in the
form of radiation whose spectral distribution will be substantially shifted
towards long wavelengths as compared with the solar spectrum derived
from Wien's law.
The radiant emissivity €c is an important factor in this case, and it is
possible to vary the ratio As/€c . A high value corresponds to a good solar
absorber (for solar heating); on the other hand, a low value will maintain
stable temperature (e.g., in the fuselage of an aircraft).
For example, in the case of solar heating, As is chosen to be high, and re-
emission takes place in the middle infrared, so that to allow €c to approach
zero, this radiation is cut off by glass which is opaque to long wavelengths.
3.5 PROBLEMS WITH THE REFLECTANCE OF A

MATERIAL
The reflectance of a material is the source of a second difficulty in the
measurement of infrared radiation.
The radiation measured by observation of a body at temperature To
is due to the superposition of three phenomena. The body reflects the
fraction 'R. o (>') of the energy that is radiated by the surrounding medium
and comparable to that of a black body at temperature To. If the body is
partially transparent, it transmits a fraction Tf (>.) of the radiation emitted
by the surrounding medium and behaves like a black body at temperature
Tf. Finally, the body is a source of its own radiation. We note once again
that the absorptance A(>') tends to increase the body temperature To.
Since emission by the body itself is conditioned by its temperature, it is
interesting to examine this emission by differentiating of Planck's equation:
a [dR(>.,T)/d>'] _ heexphe/>.kT dR(>.,T)
aT - >'kT2 exp he/ >'kT d>'
Fig. 3.13 Effect of a medium on the emission of radiation
The aim of measurement is often to determine the temperature To of

the object from the infrared radiation detected in a spectral band ~A, i.e.,
the radiant exitance
r
JA >.
T.(A)dR(A,T/)dA
/ dA
r
+ JA ). co
(A)dR()..,To)dA
dA
The first two terms of this relation and, consequently, co(,\) must be known.
The problem becomes simpler when the body is opaque, i.e., T(,\) = 0,
and To is very much greater than Ta. The first term is then negligible and
it is sufficient to know the emissivity, co( A) of the object.
On the other hand, other difficulties may be encountered in the case of
a body that is itself surrounded by other bodies at different temperatures,
sometimes higher than that of the object under examination.
The self-emission term is then a function of the body temperature To and
its emissivity co, and is affected by an error term due to the reflection by
the body of radiation emitted by surrounding objects whose temperature
and emissivity are Te and Ce, respectively.
If Re is the reflectance of the object, measured for the spectral radiation
perturber, the error term is proportional to Te, c, and Re. It becomes very
important when Te is much higher than To (e.g. in the case of aflame) and
if Re is not zero.
The question then is: how can one extract the real parameters co and To
of an object being studied by remote measurement of this type? Clearly,
the solution is to develop a measurement procedure in which the number
of equations is at least equal to the number of unknowns.
Let us suppose that we can set up an infrared imaging system in two
distinct wavelength bands ~Al' ~A2. The system consists of two distinct
thermal cameras, or of a single camera functioning sequentially with spec-
tral filters defining pass bands ~Al and ~A2' Moreover, the imaging sys-
tem has the advantage of being able to resolve the observed object (signal)
Surroundings:
temperature Te, emissivity ee Object
R'1 being examined:
temperature To
reflectance n.
emissivity co
imager I R 1 , R2 - images of object
R~, R~
and stray radiation
- images of
surroundings
in the mirror
Fig. 3.14 Characterisation of an object in a perturbed environment
from the background (noise). The apparatus is illustrated schematically in

Fig. 3.14.
The infrared image of the object is generated by the exitances of two
sources, namely, self-emission and background reflection, in the spectral
band of the detector under consideration:
(3.20)
R
2
=gl
a>'2
'D
'''e
(A)
ce
(A)dR()..,Te)d)..
d)" + 1
a>'2
co
()..)dR()..,To)d)"
d)"
where g is a geometrical parameter that depends on the distance between

the two objects and on their surfaces.
The infrared image of the neighboring body viewed in a mirror is gen-
erated by the exitance:
(3.21)
This set of equations allows the determination of ce(.A) and Te directly from
measured R~ and R~ in the image.
If the spectral bands ~Al and ~A2 are chosen to be sufficiently close,
the object can be classed as grey. This simplifying assumption is often
justified for most solid bodies whose emissivity is a slowly-varying function
of A, but is really not applicable to gas mixtures, or complex chemical
mixtures, having a widely varying absorption spectrum.
co = co (A) = 1- 'Re (A)

Equations (3.20) become
R 1 = (1 - co ) ce g 1 ~'\l
dR( A, Te) dA
dA + co 1
~'\l
dR( A, To) dA
dA
R 2 = (1- co )Ce g 1
~,\~
dR(A,Te)dA
dA + co 1
~,\~
dRP,To)dA
dA
which can be rewritten in the form
R2 = gCe [ dR(A, Te) dA + co [ [ dR(\ To) dA _ gCe [ dR(A, Te) dA]

J~'\~ dA J~'\~ dA J~'\~ dA
These equations contain the R~ and R2 terms that have been measured; it
thus remains to solve the system
(3.22)
R 2 -gR'2 =c 0 [1
~,\~
dR(A,To)dA_gR']
dA 2
where R 1 , R~, R2 and R~ are measured, Ce and Te are already calculated

and g defines the geometry of the system. It is thus possible to determine
the required values of co and To.
All this shows that the optical signal radiated by the object under ex-
amination can have a structure that is quite complex. Tilis must be borne
in mind when tackling the problem of measurement. The role of the at-
mosphere in the propagation of this energy to the sensor must also be
remembered.
3.6 EXAMPLE OF AN APPLICATION
We shall now consider an example analogous to the previous illustration.

Let us suppose that we have a thermal camera that is sensitive in the 3-
5 J.Lm band and is equipped with two interchangeable pass band filters such
that
LlAl = 0.2 J.Lm with
LlA2 = 0.2 J.Lm with
I--- ..!.-'~- Spectral response
Object
being
examined
T'
Infrared imager
T
Fig. 3.15 Measurement in two spectral bands
We wish to determine the temperature To and the emissivity cO of an

object in the field of view of the camera, which also contains another object
at a uniform temperature T e , higher than To, whose emissivity Ce is higher
than co. The two objects are a distance d apart. The magnitudes of Te
and Ce are unknown.
The objects are considered to be grey in the envisaged spectral inter-
val, and relatively weak, so that co and Ce can again be considered to be
constant.
The thermal camera provides us with the apparent temperatures of the
different objects, i.e., the temperatures that ideal black bodies would have
if placed in the field of view and giving rise to the same response in the
same spectral bands.
The measured values are:

EFFECTIVE EFFECTIVE
TEMPERATURE OF TEMPERATURE OF
MEASURED OBJECT BACKGROUND OBJECT
~l TI =745.7 K T'l = 1059 K
~2 T2 =723.2 K T'2 = 1058 K
It is convenient to calculate the exitance from these apparent tempera-
tures, i.e., the exitance that a black body at temperatures T 1 , T 2 , T{ and T2
would have. Thus for a black body at temperature Tf = 1059 K, Wien 's
law indicates that the spectrum has a maximum at Am = 2898/1059 =
2.74 J.lm.
dR( >., r;)
d).
).m: 2,74 J.lm 3,5 3,7 J.lm

Fig. 3.1 6 Exitance in a band LlAl
Physically, the exitance R~ corresponding to the temperature T{, con-

sidered in the spectral band ~A1' is measured by the area under Planck's
curve between the wavelengths Ala = 3.5 J.lm and Alb = 3.7 J.lm. This area
is equal to the product of the spectral exitance for the central wavelength
in ~Al ' i.e., 3.6 J.lm and the width of the band, ~).1 = 0.2 J.lm:
R'
1
= l
AI.
Alb
dR (A, Tn dA '" dR (AI
dA '"
= 3.6 J.lm T~ = 10.59°K) ~A
dA 1
and
R' _ 211' hc 2 A15 ~A
1 - exp hC/A1 kT{ _ 1 1
in which h = 6.63x 10- 34 Ws 2 , k = 1.38 x 10- 23 J K, C = 3x 108 ms- 1 , Al =

= =
3.6 X 10- 6 m, T{ 1059 K, ~A1 0.2 X 10- 6 m and
,_ 1.240 X 105 _ X 3 -2
Rl - exp4004/Tf-l - 2.89 10 Wm
R~ = 0.289 W cm- 2 (3.23)

A similar calculation for the other temperatures would give
'. -
EMITfANCE OF EMIITANCEOF
MEASURED OBJECfS. BACKGROUND OBJECfS.
Wcm-2 Wcm-2
LlAI Rl=0.05802 R'I = 0.289
LlA2 R2 = 0.05057 R'2 =0.251
ThIS calculatIOn can be made wIth the help of Fabry's table III terms of
the reduced coordinates, but the precision of the result is degraded when
the small spectral band widths employed are taken into account. In spite of
this, we can carry out the calculation to illustrate the process of evaluation
of, for example, R~.
We have seen that for T{ = 1059 K and Am = 2.737 J.Lm, the reduced
coordinates are
Ala = 3.5 J.Lm Xl a = Ala/Am = 1.279 Zla = 42.50 X 10- 2

Alb = 3.7 J.Lm Xlb = Alb/Am = 1.352 Zlb = 46.58 X 10- 2
The values of Zla and Zlb are extrapolated from the Fabry tables. The
exitance in the band ~Al is
R~ = aT4 (Zlb - Zla) = 5.87 X 10- 12 X (1059)4 X 4.078 X 10- 2
and
R~ = 0.291 W cm- 2 (3.24)
This value is quite close to that found by the direct method. We can
now calculate the parameters relative to a neighbouring object, considered
parasitic.
3.6.1 Calculation of Te and €e
The estimates of T{ and T~, i.e., of R~ and R~, are derived from the fol-
lowing set of equations:
(3.25)
(_.A).10·
1.00 . . .---"""'T"--.. . . .-,..----...,.
0.50 1------~~---+_4------_f
OPO~---~---~~~---~
.0.50 t------+-----+-I4-----i
.1.00 1-------+-----;...._4-~Ir_-_f
.1.50 1------+------L-_4------\-_f
. 6.J.1.,.I,.I,...u..u..~u..J,....L.I..u...i~....a..&..u..I-U...u..4
• Z 00
too 1000 1100 1200
Temperature, K
Fig. 3.17 The function B - A
The parameter €e is considered to be a constant in the given spectral in-

terval. It can be taken outside the integrals and eliminated by taking the
ratio of the two equations, thus:
R~ =
R~
{rJ dR(>., Te) d>.} /
t.>"2d>' . Jt.>"2 d>'
{r
dR(>., Te) d>.} = 0.289 = 1.151
0.251
This takes the form
1.151 { dR(>.,Te)d>'_ { dR(>.,Te)d>.=O
~>"2 d>' ~>"l d>'
which can be solved by a graphical method.
T 900K 1000 K 1100 K 1200K
A 0.1467 0.2304 0.3343 0.4571
B 0.1567 0.2360 0.3311 0.440
B·A 0.01 0.0056 -0.0032 -0.0167

To that end, we continue by calculating, with the help of Planck's for-
mula, the values of the terms A, Band B - A for T 900,1 OOOK, 1100K =
and 1 200 K, where A and B are the two terms on the left of the last
equation. The plot of B - A as a function of temperature gives zero for
Te = 1070K (3.26)
which is the solution of the last equation.
The emittance €e is then calculated from, for example, the first set of
equations in (3.26):
€e
= RI/l
1
dR()..l = 3.6 JJm;Te
d)"
= 1070 oJ{) d)"
to,),!
0.289 X 10 4
(3.27)
- 1.24 x 105f[exp(4.004 x 103 /1070) -1]
€e = 0.96 (3.28)
We can now calculate the parameters of the object under investigation.
3.6.2 Calculation of €o and To

The object with emissivity €e =
0.96 and Te =
1070 K is a source of
infrared radiation with exitance measured in the spectral band ~)..:
If the radiation from this object does not depend on the direction of obser-
vation (Lambertian radiator), the radiance is
L e_- Re
7r
and the intensity radiated by this source in the direction of the object under
investigation is
Re
1= LeS=-S
7r
where S is the surface area of the neighbouring object, viewed from the
object under measurement, for example, S = 7rr 2 , if the object is spherical
radius r.
This intensity produces on the object under measurement an irradiance
given by
If the object under measurement is an orthotropic radiator, i.e., its dif-

fuse radiance is uniform in all directions, its exitance consists of two terms,
namely,
the first of which represents emission proper and the second represents
reflection. To simplify the problem, we suppose that g = 1, S = 0.785m2
and d = 0.5m. We then have
(3.29)
and
Rl - R~ = £0 [fJ1::.>'1 dR()..,d>" To) d>" - R~]
(3 .30)
R2 - R~ =£0 [fJ1::.>'2 dR()..,d>" To) d>" - R~]

The ratio of these two equations eliminates £0
Rl - R~ f1::.>'1 [dR(>.., To)/d>..]d>.. - R~

R2 - R~ - f1::.>'2 [dR(>..,To)/d>..]d>.. - R~
in which
f1::.>' [dR (>.., To)/d>..]d>.. - 0.289
1.152 = ~..:..t.1-:-:-."....,.,:--:-:-:-:-:-::-:-:-_.,....-:-_
f1::.>'2 [dR(>.., To)/d>"]d>" - 0.251
so that finally,
0=[1 dR (>.., To) d>" - 0.2890] - [1.1521 dR (>.., To) d>" - 0.2892]
1::.>'1 d>" 1::.>'2 d>" .
(3.31)
where the two terms on the right will be represented by C and D, respec-
tively.
We could have equally well solved these equations graphically by calcu-
lating the values of C, D and C - D for T = 200,300,400 and 500 K. The
result is
To = 350K (3.32)
The emissivity £0 is calculated from the first equation in (3.30):
<0 = (R- R;) / If. [dR(3.6pm,350 K)/dAj dA - R;}
5.802 x 10 2 - 0.289 X 10 4
[1.240 X 10 5 / exp( 4.004 x 103 /350) - 1]- 0.289 X 10 4
T 200K 300K 400K 500K
C -0.2890 -0.2890 -0.2884 -0.2849
D -0.2892 -0.2891 -0.2882 -0.2829
C-D 2.00xl04 l.00xl04 -2.00xl04 -20.00xIO-4
(C_O).104
--------
2
o
~3500K
~
i '\
.1
.2
r
.3
200 300
i f\
400 500
Fig. 3.18 Plot of C - D Temperature, K
eo 'V 0.8 (3.33)

The results are summarised below:
To = 350K ~ 800(; eo = 0.80

Te = 1 070K ~ 8000C ee =0.96
These values may be compared with the raw thermographic data which,
given an estimated apparent temperature of the object under measurement
of the order of 740 K, yield roughly 4600C instead of the 80°C effective
temperature.
This precise and definite example, illustrates the importance of the errors
that can be introduced in the absence of any correcting factors.
3.7 EMISSIVITY OF MATERIALS
3.7.1 Spectral emissivity

The spectral emissivity e(A) of a surface is defined as the ratio of the spec-
tral exitance dR(A, T)/dA and the exitance of a black body dR~n(>', T)/d>.
at the same temperature:
This is a function of wavelength, the direction of observation relative to

the surface and the temperature of the surface.
In general, the spectral emissivity varies slowly with wavelength in the
case of solid objects, but fluctuates rapidly in the case of gases and liquids.
Moreover, the emissivity of a surface in the visible range often bares
no relation to its infrared emissivity. For example, snow has very low
visible emissivity, but is an excellent black body in the infrared. This
property allows a fairly slow return to the liquid state, even under exposure
to sunlight. In fact, most of the visible solar radiation is diffused and
reflected; the higher infrared emissivity allows the re-emission of absorbed
infrared energy.
In general, metals have a relatively high emissivity that increases rapidly
with temperature until an oxide is formed on the surface of the warm
metal. Other materials have high emissivities that tend to decrease with
temperature. In all cases, the emissivity depends on the surface of the
material.
For a given material, the emissivity is often evaluated at normal inci-
dence and integrated over all wavelengths:
_ fo""€('x) dR~~,T)d'x __
€ - 00 ~ -
1_1
T4
00
€ (,X)
dR(A,T)
d,X d,X
fo d>.' d,X U 0
This is then referred to as the total emissivity which is the ratio of the
energy radiated by the material at a temperature T and the energy radiated
by a black body at the same temperature.
3.7.2 Emissivity of dielectrics - the effect of temperature

It is shown in Section 5.2 that the reflectance of a material at a given
wavelength ,X at normal incidence can be expressed in terms of the refractive
index n>. and the extinction index J( >. of the material, as follows:
The emissivity is thus given by

It can also be shown (Section 5.1) that J( = 0 in the case of dielectrics

(insulators), so that
c>. = (n>.4n>.
+ 1) 2
The spectral distribution of the emissivity of dielectrics is characteristic

of each material but, generally c>. increases with wavelength. For example,
the human skin whose emissivity is low in the visible range (especially for
light-skinned people) has high emissivity (0.98-0.99) in the infrared.
1/
0.8
0.6 I
\ ~ ,
~
0.4
0,2
o
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Wavelength, /lm
Fig. 3.19 Spectral emissivity e(A) of human skin
The total emissivity c(T) depends on the temperature. For dielectrics,

c(T) decreases with increasing temperature because the refractive index n
of the material increases with temperature.
EIA)
~-_L __ .....--
~
/
.,
r-- """',-
_"
0,8
::;,,:-;;:' - ~ .... ------ - ----
1 I ."
' ,,' / i
_/
0,6 7 .... 1
r--
I
I
0,4 ~-
',!-
0,2
I Wavelength, /lm
o
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Fig. 3.20 Spectral emissivity of dielectrics: 1- Emissivity of the earth (sand

plus clay plus slate), 2-Emissivity of plastic materials, 3-Emissivity of magnesia,
4-Water (normal incidence)
It is worth noting that a rise in temperature modifies the spectral dis-

tribution of emitted radiation (displacing the maximum towards shorter
wavelengths) and that it gives rise to a variation in the total emissivity.
0,6 1---1--t-----1I'.--"~
o Temperature, K
400 600 1000 2000 4000
Fig. 3.21 Total emissivity of dielectrics: I-rubber, 2-ceramic, 3-cork, 4-paper,

5-refractory clay
This phenomenon is more pronounced when the spectral emissivity of the

material is strongly varying.
3.7.3 Emissivity of metals - the effect of temperature

Metals generally have infrared emissivity that tends to increase with the
temperature of the metal.
0,75
.
\2
050 3\
0,25
"""""' .....
~....
,~-
----
o L~5~::='~-======~~~~-~-~-~-~~-;-~-~~;;-~-~-~
-- -- - -
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 20
Fig. 3.22 Spectral emissivity of metals and graphite: I-graphite, 2-copper, 3-

iron, 4-aluminium, 5-silver
It can be shown in that the reflectance of a metal is given by
where w = 27rc/ A is the pulsatance of the optical wave, r is the electrical

conductivity of the metal, J-t is the magnetic permeability of the material
and C is the speed of light. Moreover, the emissivity of a metal is given by
and increases as its electrical conductivity r decreases. An increase in the

temperature corresponds to a reduction in electrical conductivity due to
the thermal motion of the molecular lattice, which produces an increase in
the emissivity.
The spectral emissivity c>.(T) and the total emissivity c(T) are given by
c>. (T) = 0.365)p [1 + a (T - 293)] *- 0.0667 p [1 + a (T - 293)] /,\
+0.006J[p(1 + a [T - 293]) /,\]3
c (T) = 0.5737 J p [1 + a (T - 293)] T - 0.1769p [1 + a (T - 293)] T
MATERIAL TEMPERATURE, TOTAL NORMAL

°c EMISSIVITY
Polished aluminium 0 0.03

Polished aluminium 100 0.05
Anodised aluminium 100 0.55
Polished gold 100 0.02
Polished iron 40 0.21
Oxidised iron 100 0.64
Polished steel 100 0.07
Oxidised steel (800oC) 100 0.79
Lampblack 20 0.95
White paper 20 0.93
Wood 20 0.90
Polished glass 20 0.94
Human skin 32 0.98
Water 1 0.92
Snow 0 0.80
These relations are, however, subject to certain limitations. For exam-

ple, for tungsten, it is necessary to have ,\ > 2 pm, for gold and silver
,\ > 1.5 pm and for nickel and iron ,\ < 5 pm.
The state of the surface and the oxidation of the metal can change the
emissivity quite considerably.
3.7.4 The effect of the angle of incidence on emissivity

The emissivity of a material depends, on the one hand, on the angle of
observation and, on the other, on the polarisation of the radiation being
considered. This leads to Fresnel relations for the reflectance of the sepa-
ration boundary between two media.
0.4.---------------------,
o~~~~~~~~_=~~~~~~-~~
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300' Temperature, K
Total emissivity £ (metals)
Fig. 3.23 Total emissivity of metals
Water is an almost perfect black body at a wavelength of 10 J-lm at

normal incidence, and becomes a mirror (6' = 0) at low incidence.
The variation of the emissivity of a surface with the angle of observa-
tion means that surfaces that are not flat have a locally varying apparent
emissivity, even in the case of a given material (constant emissivity) .
____ Black oxide

Emissivity £
0,8 Highly"~
'd'
~ oXJ !Sed copper
0,6
Lightly oxidised copper
0,4
0 ,2
Polished copper
Temperetature , J{
o
300 400 500 600 700 800
Fig. 3.24 Effect of the state of the surface on emissivity
The geometry of the radiating surface is characterised by its angular

emissivity (emissivity pattern).
A distinction must therefore be made between directional emissivity,
emissivity within a solid angle and half-space emissivity. These factors are
defined in the table reproduced on p.44.
Emissivity £
Grey body
Angle of observation, deg

Fig. 3.25 Directional emissivity
For objects that follow Lambert's law (radiance independent of the angle
of observation):
E (<p)
o 10
0,75
0,50 -
0,25
80
o ~;;;';;;;":::::::::!-_...L._...J 90
Fig. 3.26 Polar diagram of the emissivity of water (A = 10 JLm)
Most objects are practically Lambertian for angles not exceeding 55 0 •
3.7.5 Measurement of emissivity
There are many ways of finding the emissivity, whether by direct mea-
surement of the radiation of a body in comparison with a black body at
the same temperature or by indirect measurement of the reflectance of the
body.
In all cases there are parasitic reflections whose effects are dealt with in
Sections 3.5-3.8.
3.7.6 The effect of emissivity in thermography

Thermography makes use of of thermal infrared cameras to measure either
the temperature of an object or its emissivity. We have seen that the
emission of an object with emissivity €>. at temperature T is given by
dR()", T) d~n ()..,T)

d)" = €>. d)"
The factor €()..) can vary in the range 0-1, depending on the object, and
has an extremely strong effect on the radiation from the object. Thermo-
graphic measurements are concerned precisely with the detection of this
radiation. It is clear that almost-black bodies will give an excellent result
because the measured radiation then arises practically in total from self-
emission. Planck's law thus allows the corresponding temperature to be
calculated.
The results are much worse when the emissivity of the substance is low.
Two effects combine to degrade such measurements. First, at equal tem-
peratures, the energy radiated by a low-emissivity object is less than that
from a black body. This phenomenon is not too disturbing in itself because
knowledge of the emissivity, combined with good detection sensitivity, al-
lows the temperature of the object to be calculated.
Second, and far more damaging to the measurement, is the reflectance of
the material which is high when the emissivity is low, adding to the parasitic
radiation from ambient space. It is therefore very difficult to distinguish
between radiation due to self-emission and that due to reflection .
It is, however, still possible to obtain valid results when the temperature
of the object is very much higher than that of the ambient medium. The
parasitic energy is then low, even for an object of average reflectance.
Finally, it is worth noting that neither measurement is possible for
highly-reflecting materials whose self-emission is practically nil.
To recapitulate, whenever possible, measurements should be made on
'black' surfaces or surfaces that have been artificially blackened by paint
or treatments producing high emissivity. However, when this is not possi-
ble, measures have to. be taken to create more favourable conditions under
which the objects may be considered to be 'grey', e.g., multi-spectral mea-
surements can be combined with relatively complex signal processing.
In the least favourable cases, one has to abandon any hope of measure-
ment, since all available processing methods require a signal!
3.7.7 Emissivity of a rough surface

We have seen that the emissivity of a surface is a function of the direction
of observation. Only black and grey bodies emit radiation in accordance
with Lambert's law, i.e., the emissivity is independent of the direction of
observation.
I
Emissivity Spectral Within wavelength interval tJ.A Total
a>
f dR( "!..U.. . d ll d R(II, Tl dA
In direction of dRlA, r ) /::'A dA
f dA •
0
- d- '- .£ =
fA , T) a> dR (A, Tl
(: /::' A , lP = dR
incidence <p (: A,lP = d Rc n(A,Tl cn lP
• dA f cn
f
/::,,, dA dA • d A
dA 0
a>
f dR (A , Tl cos lP dSl f f dR~\:T) co s lP dSl dA dR (d;' T ) cos lP dSl dA
Sl dA
f f
Sl /::'A n 0
In solid angle n £ A,Sl = d R (II, Tl (: /::,II,Sl = dR ( lI ,n
(: Sl = a> d R (A, Tl
f en en
dll cos lP dSl f f c ndA c os lP dSl dll Jf co s lP dSl dll
dll
Sl n /::'A Sl 0
dR ( A . T )
f dn f f dR~;' T ) cos lP dSl dA f fa> dR~lIiT ) cos lP dSl dll
- -d-II - cos lP
211 211 /::,11 211 0
In hemisphere £ =
cII , h = dR ( ), . Tl c/::'II, h = dR D, Tl h a> dR (II, Tl
en en en
.- CD S lP dn f f cos lP dSl dA f f cos lP dSl dA
J Llil dA dA
211 2TT /::'A 2TT 0
-~--. --- -
In practice, metals obey Lambert's law for incidence angles between 0

and 40°, and dielectrics between 0 and 50°. At greater angles, the emis-
sivity of the substances falls rapidly. In the case of metals, this fall is
preceded by a slight increase. The reduction in emissivity at large angles
of incidence results in a rise in reflectance according to Fresnel's laws for
electromagnetic waves incident on a refracting surface.
Measurement of infrared radiance and, hence of the temperature of ob-
jects that obey Lambert's law, yield the same value for all directions of
observation on the surface of the object. However,' when the material is
not governed by this law, its emissivity decreases with the angle of incidence
for surfaces inclined at a large angle (more than 60°) and gives the apparent
temperature that is lower than the true temperature. More importantly,
reflections can then introduce parasitic radiation and, sometimes, produce
an apparent temperature that is higher than that at normal incidence.
Example: The emissivity of a dielectric sphere (n = 1.5) at uniform
temperature on a cold background is shown in Fig. 3.27.
~- --- - --r-----=-..:::- --I

I
E
----~------1f---~-==
Fig. 3.27 Emissivity of a dielectric sphere
3.7.8 The emissivity of dihedrons and trihedrons

Multiple reflections occur whenever two surfaces intersect. Each surface
with well-defined intrinsic emissivity has an apparent emissivity that is a
function of both its inclination and of ~eflections originating from the other
surface. For example, a dihedron consisting of two identical surfaces at the
same temperature can give rise to contrast in a thermal image, which is
due to the different orientations of the planes and, hence, different apparent
emissivity of their surfaces.
Fig. 3.28 Emissivity of dihedrons and trihedrons
A set of thre~ planes (the trihedron) produces an analogous effect, but

with lower contrast because multiple reflections between the different sur-
faces tend to create the 'light trap' effect, i.e., an almost black body. The
trihedron can therefore have an apparent emissivity that is higher than the
emissivity of its faces. The emitted radiation approaches that of a black
body.
3.8 EMISSION FROM THE INTERIOR OF A MEDIUM
Let us divide a medium into successive slices of thickness dx along the di-
rection of the x axis (Fig. 3.29) . When this medium intercepts radiation,
the intensity absorbed in a slice dx is, clearly, proportional to the inci-
dent intensity 1, to the thickness dx of the material traversed and to the
absorption coefficient 0' of the medium, i.e. ,
dI = -0'1 dx
where the negative sign indicates that this involves the absorption of radi-
ation.
MeLt.! Temperan=. ·C £ Material Temperature. ·C £

Steel eo •......, 21J 0.92
·8%Ni-18% Cr 500 0.3S Wood
·soft 16()().1800 0.28 ~.tW'&l 005.0.7
·galvaniscd :w 0.28 -boon! 21J 0.8.0.9
·oxidised 21lO~ 0.80 Red brick 21J 0.93
-rusty 20 0.69 Rubber
-polished 100 0111 ·hon! :w 0.95
-.tainless 20-700 0.16-0.-1.5 "Soli :w 0.86
Aluminium Carbo.
~li'hed So-500 0.04-0.06 -fibre 1000·1-400 0053
~oatIe .urface 20-SO· 0.06.0.07 -graphite 20 0.98
-alumina 50-100 0.2.0.3 -Iompbladt 2Q.4OO 0.95.0.97
·.nodiscd 100 Oo5S Charcoal 0.96
Silvec Lime 0.3.0.4
-polisbed 21lO~ 0112.0.03 Cemen' 0.54
Bronze Leather 0 .75.0.80
-polished SO 0.10 W ....
·coarse 50-150 Oo5S -distilled 21J 0.96
-powder 0.80 ~moolh ice -10 0.95
Cllromiwn -frosted -10 0.98
-polished SO 0.10 ..now -10 0.85
500-1000 0.28.0.38 Ebonite 0.89
Copper Enamel 0.9
·poli.hed 100 0.03 Tar 0.79.0.84
·oxidiscd SO 0.70
·.t
Tin
melting pL 1100-1300 O.I3.0. IS
Lubricating oil
Hwull1 skin
20
32
0.82
0.98
Paper
-polished 20-SO 0.04-0.06 ·white 20 0.7.0.9
-dioxide 0 .40 .yellow 0.72
Iro. ·rod 0.76
·coarse unoxidised 20 0.24 -doop blue 0.84
eelcctropolished 21lO 0.06 .g=n 0.85
-rusty 20 0.6I.o.~5 ·black 0.9
·oxidised 100 0.74 -man 0.93
-galvanised. 30 O.2S Oil paint
-poli.hed 400-1000 0.14-0.38 -different colours 100 0.92.0.96
Castlron -(man bladt. 3M. 0.98
-aude SO 0.81 velvet coat)
-liquid 1300 0.28 Plu... :w 0 .91
-polished 21lO 0.21 Porcelain 20 0.92
Btu. 0 .7.0.75
·polished 100 0.03 Quartz (/wed) 20 0.93
·oxidisod 21lO.wo 0.60 Sand 20 0.6.0.9
Magnesium Clinker (furnace) 0-100 0.97.0.93
.polished 20 0.Q7 200-500 0.89-0.78
-powder 0.86 600-1200 0 .76.0.7
Men:wy 0-100 0.09.0.12 1400-1800 0.69-0.67
Nickel SHicapowder 0 .48
-polished 20 OilS Soil
-oxidisod 21lO~ 0.37.0.48 -dry 20 0.9
Gold owet 20 0.95
-polished 100 0.02 Takum powder 0.24
Platinum F"U"Od clay 70 0.91
-polished 21lO~ 0115.0.10 Olaa. (POlished) 21J 0 .94
1000-1500 0.14-0.18 2().100 0.94.0.91
Lead 250-1000 0.87.0.72
-grey oxidi,cd 20 0.28 1100-1500 0.7.0.67
-sbiny 250 0118 Black cloth 20 0.98
Tunpta> 21lO OilS Maa-iwn powder 0.2.0.3
6()().1000 0.10-0.16 Oreymamle 20 0.93
1500-2200 0.24-0.31 (POlished)
3300 0.39 Blackbody 0.99
(commercial)
Zinc 21lO-300 01J4-O.0S
-polished 400 0.11
-oxidilod 1000-12110 005.0.6
-powd« 0.82
.. beet SO 0.20
Hence
dl
- = -adx
1
and, on integrating,
log 1 = -a x + constant
or
1 = Kexp(-ax)
The constant of integration K is obtained by putting 1 10 (incident
intensity) when x = 0:
1 = 10 exp (-ax)
dX
Fig. 3.29 Absorption in a medium
The transmission factor of a slice of thickness x is given by
1
T = 10 = exp(-ax)
If we suppose that there is no reflection at the interfaces between suc-
cessive slices, the corresponding emissivity of a slice of thickness x becomes
e =1- =1- T exp( -ax)
Hence the basic emissivity of a slice dx is
de = aexp(-ax)dx
and
dR= deRx
where R,c is the exitance of the black body at the local temperature Tz; of
the slice dx.
A thick object (large x) thus has a total exitance
R= 1 m
Rz;a exp (-ax )dx (3.34)
Fig. 3.30 Emission by a medium at uniform temperature

Rx
R = Ro" -a
"
Fig. 3.31 Emission by a medium with a temperature gradient
If the medium has a uniform internal temperature, the exitance R:c is

constant throughout the slice of the medium (R:c = Ro). The total exitance
of the medium is then
R = a Ro 1 00
exp (-ax)dx = Ro
i.e., the total exitance of the object is equal to its surface exitance.
If th~re is a temperature gradient across the medium, we have the general
case of objects in which the temperature is higher than that of the ambient
medium. These objects h"ave a temperature gradient whose range depends
on the cooling of the external layers.
Consider a linear gradient with internal exitance distribution
f1R
R:c = ax+Ro where a = f1x
The total emittance is then given by
R=a 1 00
(ax + Ro) exp (-ax) dx
=a 1 00
axexp(-ax)dx+aRo 1~ exp(-ax)dx
= -a [ (x + ±) exp ( -ax)] ~ + Ro
so that
a
R= -+Ro
a
As an example, consider magnesium fluoride (MgF2) which is transpar-

ent at 4 pm and opaque to 10 pm radiation. The values of x are 0.22 and
8 cm- 1 for A = 4 and 10 pm, respectively.
For a temperature gradient such that l1R/ l1x = 0.1 R o/0.5 cm, i.e., for
a 10% increase in internal exitance over the thickness of 0.5 cm, we have
_ [ 0.1
R - Ro 1 + 0.5 x 0:22 - .
]-19R 0
for A = 4pm and

0.1]
R = Ro [ 1 + 0.5 x 8 = 1.025 Ro
for>. = 10 pm.
a
10r7--------~======~~
Absorptance a, cm- 1 7
5
2
0.7
0.5
0.2
0.1
A
WL..J---L.-L-L-...l..-.J.-J~~---L--'--'-:'
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS
Wavelength, A, pm
Fig. 3.32 Absorption by magnesium fluoride (0' = 0.22 em -1, for)' = 4 J.Lm and
= =
0' 8em- 1 for)' 10J.Lm)
This e~ample shows that, in the first case (A = 4 pm) in which the
medium is transparent, the total exitance that can be measured by ther-
mography is almost twice the surface exitance Ro. In the second case
(A = 10 jJ-m), the medium is absorbing and the total exitance is very slightly
(2.5%) above the surface exitance.
3.9 OTHER SOURCES OF INFRARED RADIATION
3.9.1 The Nernst filament (Nernst glower)

This is made of a mixture of refractory oxides (85% zirconium oxide plus
10% thorium oxide, mixed with a rare earth). The electrodes are made
from twisted platinum threads.
= =
For I 1 cm, ~ 2 mm, T ~ 2000oK, V = 30 V, and 1= 0.5 to lA, the
spectral distribution occupies the range 0.3 pm > ,\ > 30 pm.
Fig. 3.33 Nernst glower
3.9.2 The globar

This consists of a stick of carborundum and functions at temperatures on
the order of 1500OC, emitting a continuous spectrum between 10 and 40 pm.
3.9.3 Electroluminescent junctions

Here emission is caused by the return to the state of equilibrium by elec-
trons injected into a semiconductor at a forward-biased junction (see Sec-
tion 9.8.2). n-typeregion p-typeregion
Junction
Energy .----~.;",;",,;---,
-----IEep
Fig. 3.34 Unbiased pn junction EVn 1----"'"
At the junction between n-type and p-type semiconductors, the Fermi

levels are in equilibrium in the absence of bias, causing a distortion of the
conduction and valence bands, and a potential barrier appears across the
junction. Once a bias is applied to the junction (negative in the. n-type
region), the transport of electrons in the n-type region causes the Fermi
level of that region to be raised, which depresses the potential barrier at
the junction. The electrons in the n-type region can thus pass into the
p-type region. The same reasoning applied to the positive charges would
show that positive holes can pass from p-type to n-type regions.
Electrons occupying the conduction band of the p-type region are thus
not in equilibrium. It is therefore possible to observe the tendency of elec-
trons and holes to recombine on crossing the junction. Each such transition
releases a photon whose energy corresponds to the width of the forbidden
gap. The tendency of holes in the n-type region to recombine gives exactly
the same phenomenon.
(p)
•• Photon
Fig. 3.35 Biased np junction
Photo diodes based on these principles emit in a narrow optical band

(>'1 t::..>. =
10) at >. =
0.85 I'm with time constants of the order of a few
nanoseconds.
= =
The gallium arsenide (AsGa) photo diode emits>. 0.85 I'm at T 77 K
(the temperature ofliquid nitrogen). At T = 300K (ambient temperature),
the wavelength is >. = 0.95 I'm. The gallium phosphate (GaP) photodiode
emits at >. = 0.620 pm at 300 0 K
3.9.4 Sources employing stimulated emission (lasers)
(aJ Stimulated emission

Consider a volume v containing N atoms, each with two energy levels
El and E 2 • If the populations oflevels Ell E2 are nl,n2, we have
Transitions between the two levels can release or absorb energy
Energy balance between the medium and radiation produces a sponta-

neous emission term (proportional to the number n2 of atoms in the upper
level (random emission of a photon) and an absorption term (which depends
on the number no of photons present in the volume and the number nl of
atoms in the lower level).
The rate of change of energy in the volume v is given by
Fig. 3.36 Gallium phosphide junction +

-------r-------
(n 2 )
(n 2 )
E2
Spontaneous hv
emission
(n 1)
El-------L----~
Fig. 3.37 Absorption and emission of photons Absorption
where the first and second terms on the right represent emission and ab-
sorption, respectively.
In thermodynamic equilibrium dE / dt = 0 and
n2
a- = bno
nl
The ratio n2/nl and the number no can be found from the Planck-
Boltzmann statistics applied to thermodynamics:
n2/nl = exp(-hv/kT)
no = pv/hv
where, in the latter, p = (811" hv3 /c 3 )[exp(hvkT)-1]-1 is the energy density
in the volume v and hv is the energy of a photon.
As the temperature T tends to infinity, n2/nl tends to 1 and no tends
to infinity with increasing p. The equilibrium conditions are then no longer
satisfied.
A third term representing stimulated emission must now be introduced
into the expression for dE / dt, since emission must increase with increasing
number of photons present in order to re-establish equilibrium by absorp-
tion. This term is proportional to no and n2, so that
dE
dt = an2 + cnOn2 - bnOnl
where the three terms on the right represent spontaneous emission, stimu-
lated emission and absorption, respectively.
In thermodynamic equilibrium
dE = 0
dt
so that
If the temperature increases, ndnl tends to 1, no tends to infinity and

b - c = a/notendstozero
The coefficients band c are equal, so that
(3.35)
E2- - - - - -
E2----~-----------
E ____________ E 1____---'_ __
1 E ---41•. - - - -
1
Fig. 3.38 Stimulated emission
Thus, spontaneous emission is completely random, so that the phase

difference between the different emitted photons takes all possible values.
Stimulated emission initiated by the first photon causes the generation of a
second photon, and the waves associated with these two photons thus have
the same phase; on interfering they produce a wave of the same frequency,
but with greater amplitude. We thus have amplification of light, which is
cumulative and coherent.
Stimulated emission is favoured by the condition n2 ~ nl, which cor-
responds to a population inversion between levels 1 and 2; in the ground
state, nl > n2.
(b) Population inversion
Population inversion is produced by exciting a suitably chosen medium.

This excitation is established by a light source (optical pumping), by electri-
cal pumping (collisions between atoms or ions and electrons) or by chemical
pumping (using the energy of reaction).
Atom at rest (level 1)
'0 .~
~itted
I nCI·dent ~.
~ ~
radiation /~. ~
Excited atom (level 2) ~ radiation
Fig. 3.39 Amplification
Optical pumping
The absorption of radiation of energy hv incident on a medium with two
energy levels transports a proportion of the population of level 1 to level
2, but the spontaneous emission which proceeds via the inverse transition
re-establishes the population equilibrium between the two levels (n2 =nl) .
To produce population inversion (n2 > nd, we need to use a three-
level material. For example, these can be the energy levels of chromium
ions in a ruby crystal which absorb in the violet and green. When this
type of material is submitted to optical excitation, photons with sufficient
energy are absorbed by these bands. The excited atom undergoes (in a
time ~ 10- 7 s) non-radiative transitions to the metastable state 2 whose
lifetime is relatively long (3 x 1O- 3 s). Atoms therefore accumulate in this
energy level with level 1 becoming partially depopulated by absorption.
The net result is population inversion.
(2) _-,-_--,._ _
hv
Fig. 3.40 Equilibrium population

(l)~
The efficiency of the operation. can be improved by pumping up a mate-
rial with a fourth level lying slightly above the ground-state level 1. This is
done by using glass doped with the neodynium ions Nt++. Transitions be-
tween levels 4 and 1 are very easy and level 4 is rapidly depopulated. The
population inversion (n2 ~ n4) is obtained with relatively low pumping
power.
Electronic pumping
The medium is now excited by collisions between electrons and the
molecules of the medium. Activation can be initiated by kinetic energy
supplied by a series of shocks or by direct electronic excitation.
--+---=z. (2)
(2)
0
hv )., =6943A hv
~
(4)
~ (I)
~ __.-----....1.-'-- (1)
__
Fig. 3.41 Three and four level systems
(c) Principle of the laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation)
This involves light amplification by stimulated emission in a medium set

in oscillation by the use of mirrors.
The condition for stable oscillation is defined as in the case of radio-
frequency oscillators by setting the loop gain equal to unity:
(3.36)
where
1 = gIo (3 .37)
in which 10 is the incident intensity, G is the gain of the amplifying medium

and R 1 , R2 are the power reflectances of the mirrors. Moreover, the system
must be such that the reinjected wave can enter the oscillator in phase with
the output wave, which corresponds to an optical path length
2ne = k)" (3 .38)
where n is the refractive index and I the path length in the medium.
GI
o
Mirror Amplifying medium Mirror

(gain G)
(reflectance R2 (reflectance R 1 )
Fig. 3.42 Laser oscillator
The resonant cavity thus has the configuration of a Fabry-Perot etalon.

The light is multiply reflected and is amplified on each successful traversal
of the medium.
Atomic emission lines are broadened by the Doppler effect, i.e., by the
random displacement of central frequency of the line due to incident and
departing atoms.
The Fabry-Perot etalon produces, in general, a large number of sharp
lines (called auxiliary modes of the resonant cavity), spaced in frequency by
the amount c
Av=-
2ne
When the stimulated emission is produced in one of these modes, the
line becomes so sharp that it can no longer be measured by optical interfer-
ometry. This occurs because the gain in the medium is proportional to the
number of photons present, and is greater at the centre of the line, which
creates considerable line narrowing.
r==
Fabry-Perot cavity l..t:,v " 2~e .. I Doppler line
resonance line 1- -
Natural atomic I _--- ...\
...
emission line
" ,
, (stimulated emission)
" "- '"
'" ...... v
Fig. 3.43 Laser emission spectrum
The geometry of the cavity produces a selection of modes inside the laser
that favour propagation along the geometrical axis of the medium. This
gives rise to a consideral reduction in the angular divergence w of the laser
beam which is highly collimated.
Fig. 3.44 Laser beam divergence

I"
(d) The ruby laser
This is to a three-level laser consisting of a cylindrical ruby rod (Ah03
in which some AI+++ ions are replaced by Cr+++ ions). The rod has a
C - storage capacitor
T - flash tube
R - cooling water
Fig. 3.45 The ruby laser
diameter of a few millimetres and is about 10 cm long. The optical pump

is a flash tube wound around the ruby crystal.
The absorption spectrum of ruby, which gives it its red colour, covers
the bands in the violet and the green. The laser emission is in the red
(A = 6943 A) and has a line width ~A = 0.8A.
The laser cavity is closed by a flat mirror Ml and a partially reflecting
mirror M2 (R = 0.6) . The energy output is some 100 J and the beam
divergence w is of the order of 0.01 radians.
Neodymium glass laser

The configuration is identical to the ruby laser, but employs four energy
levels. Absorption is in the yellow, giving a violet colour to the rod . Laser
emission is in the near infrared (A = 1,063 pm, ~A= 150A , divergence
1 mrad) . The glass is sometimes replaced by yttrium aluminium garnet.
(Y 2 AI 5 0 12 ) and the laser is then known as the YAG laser .
The two types of laser work in the relaxation mode. The emission is in the
form of a sequence of spikes that appear when the pumping has produced
population inversion (it is possible to achieve continuous operation of these
lasers ).
The helium-neon laser

This is a three-level system. It consists of a gas laser (a mixture of He
and Ne at low pressure in a tube) . Excitation is electronic. The cavity is
closed by two flat mirrors or two confocal spherical mirrors. The continuous
output power amounts to a few milliwatts, the divergence w is less than 1
M2
(R :: 97%)
~ Excitation
~0 c
M
I
(R > 99%)
Fig. 3 .46 He-Ne laser L '" 30 cm-l m
mrad and the emission wavelength is in the red: A = 6328 A with AI ~A =

106 .
The beam emitted by the helium-neon laser is plane-polarised due to the
Brewster windows at the ends of the tube. This avoids losses by reflection.
Aryon laser
This is a four-level ionised-gas laser. The tube is pumped by an elec-
trical discharge in its interior. The laser oscillates in many neighbouring
transitions. It generates green (5145A), blue (4880A) and violet radia-
tion. The output power is a few watts in the continuous mode and around
100 W in the pulsed mode.
Carbon dioxide gas laser

This employs the rotational energy levels of the CO 2 molecule. It is
possible to generate output power in the continuous mode of many hundred
watts thanks to the 30% efficiency (which is excellent compared to the
efficiency of the other lasers). Emission is in the middle infrared (A =
10.6 Jlm) .
Various technologies exist for these lasers (gas sealed, TEA, waveguide
and so on) .
Semiconductor lasers
These lasers are electronically pumped and rely on th~ recombination of
electrons and holes at a biased junction.
When the semiconductor material is highly doped, the Fermi level of the
unbiased junction lies in the conduction band of the n-type region and in
n p n p Occupied states
Er-----------------~
~
eV
n
o
Vacant states
Unbiased junction Junction bias voltage V

Fig. 3.47 Principle of the semiconductor laser
the valence band of the p-type region. The passage of a current through
such a junction imposes a bias V which shifts the Fermi level by the amount
E = EF" - EFp = eV and thus gives rise to a population inversion at the
junction. Photons are released as the levels relax. The parallel polished
faces of the semiconductor close the cavity. The materials used are AsGa
= =
(A 0.9 /lm), AsAIGa (A 0.82 /lm) and InAs.
The output power is of the order of a few milliwatts in the continuous
mode, but can reach a few hundred watts in pulsed operation. The small
dimensions of the cavity (100 x 2 /l)m produce considerable beam divergence
by diffraction (50 - 20 0).
Polished parallel faces
~ <,yp,
n type
Fig. 3.48 Diode laser
(e) Triggered lasers

It is possible to use ruby or YAG lasers to generate very short giant
pulses. This is accomplished by blocking relaxation oscillations during the
pumping process by, for example, electro-optic shutters in the cavity. The
pulse is emitted when the higher energy level is almost saturated. These
pulses carry a few hundred millijoules and their length is of the order of
20ns which corresponds to peak power that can reach about 10MW. The
lasers are used for illumination and telemetry. Very much higher power
outputs can be achieved in special applications (welding lasers, controlled
nuclear fusion and so on).
4
Tra,n smission by the Atmosphere
The atmosphere between the source of radiation and the detector is

usually the cause of perturbation in measurement.
The emitted infrared energy is attenuated by the atmosphere, whereas
temperature gradients and turbulence create inhomogeneities in the refrac-
tive index of air, all of which tend to degrade image quality. Finally, the
atmosphere is itself a source of radiation.
The phenomenon of attenuation is a particular problem in the course
of measurement, because it introduces a systematic error that depends on
the working wavelength, the spectral band used, the distance and weather
conditions.
The transmission of optical radiation by the atmosphere depends mainly
on two phenomena, namely, self-absorption by the atmospheric gases and
absorption due to scattering by particles in the air, by molecules and by

aerosols.
In the former process, the gases absorb radiation selectively at the local
temperature. In the latter process, the radiation is deflected from its path
and is 'seen' by the detector as if it were surrounded by a luminescent veil
whose effect depends on the spectral interval used.
4.1 SELF-ABSORPTION BY GASES
Figure 4.2 shows the transmission spectrum of the atmosphere for the given
distance under well-defined weather conditions.
The transmission spectrum is shown in the 'visible' range up to 13.5 J.Lm.
Actually, radiation normally called optical extends from of 0.18 J.Lm to an
upper limit that, for practical purposes, tends to be close to 1000 jJm.
Ultraviolet data, mainly from astronomy, show that there are important
differences depending on whether the radiation source is in or out of the
atmosphere. In the former case, the gap in transmission in ultraviolet lies
near 0.3 J.Lm and is due to the ozone layer whose centre of gravity lies at a
height of about 30 km.
For a horizontal path at ground level, the limit is less well-defined and is
due to absorption by oxygen, whose spectrum has a large number of weak
absorption bands between 0.24 J.Lm and the red.
Radiation that has traversed large expanses of the atmosphere exhibits
absorption bands due to water vapour. This constituent of the atmosphere
is responsible for infrared absorption; absorption due to the other gases,
mostly carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), is of lower intensity.
The main absorption bands due to water vapour lie at about 2.6 J.Lm,
between 5.5 and 7.5 J.Lm and beyond 20 J.Lm. They give rise to almost total
absorption of radiation over a path length of less than 100 m.
We note a very important point for practical applications: there is a
number of transmission windows, i.e., those spectral ranges in which ab-
sorption is very weak. These 'windows' are: 0.4-1,1.2-1.3,1.5-1.8,2.1-2.5,
3-5 and 8-13 J.Lm.
Although it produces weak absorption, the last window is of great im-
portance, because it corresponds, as we have seen, to maximum thermal
emission by a body at room temperature. It is therefore in this range that
systems used to detect objects by their self-emission must operate.
It is often interesting to use the 3-5 J.Lm window to enhance the detection
of much hotter bodies or spectral emitters in this band (e.g., emission by
CO 2 gas, the residue of almost all forms of combustion).
Example Observation of a flame containing CO 2 through the atmo-
sphere.
Transmission by the Atmosphere 63
Here the emitting carbon dioxide gas is at a high temperature. Actually,

the atmosphere contains carbon dioxide and has absorption bands due to it,
which mask the flame emission lines and significantly attenuate radiation
propagating over long distances.
In practice, there is a discrepancy between spectral widths observed
in absorption and emission. In effect, temperature tends to increase the
spectral width of radiation by molecular collisions and the Doppler effect.
Each CO 2 molecule travelling with a thermal-velocity component in the
line joining it to the observer produces a Doppler shift of the emission line,
and the nett result, due to a large number of such molecules, is to broaden
the emission line.
Broadened line
Fig. 4.1 Spectral line broadening by the Doppler effect
Thus, the flame spectrum displays the difference between the emission
spectrum broadened by the high temperature of the CO 2 contained in
the flame, and the absorption spectrum of atmospheric CO 2 at a lower
temperature. Atmospheric transmission
~~~~~~~~~~ ~------~~-------,
Spectrum of a flame
transmitted
by the
atmosphere
4.02 4.18
2 4 5 2 3 4 6
Wavelength, p.m Wavelength, p.m

Emission by flame Absorption by atmospheric C02
(C02 plus solid particles at at low temperature
high temperature)
Fig. 4.3 Spectrum of a flame in a CO 2 atmosphere
III I: I! 1 II ': II
I ;
0.9 II 1 II I! II II I Ii
I •
, 1 . I
I
0.8
II I: '!1 i' I Iii II
, I
I
; Ii, I . ~k i I II
0.7 ' 1 I
I 111
• I
0.6 1/ I I i I i
,
0.5 I ! I I !
I ' !
I I I I
0.4 II I
. , .. I
0.3 Ii ,
i
0.2 1
I i
0.1
,I
o j' l
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13
Path length 1.852 km \\Tavelen&tit, pm Visiblity (>. = 0.6 Jim : Dv = 20 km

Precipitation h = 17 mm Resolution: ~>. = 0.025atO.050 Jim
Fig. 4.2 Transmission of the atmosphere

Monochromatic radiation is found to be absorbed exponentially by the

gas molecules. This is the Bouguer-Lambert law which can be verified
empirically and can be derived as follows.
F
:t
:
1
I
dF
I:
1
1
I 1
K I dK ...
"I
Fig. 4.4 Atmospheric absorption
Consider an absorbing medium and incident radiant flux Fo . A slice of

the medium situated at a distance z from the source absorbs an amount
dF of the flux, which depends on the thickness dz of the absorbing slice,
on the flux F transmitted by it and on the coefficient K that represents
the properties of the abosrbing medium, i.e.,
dF = -KFdz
or
dF
- = -Kdz
F
Integration then yields the attenuation law
logF = -Kz + const
or
( 4 .1)
The constant of integration C is obtained by putting F = Fo at z = 0:
The transmittance of the medium is then defined by
F
T= _=e-K:r:
Fo
where K is the absorptance of the medium which is a function of wave-
length.
In addition, it is sometimes useful to have the optical density of the
medium:
The exponential absorption law obtained above for monochromatic ra-

diation is still valid within any spectral band, irrespective of its width, if
the absorption is 'neutral', i.e., independent of wavelength.
This is approximately the case in the 'windows' and for certain mists or
fogs. Conversely, for complex absorption bands, the observed absorption
can be very different from the exponential absorption.
Actually, we are considering, the extreme case where the spectral region
being studied consists of a totally absorbing portion and a totally transpar-
ent portion; its absorption will clearly be independent of the path length
traversed by the radiation.
The actual configuration of the atmosphere approaches this case because,
beyond a certain path length, the absorption varies quite slowly. The
attenuation laws for such a medium depend strongly on the spectral pass
band of the detection system.
The absorptance Kp.) depends on the nature of the gaseous molecules
and on their concentration. The wavelength dependence of K(>\) determines
the absorption and emission of a gas.
The character of the spectrum depends on the transitions between en-
ergy levels in the gaseous mass. These are as follows.
x=~
----~ tlE
Fig. 4.5 Electronic transition
Electronic transitions in constituent atoms, which are in general respon-

sible for emission and absorption spectra in the ultraviolet, the visible and
the near infrared.
Vibrational states of atoms in the gas molecules are responsible for the
emission-absorption spectra in the middle infrared. For example, the CO 2
molecule in carbon dioxide gas has three vibrational modes that generate
three emission and absorption bands.
The vibrational levels themselves divide into rotational levels (rotation of
the molecules) and are responsible for the fine structure of spectral bands.
Molecular rotation is responsible for the emission and absorption spectra
in the near infrared and for the fine structure of vibrational bands.
It should be remembered that the effects of pressure and temperature
tend to broaden spectral lines through the excitation of new energy levels
and the Doppler effect.
X : 7,5 p. }. :: 4,25 p.
\ ((G'\\
III C IrO)I)
\\\
\)
I
:
0 C 0 0 c 0
0 0
A: 15 p.
Fig. 4.6 Vibrations of a CO2 molecule

001 to
===i]J
100
'[!]'
~
og~JO r [E] 001 1

r , R P
100 ~i]J'
1--_0
===
91l lOll P20 IIIl
020
Wavelength 1
Fig. 4.7 Spectra and fine structure of CO 2 • The 001,100,020 , . . . levels of CO 2
split into rotational sublevels with quantum numbers J = 0,1 , 2, 3 ... The Rand
P bands are the envelopes of sets of sharp lines PI, P2 , P3 ••• and R l , R 2 , R3 ...
corresponding to J -- J' transitions, where J' > J for P lines and J' < J for R
lines
4.2 SCATTERING BY PARTICLES
Particles suspended in the air are seen as structural defects of the atmo-
sphere. The radiant flux is partially conserved in images, but the redistribu-
tion of flux is affected: there is a reduction of contrast that is independent
of spatial frequency.
Particles that are large compared with the wavelength give rise to scat-
tering that can be predicted by geometrical optics and is weakly selective.
Particles whose dimensions are of the order of the wavelength have to be
treated by diffraction theory.
Attenuation of radiation is proportional to the scattering coefficient , .
Molecular absorption is superimposed on scattering and is characterised by
the extinction coefficient
o:=K+,
where K represents absorption and, represents scattering.
4.3 ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE
Solar radiation absorbed by the surface of the Earth produces a heating

effect in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The gas density therefore takes
on local values that depend on thermal conditions.
Density fluctuations create gas motion by convection and, hence, atmo-
spheric turbulence.
In the first approximation, the refractive index n of air is given by Glad-
stone's law
n -1 = K;p (4.2)
where K; is a constant.
The density of air at constant pressure is inversely proportional to its
absolute temperature T, and therefore
an op -aT
n-1 p T
so that
n-1
an = ----;y-oT
For example, for n = 1.0003, T = =
300 0 K and aT 10 K, we have an =
-10- 6
More generally, fluctuations in the refractive index of the atmosphere
depend on winds, thermal convection currents, the gravitational field, hu-
midity and so on. These relations are difficult to determine and involve
parameters that are themselves random functions of position and time.
The atmosphere is not normally homogeneous. A common simplifying
assumption is that its random fluctuations are uniformly distributed in all
directions, i.e., we have homogeneous and isotropic turbulence.
When optical radiation enters this type of medium, characterised by a
refractive index n(r, t) that is a function of position and time, the prop-
agation ceases to be rectilinear and light is deviated, partially or totally,
depending on the inhomogeneities that behave like diffracting objects.
If tP is the diameter of the beam and I is a typical linear dimension of
an inhomogeneity, we observe the following.
(a) For tP ~ I, the light rays become curved. This is due to the strati-
fication of the air into layers with different refractive indices in the lower
atmosphere, and is responsible for mirages and errors in visual targeting.
(b) For tP < I, the image fluctuates. The fluctuations are caused by
the rapid displacement of the refractive-index inhomogeneities when the
geometrical dimensions are large compared with the transverse dimension
of the light beam. The fluctuations produce variable inclinations of the
wavefront, which is perceived as a shift of point images on a plane.
Image
fluctuation
Fig. 4.8 Bending of light rays by an inhomogeneous medium
(c) For ¢ :: I, there' is a change in beam focussing. When the linear

dimensions of inhomogeneities are of the order of the diameter of the light
beam, they give rise to lens-like effects that are responsible for the difficul-
ties encountered in radiant-energy transfer.
Defocusing
Fig. 4.9 Effect on beam focussing
(d) For ¢ > I , scintillations are observed. An atmospheric scintilla-

tion is due to rapid fluctuations in refractive-index inhomogeneities that
are small compared with the beam diameter. This phenomenon gives rise
to a speckled image, which is the result of constructive and destructive
interference effects according to the position of the wavefront .
(e) For ¢ ~ I, there is a loss of spatial coherence. The small homo-
geneities responsible for scintillations create a distortion of the phase of the
wavefront during of its propagation. This phenomenon leads to a degrada-
tion of phase coherence during the transmission of laser radiation (which
is important for perturbations of heterodyne and homodyne detection sys-
tems).
From the optical point of view, a turbulent medium (assumed nonab-
sorbing) is treated as a phase object, i.e., it is uniquely characterised by
variations of optical path length. These variations deform wave fronts and
degrade images.
It is interesting to consider a turbulent medium as a juxtaposition of
homogeneous volume elements with different refractive indices. Thrbulence
Interference pattern
Fig. 4.10 Atmospheric scintillations
is characterised by the linear dimensions I of these volume elements of which

the smallest, 10 , defines the inner scale of turbulence, and the largest, Lo,
corresponds to the outer scale of turbulence (/0 < I < Lo). In practice, 10
is of the order of a few millimetres and Lo of the order of a few metres.
Fig. 4.11 Phase change produced by the atmosphere
4.3.1 Diffraction by inhomogeneities
Each volume element acts as a diffracting object for optical waves propa-
gating in a homogeneous medium. Diffraction theory shows that an object
of linear dimension I diffracts almost all the incident light energy into a
cone of half-angle 0 at its apex, which for a plane monochromatic wave is
given by
o~ >./1
where>. is the wavelength of light.
We note that a collimated light beam of thickness I will have a radius
r = >'D / I after a distance D following diffraction.
Incident wavefront
Deformed wavt'front
y tl.{x . yJ
Fig. 4.12 Diffraction by a refractive-index irregularity
Diffraction is not significant unless

~
-D> 1
f. -
or
(4.3)
We note that 1 = J>J5 marks the transition between refraction (l > J ~D)
and diffraction (I < J>J5). The transition values of V~D are listed (in
mm) below for different A and D .
D "'A
10m
0.5 Jlm
2.3
1 Jlm
3.2
4Jlm
6.3
10 Jlm
10
100m 7.1 10 20 31.6
1 km 22.4 31.6 63.6 100
lOkm 70.7 100 200 316
4.3.2 The structure function

Because of its random variations, the atmospheric refractive index of in-
homogeneities is obtained from its average value n(.,) or its correlation
function over a distance r
For most random processes we can use a simplified approach that employs
random stationary functions.
Let us consider homogeneous turbulence and the necessary conditions
for it. The average n(x) must be constant and the correlation function
r n(r) must depend on r alone.
Fig. 4 .1 3 Structure function
Examination of meteorological parameters reveals a variation of these

average values. We will therefore use the structure function, defined in the
following way. If n( x) is a non-stationary random function, i.e., n( x) is not
constant, then the difference n(x + r) - n(x) is stationary and its value
does not change when n(x) varies as a function of small fluctuations in r.
The structure function is the correlation function for this difference:
Fn (r) = [n(x) - n(x - r)]. [n(x + r) - n(x)]

The above difference is stationary, i.e.,
n(x) - n(x - r) = n(x + r) - n(x)

and
Fn (r) = [n(x + r) - n(x)]2 (4.4)
The structure function can also be expressed in another way:
Fn (r) = [n(x + r)]2 + [n(x)]2 - 2n(x) n(x + r)
where
r n (r) = n(x + r) n(x)
and
r n (0) = [n(x)]2 = [n(x + r)]2
so that
Fn (r) = 2 [r n (0) - r n (r)]
and
Fn (r) = 2[n(x)2 - r n (r)] (4 .5)
Tatarski has shown in his book Wave propagation in a turbulent medium
(McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961) that the structure function for refractive
indices can be written in the form
10 < r < Lo (4.6)

Results for A. = 0.06 11m
Multiply O"r by 0.86 and 0.8
for A. = 4 and 10 J.lffi, respeCtivelY/,
200
/ /'
--- en: 4 ·10-8 m-'/3
~
100 ./
70 ./ ./ L
50
30 ./
10" ~
10" l/
en: 8 . 10.11 m -'h
/ /'
20
(Tr, mm
\0 /
V"
/" /
/
/
f--
7
5 ./
V
V ./ '" ~
./
3 / / V
2 / / ./
1 /'
V
/ /
0.7 r /' /'
0.5 v .J'
0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 2 3 5 7 \0

D= distance in km
Fig. 4.14 Lateral beam displacement as a function of distance in a turbulent
atmosphere
where Cn is called the structure constant of the refractive index. It char-

acterises atmospheric turbulence:
Cn = 0, homogeneous medium, all points moving at the same velocity

=
Cn 8 x 1O-9m -l/3, weak turbulence, 10 1.2 em, Lo 10 m = =
Cn = 4 x 1O-8m -l/3, medium turbulence
Cn = 5 x 1O-7m -l/3, strongturbulence,lo ~0 . 3cm, Lo ~ 1m
For given turbulence , the constants Cn are normally measured by exam-

ining thermal changes. It is thus possible to predict the perturbed propa-
gation of radiation in this type of medium.
The lateral displacement of a light beam after traversing a distance D
is plotted in Fig.4.14 for different cases of atmospheric turbulence.
The lateral displacement of the beam is described by its mean square
deviation (T~ or by its standard deviation (Tr:
(Tr = V[r -;;)2 = 1.35CnA-l/12D17/12

where Cn is in m-i, Ais in m and D is in m. (The above analytic expression
is based on the data in the article Spot Dancing of the Laser Beam prop-
agated through the Turbulent Atmosphere by T. Chiba in Applied Optics,
vol. 10, no. 11, November 1971)
0 ____ ·
- ---- ~rbulence
----
?
Image spreading
Source
Fig. 4.15 Beam broadening
These fluctuations cause beam broadening of the order of 20"r and a

sighting error
O"r
0"8 =-
D
The power spectrum of these spatial fluctuations is inversely propor-
tional to frequency in the range of 0.03Hz to over 20Hz.
·7 r-----~---..,
1.8 10 . . 113
c;. mm
1.0 118:~ ':-0---L.3--'6-'-9---'-12--'1-5-'-18....:...0.2-1 ....124

1.0
Time of day (summer)
Fig. 4.16 Typical experimental results on en
4.3.3 Measurement of turbulence

The measurement of air temperature at two neighbouring points a distance
r apart gives the Tatarski thermal structure function
FT (r) = [T(z + r) - T(z)]2 = Cir! (4.7)
where CT is the thermal structure constant of the atmosphere, which is

related to C n by
79 X 1O-6p
Cn = T2 CT (4.8)
in which P is atmospheric pressure (in millibars) and T is the absolute
temperature. The thermal measurements are made with two hot-wire
anemometers, modified to behave as ultrafast thermometers (tungsten wire
10 pm in diameter and 0.3 cm long).
Fig. 4.17 Measurement of en
4.4 METHODS FOR CALCULATING ATMOSPHERIC

TRANSMISSION
The atmospheric constituents that contribute significantly to the absorp-
tion of optical radiation are water vapour (H 2 0), carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and
ozone (0 3 ) . Smaller contributions are due to nitrous oxide (N 2 0), carbon
monoxide (CO), oxygen (0 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrogen (N 2 ).
The concentration and absorption of these molecules has been tabulated
in the literature and form the basis of calculations of atmospheric trans-
mission.
The concentrations of N20, CO, O 2 , CH 4 , N2 and CO 2 can be considered
constant for the majority of problems, but this is not so for the concen-
tration of water vapour whose molecular distribution can vary greatly in
space and time.
The resultant transmittance is made up of a number of contributions,
including those due to water vapour whose concentration can be measured
by chemical, electrical or spectroscopic methods, and carbon dioxide whose
concentration is of the order of 0.032% and remains fairly constant
Atmospheric transmission is difficult to measure, and involves a con-
siderable expenditure of both time and money. Much effort has therefore
gone into developing models of atmospheric transmission that are generally
based on molecular absorption and scattering by particles.
1
0:_
)..
o
Fig. 4.18 The Lorentz line shape
The molecular absorption coefficient K exhibits extremely complex vari-

ations in the infrared, because the absorption bands consist of a very large
number of sharp lines whose envelope generally resembles a Lorentz curve.

The absorption coefficient for a simple spectral line is given by
The full width at half height, D.u, varies with temperature and pressure
as follows:
D.u = D.uo ~ !To
Po VT
In general, calculations of atmospheric transmission must take into ac-
count the structure parameters of absorption bands, including the band
width, the number of spectral lines within each band, the relative line
spacing, the number of lines with the same intensity, the full width at the
half height of a line, the line shape and the gas pressure and temperature.
There are three main methods of modelling molecular absorption that
employ these parameters.
4.4.1 The 'line-by-line' method

This method is based on a procedure of combining a very large number
of facts on the molecular structure of the atmosphere and on the position
in the spectrum of all possible lines (US Air Force Cambridge Research
Laboratories, Massachusetts, 1973). The transmission spectrum is obtained
by averaging such data over constant spectral intervals Au•. However, the
'line-by-line' method is very effective for a line spectrum, but does not
apply to absorption in regions where the band structure is continuous.
Monochromatic lines
Spectral absorption
--_.it'
o
1-1
AO j
Fig. 4.19 The line-by-line method
4.4.2 The band model method

Here the intensities and positions of absorption lines are assumed to have
a distribution that can be described by a simple mathematical model, and
absorption is once again obtained by averaging over a given band.
There are four main approaches Elsasser's model relies on identical and
regularly spaced Lorentz lines. The model obviously accounts for absorp-
tion in spectral bands consisting of regularly spaced lines, i.e., for certain
bands due to gaseous CO 2,N 20,CO,CH 4 ,and0 2.
Goody's statistical model, assumes randomly spaced Lorentz lines, the
line intensity being represented by an exponential distribution. This model
accounts quite well for absorption by bands with an irregular fine structure,
as in the case of water vapour over medium distances.
Absorption
Fig. 4.20 The Elsasser model
Elsasser's random model employs a random superposition of a number

of Elsasser models, which allows the consideration of weak absorption lines,
and can be used over relatively long distances.
rALXkw\,
Fig. 4.21 Elsasser's random model
a
The quasi-random model is the most realistic for the majority of atmo-
spheric absorbers, i.e., CO 2 and H20. This model admits any distribution
of lines. The spectral interval under examination is divided into subinter-
vals in which the lines are assumed to have a random distribution.
Band model methods tend to overestimate the transmittance in regions
containing closely spaced lines .
4.4.3 Empirical methods employing band models

The aggregate mode/is a combination of band models chosen for the individ-
ual wavelength ranges. It involves calculations of atmospheric scattering,
and covers the wavelength range from 1.05 to 30 I'm, with a resolution of
0.01 to 0.44 I'm.
The Lowtran model is entirely procedural and is based on an empirical

formula for experimental line parameters plotted by the Air Force Cam-
bridge Research Laboratories. It is the best known model, and computer
programs have been written to perform the corresponding calculations in
the wavelength range 0.25 to 28pm (40000 to 350cm- l ) with a resolution
of 20 cm-l . The precision of the results is 5-10%.
The method is easy to use, but is not well adapted to changes in the
concentration of absorbing molecules, which introduces errors due to tem-
perature and humidity variations.
4.4.4 The multiparametric model

This relies on a polynomial representation of absorption.
4.5 A PRACTICAL METHOD FOR CALCULATING

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION
We shall now describe a method that allows the coefficient of atmospheric
transmission to be extracted from plots of basic meteorological parameters
such as air temperature, relative humidity and visibility. The model covers
the wavelength range between 0.3 and 13.9 pm with a resolution of ~A =
0.1 pm at each wavelength.
The total transmittance over a distance D is expressed as the ratio of
the received flux FR to the incident flux Fi:
This factor is the product of two terms representing fundamental causes of

attenuation of radiation in the atmosphere, i.e., molecular absorption by
constituent gases and scattering by particles in the atmosphere:
(4.9)
4.5.1 Molecular absorption

The coefficient Tm depends on the constituent gases of the atmosphere. As
we have seen, it consists of two factors that are clearly more important
than the others for a horizontal path, namely, absorption by water vapour
and absorption by gaseous carbon dioxide :
(aJ Determination of TH~O· Absorption by atmospheric water vapour

depends, firstly, on the number of absorbing molecules, i.e., on the partial
o o '" 0 v o 0:
s o o o o
o o I
o \
Fig. 4 .22 Definition of the height of precipitation
pressure of water vapour, and the distance D travelled by radiation in

the absorbing medium. This is often represented by the height of water
that can precipitate over a distance D. It is defined as the height h of
the cylinder of cross section S whose volume is that of the liquid obtained
by condensation of the water vapour contained in an air cylinder of cross
section S and length D.
Secondly, absorption by atmospheric water vapour depends on the na-
ture of molecular transitions that are responsible for the selective absorp-
tion spectrum, and on the temperature and total pressure of the gas mix-
ture that governs the spectral width of absorption lines due to molecular
collisions and the Doppler effect.
There is a relation (Fig. 4.23) between the height h of precipitable water,
the air temperature t and the relative humidity RH . To find h for an atmo-
sphere with given relative humidity RH, the ordinate of the precipitation
curve must be multiplied by RH. For example, for a relative humidity of
10% at a temperature of lOoe, the height of precipitable water is 1 mm per
km of atmosphere.
Precipitation, h in mm/km
30
25 /
20 /
"tS'/
,"" V
15
V"
10 .~
----- :;?!'V
........... ..-
5
I
Ternperature,OC
o
I
I I
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 (toe)
Fig. 4.23 Precipitation as a function of temperature
Avariety of experimental and calculated estimates provide the transmit-

tance TH~O as a function of wavelength and height of precipitable water
over the distance travelled. Here we will use the results of Passman and
Larmore (published in Atmospheric 1Tansmission, Rand paper, p. 897,

Santa Monica, California, The Rand Corporation, 11 July 1956). Even
though the figures contained in these tables .may have been obtained from
a theoretical model, they are sometimes adjusted in order to fit experimen-
tal data. The Passman-Larmore tables given at the end of this Section
refer to a horizontal path at sea level.
The spectral absorption bands become narrower with increasing altitude
because oflower pressure. This has the effect of improving the transmission,
especially since the water content decreases with altitude.
lr-----~-----T------r-----~
0,5
0,25 t----
Altitude, m
75
Fig. 4.24 Relative humidity as a function of altitude
In practice, it is often interesting to know the total transmission within

the atmospheric 'windows'. The curves in Fig. 4.25 show the transmission
within these windows as a function of the height of precipitable water.
(b) The detennination of Teo, The concentration of gaseous carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is almost independent of pressure; at zero al-
titude, this parameter can be considered constant. The transmittance of
gaseous carbon dioxide, Teo" is therefore a function of only the distance
travelled D. The Passman-Larmore tables refer to a horizontal path at sea
level.
(c) Example We shall evaluate the atmospheric transmittance due to
molecular absorption under the conditions corresponding to the experi-
mental plots of Taylor and Yates (Fig. 4.25). The conditions are:
temperature t = 40.5° F = (40.5 - 32)(5/9) = 4 .72°C
relative humidity RH = 0.48
distance travelled D = 16.2m
wavelength .A = 10 flm
2.0 to 2.5 JJm
O,41---t--+----1f---t--tT-....3oood 3.2 to 4.8 JJm
O,21---t--+--f---t--+----.. 8.0 to 13 JJm
PrecipitatIOn, mm
°1~~2--~5~~1~O--~20--~50~1~OO
Fig. 4 .25 Transmission factor along a horizontial path at sea level in different
windows as a function of height of precipitable water
The curve of Fig. 4.22 shows that the height of precipitated water is
7 mm/km at 4.72°C and relative humidity of 100%. For a relative humidity
of 0.48, the height of precipitated water is
h = 7 x 0.48 = 3.3 mm/km.

For a path length D = 16.2 km, the corresponding figure is
h = 3.3 x 16.2 = 53mm.

The next step if to refer to the Passman-Larmore tables which give
TH,o = 0.538 for ~ = =
10 JJm, h 53 mm and Teo, =
0.982 (obtained by
interpolation) over a distance of 16.2 km It follows that
(4.10)
This result can be verified by comparison with Fig. 4.25. Figure 4.26
shows an example of atmospheric transmission within the many 'windows'
due to molecular absorption.
4.5.2 Scattering by particles

Scattering by particles in the atmosphere creates absorption that is super-
imposed on the absorption by gases.
if .TII.
O 2 "2° CO2 "20 CO2 0 3
t t t t
ABSORBING MOLECULE
l00~.--,--,--.--~~~~~~~,--.--~-r--r-,
~
t1 80
Z 60
~
51
CI)
40
Z
~ 20
f-
00 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 15
WAVELENGTH, l1m
I- Near -+- Middle • I • Far infrared - - - - - - 1
infrared infrared
h= 17mm
Fig.4.26 Transmittance through the Earth's atmosphere (hortizontal path at
sea level, length 1828 m). (Adapted from Hudson and Gebbie)
The particles, usually water droplets, are considered to be spherical.

Depending on their dimensions, these .particles are classified as:
• Sprays: very small particles suspended in the atmosphere.
• Mists: microscopic powder or dust particles (0.5 pm). In humid regions,
they attract water molecules by condensation, and can thus grow in
volume (near the sea, the particles are salty, very hydroscopic and often
creating thick mist).
• Fog: when the constituent particles of a mist become droplets or ice
crystals, they are classified as fog (the size of the particles is of the order
of a few pm). Clouds have the same structure; the distinction between
them is merely a question of altitude.
• Precipitation: this consists of water drops whose dimensions are of the
order of 0.25 mm. They can no longer be suspended in the air and
produce rain .
ReI. Precipitation 0 .72· 0 .114 "
Curve Path length Date Time Temp. Visibility
humidi!),
11 0.94· \.13 "
A 1000 feet .= 0,3 km 20·3 -56 IS h 37 OF 620/0 1,1 mm 22mile. . . 3S,4km
34.S OF 16mile. _ 24,4km 1II 1.13· 1.38 "

B 3.4 miles .. 5,5 km 20 · 3·S6 22 h 47% 13, 7 mm
24mile. _ 38,6km IV 1.38 • 1.9 "

C 10,1 miles =16,2 km 21.3.5'6 12 h 40. S0 F 48 0/ D 52,0 mm
V 1.9 • 2.7 "
\1 2.7·4 .3"
Fig. 4 .27 Atmospheric transmittance (Taylor and Yates, Naval Research Labo-
ratory Report No 4759 et PB 121199 (11 May1956) - Washington D.C. Definition of windows \,11 4.3·6"
\,111 6·15 "

100. IJ I' II v V4J A (I
eo
60
40
20 VI
0' I" ~ ! , II r! ! , J '
0.5 .~ •• ",. 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0
Wavelength, I'm
100, .i A Q IU \ilK I I it Ani }Vi i .
100. II ( >' PO \ Iii Ii
eo 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
I , I I ' , , \ ,- :"" Wavelength, I'm
.-
Ie'- - - ,,...1'
- - - - - - - -- .. - .. - .. - .. - 14.0
Passmore - LarmoreTables(H 2 0)
Water vapour Spectral transmission of water vapour

0.3 - 4.9J.lm along a horizontal path at sea level
Wavelength, J.lm Water vapour content (rnrn of precipitation)

(I' 0.1 0.2 0.5 10 20 100 10011
0.3 3.980 0.972 0.955 0.937 0.911 0.860 0.802 0.723 0.428 0.263 0.076 0.012
0.4 0.980 0.972 0.955 0.937 0.911 O.lItoO 0.80~ 0.72J 0.428 0.263 0.076 0.012
0 .5 0.986 0.980 0.968 0.956 0.937 0.901 O.RM 0.K04 0 .695 0.579 0.433 0.215 0.079
0.6 0.990 0.986 0.977 0.968 0.955 0.9:!9 0.900 O.KI.o 0.779 0.692 U..575 0.375 0.210
0.7 0.991 0 .987 0.980 0.972 0 .960 0.9)7 0.910 0.873 0.8110 0.122 0 .615 0.425 0.26/1
0.8 0.989 0.984 0.975 0.%5 0.950 0.922 0.891 0 . 8~5 0 .758 0 .663 0.5.19 0 ..130 0 . 16K
0.9 0.965 0.951 0.922 0.890 0.844 0.157 0.661 0.535 0.326 0. 165 0.050 0 .002 o
1.0 0.990 0.986 0.977 0.968 0.955 0.9:!9 0.900 0.860 0 .779 0.692 0.575 0.375 0.210
1.1 0.970 0.958 0.932 0.905 0.866 0.790 0.707 0.595 0 .406 0.2.15 0 .093 0.008 o
1.2 0.980 0.971 0.955 0.937 0.911 0.860 0.802 0.723 0.574 0.428 0.263 0.076 0.012
I.l 0 .726 0.611 0.432 0 .268 0.116 0.01l o o o o o o o
1.4 0.930 0.902 0.844 0.782 0.695 0.536 0.381 0.216 0.064 0.005 o o
U 0.997 0.994 0.991 0.988 0.982 0.972 0.960 0.944 0 .911 0.874 0.823 1) . n~ 0.616
1.6 0 .998 0.997 0.9% 0.994 0.991 0.986 0.980 0.972 0.956 0.937 0.911 0.860 0.802
1.7 0.998 0.997 0.9% 0.994 0.991 0.986 0.980 0.972 0.956 0.937 0.911 0.860 0.802
1.8 0.792 0.707 0.5;5 0 .406 0.239 0.062 0.008 o o o o o o
1.9 0.960 0.943 0.911 0.874 0.822 o.m 0.617 0.478 0.262 0.113 0.024 o o
2.0 0.985 0.979 0.966 0.953 0.9ll 0.894 0.851 0 .790 0.674 o.~~~ 0.401 0.184 0.006
2.1 0.997 0.994 0.991 0.988 0.982 0.972 0.960 0.944 0.911 0.874 0.823 0 .724 0.616
2.2 0.998 0.997 0.9% 0.994 0.991 0.986 0.980 0 .972 0 .956 0.937 0.91 1 0.860 0.802
2.3 0 .997 0.994 0.991 0.988 0.982 0.972 0.960 0 .944 0.911 0.874 0.8:3 0.724 0.616
H 0.980 0.972 0.955 0.937 0.911 0.860 0.802 0.723 0.574 0.428 0.263 0.076 0.0'2
2.5 0.930 0.902 0.844 0.782 0.695 0.536 0.381 0.216 0.064 0.005 o o o
2.6 0.617 0.479 0.261 0 . 110 0.002 o o o o o o o o
2.7 0.361 0 .1% 0.040 0.004 o o o o o o o o o
2.8 0.453 0.289 0 .092 0.1117 0.001 o o o o o o o o
2.9 0.689 0.571 0.369 0.205 0.073 0.U05 o o o o o o o
3.0 0.851 0.790 0.673 o.m Q.401 0. 184 0.060 0.008 o o o o o
3.1 0.900 0.860 0.779 0.692 0.514 0.375 0.210 0.076 0.005 o o o o
3.2 0.925 0.894 0.8ll 0.766 0.674 0.506 0.347 O.IM 0 .035 0.003 U o o
3.3 0.950 0.930 0.888 0.843 0.779 0.658 0.531 0.377 0 .161 0.04K 0.005 o o
3.4 0.973 0.%2 0.939 0 .914 0.880 0 .811 0.735 0.633 0 .441 0.285 0.130 0 .017 0 .001
3.5 0.988 0.983 0.973 0.962 0.946 0.915 0.881 0.832 0.736 0.635 0.S02 0. 2K7 0. 133
3.6 0.994 0.992 0.987 0.982 0.973 0 .958 0.947 0.916 0.866 0.812 0 .738 0.5% 0.452
3.7 0.997 0.994 0.991 0.988 0.982 0.972 0.960 0.944 0.911 0.874 OK23 0.714 0.616
3.8 0.998 0.997 0.995 0.994 0.991 0.986 0.980 0.972 0.956 0.937 0.911 0.860 0.802
3.9 0.998 0.997 0.995 0.994 0.991 0.986 0.980 0.972 0.956 0.937 0.911 0.860 0.102
4.0 0.997 0.995 0.993 0.990 0.987 0.977 0.970 0.960 0.930 0.900 0.870 0.790 O.7fWl
4. 1 0.977 0.994 9.991 0.988 0.982 0.972 0.960 0.944 0.911 0.874 0.823 0.724 0.616
U 0.994 0 .992 0.987 0.982 0.973 0 .958 0.947 0.916 0 .866 0.812 0.738 0.5% 0.4S2
4. 3 0.991 0.984 0.975 0.972 0.950 0.937 0.910 0.873 0.800 0.722 0.615 0.425 0.161)
4.4 0.980 0.972 0.955 0.937 0.911 0.860 0.802 0.723 0.574 0.428 0.263 0.076 0.012
4.5 0.970 0.958 0.932 0.905 0.866 0.790 0.707 0.595 0.400 0.2lS 0.093 0.00II o
4.6
4.7
0.960
0.950
0.943
0.930 o.s.
0.911 0.874
0.843
0.122
0.779
0.723
U58
0.617
0.531
0.478
0.377
0.262
0.161
0.11l
0.048
0 .024
0.005
o
o
o
o
o
Q
•
4 .1 0.940 0.915 0.866 0 .'12 0.736 0.595 0.452 0 .289 0.117 0.011 0.001
4.9 U.93O 0.902 0.844 0.182 0.695 0 .536 0 .381 0.216 0.064 0.005 o o
Transmission by tbe Atmospbere 85
Water vapour
5.0 - 6.9J-Lm
Wavelength Water vapour content (mm of precipitation)
(mum) 0.2 o.~ 10 20 50 100 200
9.5 0.997 0.993 0.987 0.973 0.934 0.873 0.762 0.S07 0.257 0.066
9.6 0.997 0.~93 0.987 0.974 0.936 0.876 0.766 0.516 0.265 0.U70
9.7 0.997 0.993 (1.987 0.974 0.937 0.878 0.770 O.W 0.270 0.073
9.8 0.997 0.994 0.987 0.975 0.938 0.8110 0.773 0.526 0.277 0.077
9.9 0.997 0.994 0.987 0.975 0.939 0 .882 0.777 0.532 0.283 0.u80
10.0 0.998 0.994 0.988 0.975 0.940 0.883 0.780 0.538 0.219 0.083
10.1 0.998 0.994 0.~88 0.975 0.940 0.883 0.780 0.538 0.289 0.083
10.2 0.998 0.994 0.988 0.975 0.~40 0.883 0:780 0.53~ 0.219 0.083
10.3 0.998 0.994 0.988 0.976 0.940 0.884 0 .781 0.540 0.292 0.085
10.4 0.998 0.994 0.988 0.976 0.941 0.885 0.782 0.542 0.294 0.086
10.5 0.998 0.994' 0.988 0.976 0.941 0.886 0.784 0.544 0.295 0.087
10.6 0.998 0.~94 0 . 9~8 0.976 0.942 0.887 0.786 0.548 0.300 0.089
10.7 0.998 0.994 0 . 9~8 0.976 0.942 0.887 0.787 0.550 0.302 0.091
10.8 0.998 0.994 0.988 0.976 0.941 0.886 0.784 0.544 0.295 0.087
10.9 0.998 0.994 0.9K8 0.976 0.940 0.884 0.781 0.540 0.292 0.085
11.0 0.998 0.994 0.988 0.975 0.940 0.883 0.779 Oj36 0.287 0.082
11.1 0.998 0.994 0.987 0.97~ 0.939 0.882 0.777 0.532 0.283 0.080
11.2 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.~72 0.931 0.867 0.750 0.487 0.237 0.056
11 .3 0.997 0.992 0 .985 0.970 0.927 0.859 0.738 0.467 0.218 0.048
11.4 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.971 0.930 0.865 0.748 0.485 o.~ 0.055
11.5 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.972 0.932 0.868 0.753 0.493 0.243 0,059
11.6 0.997 0.993 0.987 0.974 0.935 0.875 0.765 0.513 0.262 0.069
11.7 0.996 0.990 0.980 0.961 0.906 0.820 0.673 0.372 0.138 0.019
11.8 0.997 0.992 0.982 0.969 0.925 0.863 0.733 0.460 0.212 0.045
11.9 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.972 0.932 0.869 0.755 0.495 0.245 0.060
Water vapour
7.0 - 9.4J-Lm
Wavelength , Water vapour content (mm of precipitation)
(mum) 0.2 0.5 10 20 50 100 200
12.0 0.997 0.993 0.987 0.974 0.937 0.878 0.770 O.W 0.270 0.073
12.1 0.997 0.994 0'187 0.975 0.938 0.880 0.773 0.526 0.277 0.077
12.2 0.997 0.994 0.987 0.975 0.938 0.880 0.775 0.528 0.279 0.078
12.3 0.997 0.993 0.987 0.974 0.937 0.878 0.770 0.521 0.270 0.073
12.4 0.997 0.993 0.987 0.974 0.935 0.874 0.764 0.511 0.261 0.068
12.5 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.973 0.933 0.871 0.759 0.502 0.252 0.00
12.6 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.972 0.931 0.868 0.752 0.491 0.241 0.058
12.7 0.997 0.99~ 0.985 0.971 0.929 0.863 0.744 0.478 0.228 0.052
12.8 0.997 0.9n 0.985 0.970. 0.926 0.858 0.736 0.466 0.217 0.047
12.9 0.997 0.992 0.984 0.969 0.924 0.853 0.728 0.452 0.204 0.041
13.0 0.997 0.992 0.984 0.967 0.921 0.846 0.718 0.437 0.191 0.036
13.1 0.996 0.991 0 .983 0.966 0.918 0.843 0.709 0.424 0.180 0.032
112 0.996 0.991 0.982 0.965 0.915 0.837 0.701 0.411 0.169 0.028
Il3 0.996 0.991 O.9~:! 0.964 0.912 0.831 0.690 0.397 0.153 0.025
13.4 0.996 0.990 0.981 0.962 0.908 0.825 0.681 0.382 0.146 0.021
13.5 0.996 0.990 0.980 0.961 0.905 0.819 0.670 0.368 0.136 0.019
Il6 0.996 0.990 0 .979 0.959 0.902 0.813 0:661 0.355 0. 126 0.016
Il7 0.996 0.989 0.979 0.958 0.898 0.107 0.651 0.342 0.117 0.014
13.8 0.996 0.989 0.978 0.956 0.894 0.100 0.640 0.328 0.107 0.011
13.9 0.995 0.988 0.977 0.955 0.891 0.793 0.629 0.313 0.098 0.010
Water vapour
9.5 - 11.9 JIm
(mum)
0.1 0.2 0.5 10 20 SO 100 200 500 1000
S.O UIS O.~IO 0.111 0.736 0.634 0.4SI 0.286 0.132 0.017 o o o o
5.1 O.US 0.139 0.747 0.649 0.S!9 0.308 0.149 0.041 0.001 o o o o
S.2 0.846 0.784 0.664 0.S39 D.3IS 0.169 0.OS2 0.006 o o o o o
S.3 0.792 0.707 0.5SS 0.406 0.239 0.062 0.001 o o o o o o
S.4 0.726 0.611 0.432 0.268 0.116 0.013 o o o o o o o
S.S 0.617 0.479 0.261 0.110 0.03S o o o o o o o o
S.6 0.491 O.BI 0.121 0.029 0.002 o o o o o o o o
S.7 0.361 0.196 0.040 0.004 0 o o o o o o o o
H 0.141 0.044 0.001 o 0 o o o o o o o o
S.9 0.141 0.044 0.001 o 0 o o o o o o o
6.0 0.110 O.OSI 0.003 o n o o o o o o o o
6.1 0.2~ 0.112 0.012 o 0 o o o o o o o o
6.2 0.6S2 0.524 0.313 0.IS3 0.043 0.001 o o o o o o o
6.3 0.SS2 0.401 0.112 O.~ 0.001 o o o o o o o o
6.4 0.317 0.IS7 oms 0.002 0 o o o o o o o o
6.S 0.164 0.049 0.002 o 0 o o o o o o o o
6.6 0.138 0.042 0.001 o 0 o o o o o o o o
6.7 0.322 0.162 0.037 0.002 0 II o o o o o o o
6.1 0.361 0.196 0.040 0.004 0 o o o o o o o o
6.9 0.416 0.250 0.068 O.O!O 0 o o o o o o o o
Water vapour
12.0 - 13.9 JIm
(mum)
0.2 0.5 10 20 100 200
7.0 0.569 0.24S o.~ 0.004 0 o 0 o o o

7.1 0.716. 0.4)) 0.1111 0.03S 0 o 0 o o o
7.2 0.712· O.S40 0.292 0.08S 0.002 o 0 o o o
7.3 0.849 0.664 0.441 0. 194 0.017 o 0 o o o
7.4 0.922 0.117 0.666 0.444 0.132 0.018 0 o o o
7.5 0.947 0.174 0.762 0.S82 0.2S1 0.066 0 0 0 0
7.6 0.922 0.817 0.666 0.444 0.132 0.018 0 0 0 0
7.7 0.971 0.9014 0.884 0.796 0.564 0.321 0.102 0.003 0 0
7.8. 0.974 0.937 0.171 0.771 O.S23 0.273 0.074 0.002 0 0
7.9 0.9112 0.9S9 0.920 0.842 0.6S1 0.433 0. 117 O.OIS 0 0
8.0 0.990 0.975 0.9SI 0.904 0.777 0.~3 0.365 0.080 0.006 0
1.1 0.994 0.986 0.972 0.94S 0.869 0.754 0.568 0.244 0.059 0.003
8.2 0.993 0.982 0.964 0.930 0.834 0.696 0.484 0.163 0.027 0
8.3 O.99S 0.988 0.976 0.9S3 0.887 0.786 0.618 0.300 0.090 0.001
1.4 O.99S 0.987 0.97S 0.950 0.880 0.774 0.599 0.278 0.077 0.006
8.S 0.994 0.986 0.972 0.944 0.866 0.750 0.162 0.237 0.036 0.003
8.6 0.996 0.992 0.9112 O.96S 0.915 0.837 0.702 0.411 0.169 0.029
8.7 0.996 0.992 0.9113 0.966 0.916 0.839 0.704 0.416 0.173 0.030
U 0.997 0.993 0.9113 0.966 0.917 0.841 0.707 0.421 0.177 0.031
1.9 0.997 0.992 0.9113 0.966 0.918 0.843 0.709 0.415 0.180 0.032
9.0 0.997 0.992 0.9114 0.968 0.921 0.848 0.719 0.440 0.193 0.037
9.1 0.997 0.992 0.985 0.970 0.926 O.•~ 0.735 0.464 0.215 0.046
9.2 0.99' 0.993 0.985 0.971 0.929 0.863 0.744 0.478 0.221 0.052
9.3 0.997 0.993 0:916 0.972 0.930 0.167 0.750 0.419 0.239 0.OS7
9.4 0.997 0.993 0.916 0.973 0.933 0.170 0.736 0.498 0.241 0.061
Passmore - LarmoreTables(C0 2 )
C02 gas Spectral transmission along a horizontal path at sea level

0.3 - 4pm
Distance, km
Wavelength,pm
0,1 0.2 o.~ 10 2() SO 100 200 soo 1000
0.3
0.4
0:5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1 I I
1.2 I I I I I
1.3 0.999 o.m 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.99~ 0 . 99~ 0.9K7 0.982
"4 0.9'i6 0.995 0.9.92 0.9R8 0.984 0.975 0.%1 0.94~ 0 . 91~ 0.88~· 0:838 0.741 0.649
1.5 0.999 0.999 0.9'i8 0.998 0.9'i7 0.99~ 0.993 0.99(1 0.984 0.976 0.967 0.949 0927
1.6 0.996 0.99~ 0.9'i~ 0.9~8 0.9~4 0.975 0.%1 0.949 0.919 0.885 0~)8 0 .•47 0649
1.7 I I 0.999 o.m 0.999 0.9<JK 0.997 0.996 0.994 0.992 0.9X7 0.982
1.8 I I I I I I I I
1.9 0.999 0.9'i9 0.999 0.9'i8 0.997 0.996 0.994 0.99~ 0.987 0.982
2.0 0.978 0.969 0.951 0.931 0.903 0.847 0.7~5 0.6'1'/ 0.541 0.387 0.221 0.05.1 0.00/>
2.1 0.998 0.997 0.9'i~ 0.994 0.99~ 0.987 0.98~ 0.974 0.959 0.94~ 0.919 (1.872 0820
2.2 I I I I I I I
2.3 I I I
2.4
2.5 I
2.6 I I I I I I I I I I
2.7 0.799 0.718 0.569 0.419 0.2D 0.071 0.011 0 0 0 0 0 0
2.8 0.871 0.804 0.695 0.~78 0.432 0.215 0.079 0.013 0 0 0 0 0
2.9 0.997 0.99~ 0.993 0.990 0.98~ 0 .977 0.968 0.9~. 0.927 0.898 0.8~~ 0.772 0.683
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.S
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0 0 9. 98 0.997 0.996 o.~ 0.991 0.986 0.980 0.971 0.9~5 0.937 0.911 0.859 0.802
4.\ 0.983 0.975 0.961 0.944 0.921 0.876 0.8~5 O.J~~ 0.622 0.48~ 0.322 O.IIS 0.027
4.2 0.673 O.~~I 0.445 0.182 0.0~9 O.llO3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.3 0.098 0.016 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.4 0.4\ 0.319 0.115 0.026 0.002 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.5 0.9~7 0.949 0.903 0.S63 0.807 0.699 O.~SS 0.439 0.222 0.084 0.014 0 0
4.6 0.995 0.993 0.989 0.9S~ o.'ns 0.966 0.951 0.931 0.891 0.845 0.7113 0.663 0.S3~
4.7 0.995 0.993 0.989 0.98~ 0.978 0.966 0.951 0.931 0.1191 0.845 0.7113 0.M3 0.539
U 0.976 0.966 0.945 0.922 0.891 0.S28 0.759 0.664 0.492 0.331 0. \69 0.030 0.002
4.9 0.975 0.964 0.9013 0.92() 0.1UI6 0.822 0.7~0 0.652 0.4fIII 0.313 0.153 O.0~4 0.001
CO 2 gas continued
5.0 - 6.9J-lm
Distance, km
Wavelength,J-lm
0.1 0.2 0.5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
5.0 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.995 0.994 0.990 0.986 0.979 0.968 0.954 0.935 0.897 0.855
5.1 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.998 0.996 0.994 0.992 0.988 0.984 0.976 0.961 0.946
5.2 0.986 0.980 0.9(,11 0.955 0.936 0.899 0.857 0.799 0.687 0.569 0.420 0.203 o.on
5.3 0 .997 0.995 0.993 0.989 0.984 0.976 0.966 0.951 0.923 0.891 0.846 0.760 0.666
H 1 I I 1 I I
.
5.5 I
H
5.7
50S
5.9
6.0
6.1
6.:
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Carbon dioxide gas

7.0 - 9.4J-lm
Distance, km
Wavelength,J-lm
0.2 0.5 10 20 so 100 200
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.0 I 1 I I
9.1 I 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.978 0.955 0.914
9.2 I I 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.982 0.955 0.913 0.834
9.3 0.999 0.997 0.995 0.990 0.975 0.951 0.904 0.776 0.605 0.363
9.4 0.993 0.982 0.965 0.931 0.837 0.700 0.491 0.168 0.028 0.001
CO 2 gas continued
9.5 - 11.9 I'm
Distance, km
Wavelength ,I'm
0.2 0.5 10 :!O SO 100 200
9 .5 0.993 0.983 0.967 0.93~ 0.K42 0.71S 0. ~12 0.187 oms 0.001
9.6 0.996 o.m 0.91!O 0.%1 0.906 0.821 0.6n 0.3M 0. 140 O .O~
9.7 0.995 0.986 0.973 0.947 0.873 0.761 0 . ~8O 0.H6 0 . 06~ 0.004
9.8 0.997 0.992 0.984 0.969 0.'124 0.S58 0.730 0 . 4~S 0.206 0.043
9.9 0 9. 98 O.99S 0.989 0.979 0.Y48 0.897 0.811 O.SKS 0.342 0. 123
10.0 I I 0 999
. 0.997 0.994 0.989 0.978 M4S 0.892 0.797
10.1 I 0 9. 99 0.998 0.996 0.990 0.980 0.960 0.902 0.814 0.M3
10.2 0.997 0.994 0.YK8 0.977 0.943 O.K'Xl 0.792 0 . S~8 0.312 0.097
10.3 0.997 0.994 0.987 O.97S 0.9>9 O.SKI 0.777 0.~J2 0.283 0.080
10.4 0.999 0.998 O.99S 0.991 0.982 0.95S 0.913 0.834
10.S O.W? 0.998 0.998 0.!I'l5 0.991 0.978 0 . 9~5 0.914

10.6 0.999 0.999 0.998 0 . 99~ 0.991 0 . 97~ 0 .9SS 0 .914
10.7 I 0 9. 99 0.999 0.997 0.995 0 .9~6 0.97 .\ 0.947
10.8 I 0 9. 99 0.Q98 0.998 O.99S -0.991 0.978 O . 9~S 0.914
10.9 0.999 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.986 , 0.973 0.934 0.872 0.761
11.0 0.999 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.973 0.934 0.872 0.761
11.1 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.992 0.984 0.%9 0.923 0 . 8~~ 0.726
11.2 I 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.989 0.978 0.9SS 0.892 0.7Y6 0.6B
11.3 0.999 0.999 0.997 0.994 0.98S 0.971 0.942 0.81>2 0.742 0 . ~S2
11.4 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.993 0.983 0.9M 0.9.14 0.842 0.709 0.S03
II.S 0.999 0.998 0.996 0.992 0.980 0.960 0.921 0.814 O.MI 0.438
11.6 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.977 0.9SS 0.912 0.794 0 . ~32 0 ..199
11.7 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.977 0.9SS 0.912 0.794 0.632 0.399
11.8 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.993 0.983 0.9M 0.934 0.842 0.709 0.503
11.9 0.999 0.998 O.99S 0.989 0.978 0.955 0.892 0.796 0.633
Carbon dioxide gas

12.0 - 13.9 J.lm
Distance, km
Wavelength ,I'm
0.2 O.S 10 20 so 100 200
12.0 0.999 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.91>6 0.934 0.872

12. 1 0.999 0.998 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.978 0 . 9~S 0.914
12. 2 I 0 9. 99 0.998 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.978 0.9SS 0 .9 14
12.3 0.998 0.995 om 0.Y81 0.952 0.Y07 0.823 0.~14 0.376 0. 142
12.4 0 9. 94 0 .98S 0.970 0.941 0.8S9 0.738 0.S45 0.218 0.048 0.002
12.5 0.987 0.968 0.936 0.877 0.719 0 . ~17 0.21>8 0.0.17 0.001 0
12.6 0 9. 80 0 .9~0 0.903 0.81S 0.599 O..lS8 0. 129 0.006 0 0
12.7 0 9. 96 0.989 0.979 0.959 0.899 0.809 0.M4 0.346 0. 120 oms
12.8 0 9. 90 0.974 0.949 0.901 0.770 0 .S92 O..ISI 0.072 0.005 0
12.9 0 9. 8S 0.962 0.92S 0.856 0.677 0.4S8 0.210 0.020 0 0
13.0 0 9. 91 0.977 0.9SS 0.912 0.794 0.630 0.397 0.099 0.010 0

III 0.990 0.974 0.949 0.900 0.768 0.592 0.348 0.07 1 0.005 0
132 0.978 0.946 0.895 0.801 0.575 0.\30 0. 109 0.004 0 o
1l.3 0.952 0.884 0.782 0.611 0.29:1 0.085 0.007 0 0 o
13.4 0.935 0.846 0.715 0.512 0.187 0 .035 0.001 0 o
115 0.901 0.767 0.W3 0.352 0.070 0.005 0 o o
136 0.901 0.792 0.627 0.3SI 0.097 0.009 0 o o o
13.7 0.916 0.803 0.644 0.415 0. 110 0.012 0 o o o
13.8 0.858 0.681 0.464 0.21S 0.021 0 0 o o o
13.9 0.778 0.S34 0.286 0.082 0.002 0 0 o o o
~--------+-~----------~D
Fig. 4.28 Sca.ttering
(aJ Calculation of T, Atmospheric transmission due to scattering can

be calculated by considering a layer dD of the atmosphere. The change in
intensity produced by this layer is
d1 = -r1dD
where r is the scattering coefficient and 1 the incident intensity. In other

words,
d1 = -AdD
I
which on integration gives the relation
log 1 = -r D + constant
or
The constant C is obtained by putting D = 0 and 1 = 10 :
The transmittance due to scattering then becomes
1 _
T. - - .- e -yD (4 .11)
• - 10 -
(b) The effect of particle size on r An atmosphere containing n water

particles of radius r per cubic centimetre has a scattering coefficient of the
form
(4.12)
Fig. 4.29 A graph of J(o as function of r / ~
where Ko is the ratio of the scattering cross section of 1 cm3 of the atmo-
sphere to the geometric cross section n1rr2 of particles contained in this
volume.
This ratio is a rapidly-varying function of riA when r < A (Fig. 4.29); it
reaches its maximum value of 3.8 when the particle radius is equal to the
optical wavelength, and thereafter stabilises at around 2. We may therefore
expect very selective scattering by particles with radius r < A.
Electron Gas Ash Salt Dust Haze Fog Ooud Rain
mol.
Particle
radiuS, 10-9 10-4 0.0- 0.1-0.3 0.1-10 0.3-3 1-30 1-30 3-3000
J:ll11 0.1
No. per 2.7x 104 5040 variable 50-400 1-200 50-500 variable
cm- 3
1019
Let us take an actual example concernmg fog. The statIstIcal disttl-
but ion of the particles that make up fog is shown in FigA.30. It has a
maximum for r between 5 and 15 jJm, which means that there is strong
scattering in the infrared (r / A-I).
n Number of particles, cm- 3
Particle radius, jJm

r
0.5 5 15 80
Fig. 4.30 Particle number distribution
When the fog contains 200 particles percm3 , and the particle radius is
5 jJm, i.e., n = 200 and r = 5 jJm = 5 x 1O-4cm, we find that, for A = 4 jJm,
Fig. 4.31 Rayleigh scattering as the cause of the blue colour of the sky
riA = 1.25 and Ko ~ 3,

"I = 7r nKor2 = 3.14 x 200 x 3 x 25 X 10- 8 =4.71 X 10- 4
which for a path length of D = 100 m gives
T, =e-'Y =exp (-4.71 x 10-
D 4 x 10 4 ) =0.009
For A = 40 I'm, riA = 0.1, Ko ~ 0.05 and D = 100 m .the result is
T, = exp (-3.14 x 200 x 0.05 x 25 x 10- 8 x 10 4 ) =0.92
It is interesting to note that for a path of only 100 m, the 4-l'm radiation
is almost completely absorbed, but suffers hardly any attenuation at wave-
lengths ten times larger (unfortunately, this spectral range corresponds to
=
molecular absorption by water vapour). For>. 12 I'm, the transmittance
is 50% under comparable conditions.
Actually, this method of calculation is difficult to implement because
we need to know the number and size of the particles in the atmosphere.
These parameters can be determined by laboratory methods that yield
curves similar to those reproduced above.
(c) Relation between T, and visibility To approach the scattering problem
from a more practical point of view, it is interesting to use the relation
between the scattering coefficient "I and the wavelength >.. This takes the
form
When the particles are small in comparison with the wavelength, we

have Rayleigh scattering and a =
4. This phenomenon occurs even in a
very clear atmosphere and explains why the sky is blue. The colour is due
to Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by the gas molecules in the atmosphere.
In the case of fogs, the particles are larger, a tends to zero and we
have Mie scattering for which "{ is independent of wavelength. The most
frequent types of fog are those with a =
0, in which case the fog is white
because of non-selective scattering.
The transmission of optical radiation by mist or fog is readily calculated
from visibility readings. The contrast of an object and its surroundings,
viewed through a scattering medium, clearly deteriorates with increasing
distance'.
The minimum contrast perceived by the human eye is of the order of 2%,
so that the visibility range Dv is that for which an object of unit contrast
is at the limit of perception in a medium with a contrast of 2%.
The scattering coefficient in the visible range, "{v, and the visibility range
Dv are thus related by
3.92
"{V = - - ( 4.13)
Dv
where Dv is in km and "(v in km-l.
Object radiance rerceived radiance at Dv
1
"2"
o
Fig. 4.32 Definition of minimum perceived contrast
Further details, may be found in the following publications: W.E.K.

Middleton Vision through the Atmosphere, University of Toronto Press,
1952; L.F.Elterman, 'Parameters for Attenuation in the Atmospheric
Windows for Fifteen Wavelengths', Applied Optics, 3, 745, 1964; and
J .A.Curcio, 'Evaluation of Atmospheric Aerosol Particle Size Distribution
from Scattering Measurements in the Visible and Infrared', J . Opt. Soc.
Am. 51, 548,1961.
=
Measurements give a 1.3 for the m~jority of mists found on the Earth's
surface.
r d) The effect of rain Drops of rain are large when compared with wave-
=
length, and a O. This gives rise to non-selective scattering.
The scattering coefficient of rain can be calculated from Middleton's
94 Infrared Tbermograpby
2 ,4 -
\
I I
I \ , 1
,0 i '--
Fog ;Haze Clear V. clear Exceptionally
,6 \ 1
clear
\
,2 - \
\
,8
\
\
'\
.4
~ r- I--
o 3 4 5678910 20 30 40!D 100
1 2
Visibility D", km
Fig.4.33 Scattering coefficient in the visible range as a function of visibility
range
formula
-6 Z
'Y = 1.25 x 10 r3 (4.14)
where'Y is in cm- 1 , Z is the height of water precipitated per second and r is

the radius of the drops in cm. For example, when Z = 3.89 X 10- 4 cm/ sec
=
and r 0.1 cm, we have 'Y ~.87 X 10- 7 cm- I • =
The table given below lists the values of transmittance over a path of
one nautical mile through rain (1852 m):
Conditions Rainfall, cm/h Transmission y,km- 1
Fine rain 0.25 0.88 0.07

Medium rain 1.25 0.74 0.16
Heavy rain 2.5 0.65 0.23
V. heavy rain 10.0 0.38 0.52
4.5.3 Example of application
We shall now calculate the atmospheric transmission factor for the following
conditions: optical path D = 1.852 km, visibility range D" = 20 km, Ao =
0.6 J.Lm and height of precipitated water h = 17 mm. This configuration
corresponds to the experimental curves shown in Section 5.1. We will
calculate the transmittance for wavelengths Al = 4J.Lm and A2 = 10J.Lm.
The scattering coefficient in the visible range (AO = 0.6 Jlm) is
3.92 3.92
lO .6/-im = D" = 20 = 0.20
The relation between the scattering coefficient at Ao = 0.6 Jlm and at
other wavelengths A is
lo;:m (0~6) -Q = (0~6) -1.3
so that the scattering coefficient
0.6) 1.3 (0~6) -1.3

I).. = lO.6/-im ( T = 0.20 A
=
becomes 14/-1m 0.0170 and I10/-Im 0.0052. =
Transmission due to scattering is given by T3 = e--yD, so that for D =
1.852 km we have T3 = 0.97 and T3 = 0.99 for A = 4 Jlm and A = 10 Jlm,
respecti vely.
For transmission due to molecular absorption by water vapour (the re-
sults are extrapolated from the Passman-Larmore tables for h = 17 mm),
we have TH 2 0 = 0.96 and TH 2 0 = 0.81 for A = 4Jlm and A = 10Jlm,
respectively.
For transmission due to molecular absorption caused by carbon dioxide
gas (obtained from the same tables), the values are Teo l = 0.99 and Teo l =
= =
1.00 for A 4Jlm and A 10 Jlm, respectively.
Thus total transmittances are
TlO/-im = T, 10/-Im X THlO 10/-Im X TeOllO/-Im = 0.99 x 0.81 x 1.00 = 0.80

so that for D = 1.852 km, we have T4 /-1m = 0.92 and '1i0 /-1m = 0.80 These
results are in good agreement with the corresponding experimental curve.
A similar calculation performed with a step size ~A = 0.1 Jlm gives the
curve of Section 4.5.1. It is interesting to compare this with the experi-
mental curve. Some differences in the results can be noted when making
this comparison. The differences are often due to the fact that the results
are obtained with different spectral resolution ~A.
The above calculation corresponds to ~A = 0.1Jlm at each wavelength,
whereas the measurements shown in Section 4.5.1 were obtained for ~A =
0.025 - 0.050 Jlm, depending on spectral range.
We note that for D = 10 km and the same weather conditions, it is found
that
~4~m = 0.84 TH204~m =0.90 TC024~m = 0.98

~ lO~m = 0.95 TH 2 0 10 ~m = 0.30 TC0210~m = 0.99
= =
so that the total transmissions for D 10 km are 4. ~m 0.74 and TlO I'm =
0.28.
Finally, when an average rain shower is superimposed on this type of
configuration, we obtain, for D = 10 km,
4.~m = 0.92 x 0 7. 4 = 0.68
TlO~m = 0.80 x 0.74 = 0.59

and, for D = 1.852 km,
T4~m = 0.74 x 0.20 = 0.50
TlO~m = 0.28 x 0.20 = 0.06

TI . _J_ II IT .. 11
I 11 'I i
0.7.-
I~~~ . - '- 1 - U Il~~~ ~ '~.:j"~
II It
I I ! I
,}TIITllj llit '11II I .~ 1.
I
IWHIH++Hlf~illilll . I~L JUjlJj I I L1JJlJlIlilllJDillTIlnmmr_ , ll~tt~t
II
I
.IHIH+I+l+,i,lIIJ IlIlllIDJ .u IWH1HI
0 .2 1 -"+++IWIII+li"I+l+l-j\l4'\-w~I+illUI-UI+lM+++Wm·I--I· I Ii: +tHH-H++-H+··
0.1 . --...
o 1111 InrITIIrrnlmm~1l1$ttlll]m~~tll}illllt 1I1=1---1=W 111111111111\11111111111 ~lltjj ~jtttllittjtjtj~ j~!jj,l'

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 to II 12 13
Wavelength, I!m
Propagation path 1.852 km

Precipitable water, h 17mm
Visibility range, Dv
20 km (A. = 0.6 !lm)
Spectral resolution, .1A. 0.1 !lm
Fig. 4.34 Spectral transmittance of the atmosphere (calculated)
Atmospheric transmission
Distance, 2.00 km. Precipitation, 25.20 mm.
Temp. 20 deg C. ReI. humidity, 70%. Visibility, 15 km.
1.00 i ,
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Jim
Fig. 4.35 Spectral transmittance of the atmosphere (initial conditions)
Distance,0.20 lan. Precipitation, 2.52 mm.
1.00 Itln/'-----=====~::::::::__,
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
~m
Distance, 10 km. Precipitation, 126 mm.
1.00 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
~m
Fig. 4.36 Effect of propagation path length

1.00 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -....
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Jlm
1.00 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Jlm
Fig. 4.37 Effect of temperature

1.00 r----------------------,
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Il m
Temp.20 deg C. ReI. humidity, 70%. Visibility, 15 km.
1.00 r---------------------~
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Il m
Fig. 4.38 Effect of relative humidity

1.00.--------------------.
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Jlm
1.00 .-------------------------0
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Jlm
Fig. 4.39 Effect of visibility range

5
Optical Materials for the Infrared
---- /
5.1 PROPAGATION OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

IN MATTER
In general, the propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a material
medium affects the properties of both wave and medium. In particular,
the wave amplitude may be modified by absorption or emission by the
medium, the wave may be split by double refraction and the direction of
propagation may be altered by scattering and diffraction.
Electromagnetic waves are characterised by an electric field vector E and
magnetic field vector H whose propagation in the medium is described by
Maxwell's equations. The characteristics of the medium can be defined by
its permittivity €, its magnetic permeability 1', its electrical conductivity 'Y
and the free charge density p. In SI unit, Maxwell's equations are:
8H
curlE = -I'at (5.1)
cdiv E = p (5.2)
oE
curl H =Cat +-yE (5.3)
divH = 0 (5.4)
The field vectors may be resolved into components along the rectangular
Cartesian axes Ox, Oy, Oz. Thus, the components of E are E:e, E" , Ez and
those of curl E are
=
(curlE):e oEz _ 0 E"
oy OZ
oE:e
(curlE) = -
" oz
-oEz
-
ox
(curlE)z = oE" _ oE:e
ox oy
Moreover
oE:e oE" oEz
· E
d IV = --
ox
+ --
oy
+ --
oz
The equation of propagation of an electromagnetic wave will now be
derived on the assumption that there are no free charges in the medium
(p = 0) so that div E = O. It will also be assumed that there is no current in
=
the medium (dielectric), so that -yE O. Differentiating (5.3) with respect
to the time, we obtain
(differentiation with respect the time commutes with the curl which entails
only space differentiations).
Equation (5.1) gives oH/ot, so that
02E oE
curl curl E = -€JJ ot 2 - -YJJ 7ft
The x-component of the vector curl curl E is given by
(curl curl E) = ~ [OE" _ OE:e] _ ~ [OE:e _ OEz] = 02E" _ 02E:e

:e oy ox oy oz oz ox oyox oy2
0 2E:e 02Ez
- oz2 + OZOX
Adding and subtracting the term 0 2E:e/Ox2 we obtain
( ) _ 0 [OE:e oE" OEz] [02E:e 02E:e 02E:e]

curlcurlE:e - ox ox + oy + oz - ox2 + oy2 + oz2
Optical Materials for the Infrared 105
and since
div E = 8Ex + 8E + 8Ez = 0
y
8x 8y 8z
we have
8 2Ex 8 2 Ex 8 2 Ex]
(curl curl E)x = - [ 8x2 + 8y2 + 8z 2
The equation of propagation of the electric field is therefore
(5 .5)
The speed of propagation of the wave in the medium is given by
1
£1-'=2" (5.6)
v
Consider now the propagation of a sinusoidal plane wave in the Oz

direction . The wave will be described by an electric vector E which will be
oriented along Ox and a magnetic field vector H oriented along Oy :
Ex = aexp jw(t _ Nz) Hx =0

c
Ey = 0 Hy = bexp jw(t _ Nz)

c
where w = 21rcl.A is the angular frequency of the wave, .A is its wavelength

T = .Alc is the period, N is the complex index of refraction of the medium
and c is the velocity of light in vacuum.
It can be shown that the fields E and H are in phase and are orthogonal
to one another. Electromagnetic phenomena can therefore be analysed
entirely in terms of the electric field vector E .
From (5 .5), we find that
and since
8 2Ex w 2 N2
-8 2 = - - - 2 - Ex
z c
8 2Ex _ 2E
7ji2 - -w x
8Ex . E
at =JW x
-E
Fig. 5.1 An electromagnetic wave
we obtain
so that
j
2
N 2 = cl-'C2 _ ':C = I-'C2 (c _ j~) (5.7)
i.e., the index of refraction is complex:
N=n-jK
The real part n is the classical refractive index, familiar from optics, and
the imaginary part K is the index of extinction of the medium that char-
acterises its capacity for absorption. Squaring this equation, we have
N 2 =n 2 -K2-2iKn (5 .8)
and comparing equations (5 .7) and (5.8) we obtain
n2 = 1-';2 [J c 2 + :: 1
+c
Wavelength
Fig. 5.3 Anomalous dispersion
(5.9)
2
n/{ = -Y,,"C
2w
It is convenient to distinguish the two different ways in which the refractive
index n and the index of extinction /{ depend on w or on the wavelength
A = 27rc/w.
(aJ Normal dispersion This is the case of materials with good optical
transmission in the relevant wavelength range. Generally, there is strong
absorption at short wavelengths and /{ declines rapidly, giving high trans-
parency at long wavelengths. The refractive index n declines gradually.
(b J Anomalous dispersion This is the case of materials used in the neigh-
bourhood of a spectral absorption line . /{ then has the structure of an
absorption band centered on the line wavelength Ao, whilst the refractive
index n is relatively stable on either side of the line, but varies rapidly in
the neighbourhood of Ao.
"0 "
Wavelength
Fig. 5.2 Normal dispersion

If propagation takes place in a dielectric, the conductivity is very low,

so that 'Y is practically zero:
In vacuum
C:oJ.lOC 2 = 1
where C:o is the permittivity of empty space and J.lo = 471" X 10- 7 (H m- 1 ) is
the magnetic permeability of empty space. Hence
2 C:J.I
n =--
C:oJ.lo
It is often the case that J.I is very little different from J.lo, which allows
one to write
n[( = _1_
2wc:o
so that
2 c
n =- (5.10)
cO
In a conducting medium 1 is large, and in the infrared, where the wave-
length A is long, the angular frequency W = 271"ci A is low and the difference
n 2 - [(2 remains constant whilst the product n[( increases , so that
In the general case, the amplitude of the electric field vector describing
an optical phenomenon may be written
Ex = aexpJw t - .( ~
nz) exp (WJ(z)
--c- (5.11)
i.e ., the refractive index n affects the phase of the wave propagating with
speed v = cln.
The index of extinction I< affects the amplitude of the wave, attenuating
it exponentially. The radiant intensity is given by
1= ExEx
•
= a2 exp (2W[( z) 2
- - c - = a exp (-az)
where the absorption coefficient is
a = 2w[( = 471" [( (5 .12)

c A
Fig. 5.4 Decay of the amplitude Ez
The smaller the value of a, i.e., the smaller the value of K, the more
transparent the medium becomes. The complex refractive index N = n -
j K thus defines all the optical properties of the medium.
The amplitude of the wave decreases by the factor lie over the propa-
gation path Zo in the medium, given by
~
Z ---
0 - 47rK
5.2 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF A MEDIUM
The presence of an electromagnetic field in a medium causes electrons to

oscillate at the characteristic frequency of the field. In a dielectric, the
electrons are strongly bound to the atomic structure and their amplitudes
of vibration remain small, except for the neighbourhood of electron res-
onance frequencies where a substantial proportion of the incident energy
may be transferred to the medium. This gives rise to an absorption line,
within which absorption depends strongly on wavelength. Metals, on the
other hand, contain very mobile free electrons and can exhibit strong ab-
sorption at all wavelengths. Moreover, as will be seen below, metals are
generally highly reflective. Besides these two types of media there are also
semiconductors which display the properties of both types.
It was shown above that the refractive index can be written in the com-
plex form N = n - jK, i.e., it involves the real part n and the imaginary
part K.
5.2.1 Refraction
The direction of propagation of an electromagnetic wave in an inhomoge-
neous medium may be characterised by variations or discontinuities in the
refractive index n.
The behaviour of a wave at the boundary between two media with dif-
ferent refractive indic~ nl and n2 is described by Snell's law:
sin il
(5.13)
sin i2
where il is the angle of incidence and i2 the angle of refraction.
Fig. 5.5 Refraction
5.2.2 Dispersion
It follows from Snell's law that the direction of propagation of the re-
fracted wave depends on wavelength because the refractive indices nl and
n2 depend on wavelength. Indeed, equation (5.9) shows that n depends on
w = 27rc/>' . This is the well-known phenomenon of chromatic dispersion.
The dispersion of the refractive index of a medium is often represented
by a number called the dispersion index, defined by
n-l
v=-- (5.14)
dn
where n is the mean refractive index of the material in a wavelength range

d)" in which the refractive index changes by the amount dn.
It is also necessary to remember that the refractive index of a material
generally depends on its temperature.
5.2.3 Absorption, transmission and reHection
The index of extinction K describes the transparency of a given material.

Fresnel's laws enable us to define the normal reflectance of a material, i.e.,
the ratio of reflected intensity to the incident intensity at normal incidence:
R_(n-1)2+ K 2
(5.15)
- (n+1)2+K2
The reflectance R of a surface depends on the direction of incidence of the

electromagnetic wave and on its polarisation.
(a) For a transparent dielectric whose index of extinction is effectively
zero (K ~ 0), the fraction of energy that is reflected is given by
R= (~)2 (5.16)
n+1
This is the classical expression for the reflectance of materials in optics.

It should be noted in this connection that R increases with increasing
refractive index n, and that reflection by a highly refractive material can
be accompanied by substantial losses unless the surface has been specially
treated to reduce this.
Example Reflectance of the separation boundary between a medium and
alr:
n 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
R 0.04 0.11 0.18 0.25 0.31 0.36
When the surface of a medium of refractive index n is coated with a

material of index n', and n'l = )..14, the reflectance of the system takes the
form
n _ n'2)2
( (5.17)
R = n + n'2
i.e., R vanishes for n' = fo. This relation follows from the application of
Fresnel's formulas to the different surfaces in question.
n' n
~/
--7/
(I)
(2)
Fig. 5.6 Thin anti-reflective coating
At normal incidence, the phase difference between rays reflected by the

first surface of the layer of index n' (1) and the surface of the medium of
index n (2) is given by
271" A
dCP=T"2=7I"
Rays (1) and (2) are in antiphase and interfere destructively, yielding a
negligible amplitude for reflection by the system, especially if the two waves
have the same amplitude, and n' = ..;n.
For germanium (n =
4) and A =
10Jlm, for example, a zinc sulphide
film with n' = 2.2 and thickness I such that
n'l = A/4,
we have
A 10
4n'
1= -
8.8
= - = 1.14Jlm
and the reflectance of the system is
R' = -n'2) = 0.009

(nn+n,2
This may be compared with the untreated air-germanium interface for
which R = 0.36.
The reflectance of the interface between two media can be reduced over
a wide wavelength range by means of a multilayer coating. The materials
commonly used in such antireflective films are cryolite (AIF3 - NaF, n' =
1.3), magnesium fluoride (MgF 2 , n' = 1.38), silicon monoxide (SiO, n' =
=
1.6 - 1.9), cerium oxide (Ce02, n' 2.2) and zinc sulphide (ZnS, n' = 2.2)
(b) In metals, the electrical conductivity r is generally high, whilst in

the infrared nK decreases with increasing angular frequency wand, con-
sequently, increases with wavelength >., whereas the difference n 2 - K2
remains constant. In the limit, this leads to
2
n2 ~ K2 = rp.c = ~
2w 2wf:o
The reflectance then takes the form
R = (n -1)2 + K2 =1 _ 4n
(n+l)2+K2 n 2 +2n+l+K2
Since r is large and w is small, the indices n '"" K are large, and the quantity
2n + 1 is negligible as compared with n 2 + K2 '"" 2n 2. It follows that
(5.18)
Metals in the infrared.
The above relation shows that the reflectance of a metal increases with
the indices n and K, i.e., when its electrical conductivity r is high. More-
over, R increases with the wavelength>. = 27rc/w.
Example Reflectance of copper in the infrared. At, say, .A = 10 p.m the
angular frequency is
27rC
W = -
>.
=
1.88 X 10 14
Under these conditions, copper has the electrical conductivity r = 5.8 x

= =
107 n- 1 m- 1 . Taking p. P.o 47r X 10- 7 , we have
n 2 ~ K2 = rp.c 2 = rp..AC = 5.8 x 107 x 47r X 10- 7 X 10- 5 X 3 X 108

2w 47r 47r
n ~ K = 130
so that the reflectance of copper at >. = 10 p.m is
2
R = 1 - 1.3 X 102 = 0.98
I
4 -----I---'---.....-Ge-
I
I
I_ lSi
1 1
3 ---- -1--- --t--
, I I
~ ',L _!'~3.~ I /(RS 5
AgCI~6
Sa
. I
2
pphi;;s:::t
'- ~ ~~
Csi
__
1
Silica glass ____ '-__ ~., KI
1 --CaF2 NaCI
--"":::NaF
l~~UU~~~~~~~~
0.1 10 60 Wavelength, I'm

Fig. 5.7 Refractive index of some optical materials
10,3
Ge
10'4 '--...L----L.....L..JU--'---'-'-......... - . . & - - ' Wavelength, J.l.m
0.1 10 40
Fig. 5.8 Wavelength dependence of dispersion (>. is in I'm)
5.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OPTICAL MATERIALS
An optical system working in the infrared cannot be fully specified in terms

of its optical parameters alone. It is also necessary to take account of
the physical characteristics of the materials, including their mechanical,
thermal, electrical and chemical properties, and their cost.
The working and optical polishing of materials is possible only above a
certain hardness threshold. Materials that are too soft are not suitable for
the manufacture of optical components.
Another important factor is the thermal expansion of optical materials
and their supports, especially in systems in which several lenses are coupled
together . Moreover, the materials used for windows or for external lenses
of a system must resist physical abrasion and chemical corrosion (sea spray,
atmospheric pollution and so on). As far as possible, these materials must
be insoluble in water. Finally, cost and availability are important criteria
in the choice of materials.
5.3.1 Hardness
Various conventions govern the definition of the hardness of a material. We
shall describe hardness in terms of the Knoop number. This is obtained by
driving a diamond pyramid indenter under load P into the surface of the
material under test. The area of the resulting losange-shaped indentation
is calculated from a measurement of its diagonals which are in the ratio
7:1. The Knoop hardness is then defined as the ratio of the load P on the
diamond to the area S of the indentation:
Knoop hardness = PS
The higher the Knoop number the harder the material. Its dimensions are
those of pressure.
The notion of hardness is very important in the choice of materials for
irdomes and windows and all other materials requiring optical polishing
for which a Knoop hardness of at least 15 is necessary. Good resistance
to chemical corrosion and low solubility in water must be associated with
hardness.
5.3.2 Thermal properties

Naturally, the thermal properties of materials become important when they
are used in optical components that are subject to significant temperature
variations . The relevant parameters are thermal conductivity, thermal ex-
pansion and specific heat. These quantities need to be known not only for
the optical materials, but also for the metallic or plastic materials used in
supports, in order to minimise mechanical stresses that arise from temper-
ature variations.
The extension of a sample is proportional to its length and to the tem-
perature change dT which it undergoes:
dl = f31dT
where coefficient of portionality is
f3 = _1 dl (5.19)
dT I
and is called the coefficient oflinear expansion. Materials may be classified,

as far as their thermal expansion is concerned, in terms of this coefficient .
The melting and softening points are of great importance in defining the
temperature ranges in which a material may be used. Some typical values
are listed in the table below.
LINEAR
EXPANSION MELTING
MATERIAL COEFFICIENT , POINT, 0 C DENSITY
106 (0 C)-I
Invar 0.8 1495 8

(Fe-Ni-C alloy)
Platinum 9
Steel -10
Iron 12 1490 7.78
Copper 17 1082 8.5
Brass -18
Silver 18 820
Aluminium 23 660 2.71
Silica gel 0.6 1 700 2.2
Germanium 5.5 958 5.33
Ordinary glass -9 500 various
Fluorine 24 1 360 3.18
Plastics 90 to 179 66 to 123
5.3.3 Cost of materials

The cost of optical materials ranges widely, no doubt because of difficulties
of production or supply.
Single crystals are generally much dearer than polycrystalline materials.
The alkali halides are relatively cheap, while ZnSe, CdTe, KRS-5 and BaF 2
can reach very high prices.
Single-crystal germanium and silicon are very widely used and are rela-
tively expensive, but less so in the polycrystalline state.
Example Approximate retail price of a plano-convex lens of focal
length 100 rnrn and diameter 50 mm with an anti-reflection coating for
10 j.tm or 4 j.tm in 1978 French francs before tax.
Material NaCI KCI BaF2 CaF2 KRS-5 CdTe ZnSe Ge
Price 1400 1500 5000 3000 4000 6000 10000 5000
5.4 TYPES OF MATERIAL
The materials used in the infrared include glasses, natural and artificial
crystals, plastics and metals.
5.4.1 Glasses
The majority of glasses have cut-off wavelengths longer than 2.7 j.tm because
of strong absorption by OH- ions. Fused quartz or fused silica glasses
transmit satisfactorily up to 5 j.tm . Absorption above this limit is due to
the vibration spectrum of the Si-O bond . Particular care must be taken in
this case to eliminate any trace of water during fabrication because of the
absorption band near 2.8 j.tm. These glasses are generally manufactured
under vacuum. Certain special glasses transmit longer wavelengths. They
include:
• Calcium aluminates such as Bausch-Lomb IR 10-11-12 and Barr and
Stroud BS 37 A
• Kodak Irtran glasses
Irtran 1: hot-pressed magnesium flubride base (MgF2)
Irtran 2:hot-pressed zinc sulphide glass (ZnS)
Irtran 3: calcium fluoride glass (CaF 2)
Irtran 4: zinc selenide glass (ZnSe)
Irtran 5: hot-pressed glass from magnesium oxide (MgO)
Irtran 6: cadmium telluride glass CdTe (no longer manufactured by
Eastman Kodak)
• Chalcogenides glasses containing heavy elements such as arsenic, anti-
mony, thallium, selenium or tellurium.
• Glasses containing arsenic trisulphide (As 2 Sa)

• Glasses containing germanium oxides, e.g., Sovirel Vir 3.
5.4.2 Crystals
Crystals may be in monocrystalline or polycrystalline form. They are gen-

erally dielectrics or semiconductors. Their transparency depends on tem-
perature: an increase in temperature strongly reduces the optical transmis-
sion of a semiconducting medium, because of the creation of new atomic
energy levels allowing further photon absorption. Commonly used crystals
include:
• The halides, usually single-crystals such as rocksalt (NaCl), calcium fluo-
ride (CaF 2 ), potassium chloride (KCl), sylvine, cerargyrite (AgCl) , thal-
lium bromoiodide (KRS-5), thallium bromoiochloride (KRS-6) and so
on.
• Semiconductors are rare and expensive in the single-crystal state, but
are more widely available in partly polycrystalline form. These include
silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), gallium arsenide (GaAs) and so on.
5.4.3 Plastics
These materials are generally considered unsuitable because of poor me-

chanical properties and thermal instability. However, components are read-
ily manufactured by milling, an operation that is of interest for the serious
production of aspherical optical elements for the infrared. Moreover, poly-
thene and perspex (polymethylmethacrylate) films can be used as windows
for some equipment, and provide very good infrared transmission despite
the presence of some narrow absorption bands.
5.4.4 Metals
Some metals have excellent reflectance and are therefore used in the fabri-
cation of optical mirrors.
Reflecting metal films are deposited in vacuum on a substrate that often
takes the form of glass, quartz, pyrex or a ceramic with a very low expansion
coefficient.
Commonly used metals include aluminium (AI), silver (Ag), gold (Au)
and copper (Cu) The surface of such mirrors is often protected by a thin
layer of silicon oxide (SiO).
5.5 PROPERTIES OF SOME OPTICAL MATERIALS
5.5.1 Glasses
• Borosilicate crown glass - Si02, B20, K20, Na20
1)
0,5 2 3 .. 56789101112 1520 25 30

A,J.'ID
Refractive index : nO.5 = 1.52
nl = 1.51
n2 = 1.495
n2 .S = 1.486
- Index of dispersion v = (n - 1)/dn

- Density: 2.51
- Melting point : 600°C
- Knoop hardness: 300-600
- Coefficient of expansion: 8.9 x 10- 6 (oq-l
- Insoluble in water.
This is an ordinary weakly dispersive optical glass .
• Dense flint glass - Si0 2, K2 0, Na20, PbO
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 20 25 30
A,J.'m
Refractive Index: no.S = 1.69to 190
nl = 1.66to 1.85
n2 = 1.64to 1.83
n2,S = 1.63to 1.82
- Density: 3.6-6.2
- Coefficient of expansion: ~ 9.2 x 1O- 6 (OCt 1
This is a traditional readily polished optical glass . The flints generally offer
high dispersion.
• Fused silica Si0 2 (Corning, General Electric, Infrasil).
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
A,j.lm
Refractive Index: nO .5 = 1.46
nl = 1.45
n2 = 1.438
n3,5 = 1.406
- Density: 2.2
- Melting point: ~ 1700°C
- Knoop hardness: 461:(200 g)
- Coefficient of expansion: 0.55 x 1O- 6 (OC)-1
• (Calcium aluminate glass - BS - 37A - Barr and Stroud; IR - 10 - 11 _
12 - Bausch and Lomb)
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
A,j.lm
Refractiveindex: nO.5 = 1.67

nl = 1.654
n2 = 1.640
n3 = 1.627
n4 = 1.607
- Density: 2.9-3.4
- Knoop hardness: ~ 600
- Coefficient of expansion: ~ 9 x 1O- 6 (0C)-1
- Solubility: glasses sensitive to water.
The 2.8 j.lm absorption band can be eliminated by fabrication in vacuum.
• Arsenic trisulphide glass - As 2S3 (Barr and Stroud, American Optical
Optical Materials for the. Infrared 121
Company, Servofrax)
0,5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
Refractive index: nl = 2.48 n4 = 2.41 n9 = 2.39 A,fLm

n2 = 2.43 n5 = 2.41 nlO = 2.38
n3 = 2.42 ns = 2.39 n12 = 2.365
- Density: 3.2
- Coefficient of expansion: ~ 25 X 1O-6(oC)-1
- Knoop hardness: 109 (100 g)
=
- Index of dispersion: v~ 155; vJl 69 =
This is a glass with a high refractive index, allowing the manufacture of
lenses of low curvature and therefore smaller geometrical aberrations. On
the other hand, there are considerable reflection losses (about 30% for two
surfaces) which may be reduced by an anti-reflection coating .
• Irtran 1 (Kodak) - magnesium fluoride glass (MgF2)' polycrystalline
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
A,p,m
Refractive index: nl = 1.38 n4 = 1.35 ns = 1.26
n2 = 1.37 n5 = 1.34 n9 = 1.23
n3 = 1.36
- Density: 3.18
- Melting point: 1396°C
- Knoop hardness: 576
- Coefficient of expansion: 10 to 12 X 1O-6(OC)-1
- Index of dispersion v~ = 13
This is a glass with a low refractive index. It does not generally require
anti-reflective treatment.
• Iriran 2 (Kodak) - zinc sulphide glass (ZnS), polycrystalline
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 " 12 15 20 25 30
>",jlm
Refractive index: nl = 2.29 n4 = 2.25 n9 = 2.21
n2 = 2.26 ns = 2.24 nlO = 2.20
n3 = 2.26 ns = 2.22 nll = 2.17
- Density: 4.09
- Index of dispersion: v~ = 133; vJl = 33
- Coefficient of expansion: ::::; 7 x 1O-6(oC)-1
High index of refraction. Reflection losses are reduced by a coating of BaF 2.
• Irtran 3 (Kodak) - Calcium fluoride glass (CaF2)' polycrystalline
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 " 12 IS 20 2$ 30
>",jlm
Refractive index: no.S = 1.44 n4 = 1.41
nl = 1.43 ns = 1.35
n2 = 1.424 nlO = 1.30
n3 = 1.418 nll = 1.27
- Density: 3.18
- Index of dispersion: v~ = 22; vJl =3.9
- Coefficient of expansion: 20 x 1O-6(oC)-1
- Solubility in 100 g of water: 0.0017 g
• Irtran 4 (Kodak) - polycrystalline zinc sellenide glass
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20
Refractive index: n3 = 2.44 ns = 2.418

n4 = 2.435 nlO = 2.407
ns = 2.432 n12 = 2.394
- Density: 5.27
- Index of dispersion: 1I~ = 180; IIJl
= 83
• Irtran 5 (Kodak) - ma~nesium oxide glass (MgO), polycrystalline
1)
0,5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
Refractive index : n3 = 1.69 ns = 1.48 A, I·n n
n4 = 1.67 n9 = 1.41
ns = 1.64
- Density: 3.58
- Index of dispersion: 1I~ = 12
- Melting point: ~ 2 800°C
- Coefficient of expansion: ~ 11 x 1O-6(0C)-1
• Iriran 6 (Kodak) - cadmium telluride glass (CdTe), polycrystalline
1).
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
Refractive index: n3 = 2.695 ns = 2.677 A,J.lffi
n4 =
2.688 nlO =
2.674
ns = 2.684 n12 = 2.666
- Density: 5.85
- =
Index of dispersion: vg 154; vJl 209 =
- Coefficient of expansion: 5.7 x 1O-6(0C)-1
• Amorphous selenium - Se
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 " 12 IS 20 25 30
A,Jlm
Refractive index : no.s = 3.1 n4 = 2.45

nl = 2.55 nlO = 2.45
n2 = 2.5
- Density: 4.26
- Softening point: ~ 40°C
- Coefficient of expansion: 37 x 1O-6(0C)-1
• Chalcogenid~ glass, Selenium arsenic (Se-As), Kodak
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 " 12 15 20 25 30
A,Jlm
Refractive index: nl = 2.58 n4 = 2.484 nlO = 2.477
n2 = 2.50 ns = 2.481 n12 = 2.475
n3 = 2.488 ns = 2.478 n14 = 2.474
- Density: equivalent to Se
- Softening point: ~ 70°C
- Coefficient of expansion: 34 x 1O-6(OC)-1
The last two materials become relatively fluid as the temperature rises; the
second has a higher softening point because it contains arsenic. These are
difficult materials to use.
• Germanium oxide glass - VIRS (Sovirel)

1)
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9101112 15 20 25 30
>',J.Lm
Refractiveindex : no.S = 1.87 n3 = 1.80
nl = 1.83 n4 = 1.78
n2 =1.81 n5 = 1.76
- Density : 5.5
- Softening point: 490°C
- Knoop hardness: > 400
5.5.2 Crystals
(a) Halides
• Rocksalt - sodium chloride (NaCI; natural crystals),

0.21J.Lm < >. < 26J.Lm
1)
25 30
0,1. 0,5 2 3
>',J.Lm
Refractive index : =
no.S 1.55 n4 =
1.522 nlO = 1.495
nl= 1.532 ns =
1.519 n12 = 1,478
n3 = 1.524 ns = 1.506 n20 = 1.374
- Density : 2.16
- Coefficient of expansion: 44 x 1O-6(0C)-1
- Solubility in 100 g of water: 36 g.
Sodium chloride, or rocksalt, is hard to polish and is very hygroscopic, so
that for external use it must be covered with a thin protective film. It is
used mainly for windows and dispersive prisms in equipment for infrared
spectroscopy.
• Villiaumite - sodium chloride (NaF, synthetic single crystal),

0.19pm < A < 15pm
0,5 2 3 " 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30

A,pm
Refractive index: nO.5 = 1.327 n5 = 1.301
nl = 1.32 n7 = 1.281
n3 = 1.313 nlO = 1.23
n4 = 1.308
- Density: 2.79
- Solubility in 100 g of water: 4.2 g.
Villiaumite is less soluble than the simple chloride and is used primarily for
windows and lenses, due account being taken of its low refractive index.
• Sylvine - potassium chloride (KCI natural monocrystal),
0.21 pm < A < 30pm
Refractive index: = 1.5

nO .5 ns = 1.463
nl = 1.48 nlO =1.457
n3 = 1.474 n12 =1.445
n5 = 1.471 nlS = 1.414
- Density: 2
- Knoop hardness: 8: (200 g)
- Coefficient of expansion: 36 x 1O- 6 eC)-1.
Sylvine is about as soluble in water as sodium chloride, so that the same
precautions must be taken in its preparation (relative humidity below 30%).
Polishing presents no problem.
• Potassium bromide (KBr) (synthetic single crystal),

0.23J.Lm < A < 40J.Lm
Refractive index: nO.5 = 1.57 nlO = 1.525

nl = 1.545 n20 = 1.49
n3 = 1.536 n25 = 1.46
n5 = 1.534
- Density: 2.8
- Knoop hardness: 6 to 7 (200 g)
- Solubility in a 100 g of water: 65 g.
Often used for windows and lenses in infrared spectroscopy because of
its wide spectral transmission. Its high solubility in water means that
precautions must be taken, i.e., the optical components must be kept dry
to keep the relative humidity low. Despite its low hardness, potassium
bromide polishes well (in the absence of water).
• Potassium iodide (KI) (synthetic single crystal)
0.38J.Lm < A < 42J.Lm
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
A,{lm
Refractive index: nO .5 = 1.68 nlO = 1.622
nl = 1.64 n12 = 1.616
n3 = 1.628 n20 = 1.596
n5 = 1.627 n30 = 1.557
- Density: 3.1
- Knoop hardness: 5
Same use and characteristics as KBr.
• Lithium fluoride (LiF synthetic single crystal) , 0.12 /-lm < A < 9/-lm
3 4 5 6 25 30
0,5 2
.x,/-lm
Refractive index: nO.5 = 1.394 n3 = 1.367 ns = 1.327
nl = 1.387 n4 = 1.349 n6 = 1.298
n2 = 1.379
- Density : 2.6
- Hardness 110: (600 g)
- Coe~ciellt of expansion : 37 x 1O-6(OC)-1
- Solubility in 100 g of water: 0.27 g.
This material has a relatively low solubility and may be used for windows
and laboratory apparatus. Lithium fluoride absorbs slightly at 2.8 /-lm,
which may be eliminated by fabrication under vacuum. The dispersive
characteristics of this material are such that it may be conveniently com-
bined with arsenic trisulphide (AS 2S3 ) to make achromatic elements for
systems working near 4/-lm .
• Caesium iodide (CsI, synthetic single crystal), 0.24/-lm < A < 70/-lm
15 20 25 30
A,/-lm
Refractive index : nO .5 = 1.804 n20 = 1.727
nl = 1.757 n30 = 1.706
n4 = 1.75 n40 = 1.677
nlO = 1.739 n50 = 1.63
- Density: 4.5
- Knoop hardness: not measurable
- Coefficient of expansion : 50 x 1O-6(0C)-1
Caesium iodide transmits over a wide spectral range (0.24 to 70 /-lm) . It is
often used for the fabrication of prisms in the infrared.
• Caesium bromide (CsBr, synthetic single crystal), 0.22 pm < A < 55 pm
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 " 12 15 20 25 30
2
A,pm
Refractive index: nO.5 = 1.709 ns = 1.665
nl = 1.678 nlO = 1.663
n3 = 1.669 n12 = 1.660
n4 = 1.668 n20 = 1.644
n5 = 1.667
- Density: 4.44"
- Knoop hardness: 19.5 (200 g)
Caesium bromide is used in the fabrication of windows and lenses.
• Silver chlorirle'(AgCI; cerargyrite, synthetic single crystal)
O.4pm < A < 30pm
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 " 12 15 20 25 30
A,pm
Refractive index : nO.S = 2.096 ns = 1.988
nl = 2.022 nlO = 1.980
n3 = 2.002 n12 = 1.970
n4 = 2.000 n20 = 1.907
ns = 1.997
- Density: 5.6
- Coefficient of expansion .: 30 x 1O-6(oC)-1
Silver chloride is a colourless ductile material with the consistency of lead.
Its hardness is too low to permit polishing, but moulding under pressure is
possible . It may be used for the construction of windows; small thickness is
possible, but substantial pressure differences cannot be supported. Insolu-
ble in water; it blackens in the presence of the ultraviolet (photochemical
effect).
• Calcium floruide (CaF2' natural or synthetic single crystal), 0.13flm <

A<12flm
b . .________- - - -. .
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
A,flm
Refractive index: =
no 1.437 ns 1.399 =
nl = 1.429 ns = 1.35
n3= 1.418 n9 1.33 =
n4 = 1.410 nlO = 1.31
- Density: 3.18
- Coefficient of expansion : 24 X 1O-6{0C)-1
- Solubility in a 100 g of water: 0.0017 g.
This is a relatively hard crystal; polishing presents no problem. It is used for
windows, prisms and lenses; components may be aligned in the visible. The
material is available in samples 20 em in diameter, and it is not damaged
by humidity, but begins to soften at 600°C in a humid atmosphere.
• Barium fluoride (BaF 2 synthetic monocrystal), 0.15 fl < A < 15 fl
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 ,30

A,flm
Refractive index: no.s = 1.48 ns = 1.45
nl = 1.47 ns = 1.42
n3 = 1.46 nlO = 1.40
n4 = 1.46
- Density: 4.8
- Coefficient of expansion: 18.4 x 1O- 6(OC)-1
Barium fluoride is normally used in the same way as calcium fluoride,
but does not tolerate prolonged exposure to a humid atmosphere. It is
essentially a laboratory material.
• KRS-5 Thallium bromoiodide (Ti Br-TI; synthetic crystal),

0.5J.Lm < A < 40J.Lm
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
Refractive index: nl = 2.444 ns = 2.37 A,jlm

n3 = 2.39 nlO = 2.37
n4 = 2.382 n14 = 2.36
n4 = 2.38 n20 = 2.34
- Density: 7.4
- Coefficient of expansion · : 58 x 1O- 6(OC)-1
Relatively insoluble in water; offers very good infrared transmission. Must
be handled with the greatest of care because thallium salts are sometimes
toxic. Liable to plastic deformation at ordinary temperatures, but may be
stabili~ed by suitable annealing.
• KRS-6 Thallium bromide chloride (TlBr, TICI; synthetic crystal),
0.21J.Lm < A < 34J.Lm
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
A,J.Lm
Refractive index: nO.6 = 2.329 ns = 2.184
nl = 2.240 nlO = 2.177
n3 = 2.199 n12 = 2.167
n4 = 2.196 n20 = 2.115
ns = 2.193
- Density: 7.2
- Knoop hardness: 30 to 40 (500 g)
_. Coefficient of expansion : 50 x 1O- 6(0C)-1
- Solubility in a 100 g of water:' 0.32 g.
KRS-6 (like KRS-5) is used in the manufacture of windows and lenses. It
is relatively toxic.
(b) Semiconductors
• Silicon (Si; synthetic single crystal), 1.2 Jim < A < 15 Jim
1.)
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20

n3 = 3.432 n9 = 3.418
n4 = 3.425 nlO = 3.418
n5 = 3.422 nl1 = 3.418
- Density: 2.33
- Index of dispersion: IIg = 236 and IIJl = 3454
- Coefficient of expansion: 4 x 1Q-6(oC)-1
Silicon is a very hard material; the results of optical polishing are excellent.
Because of its high refractive index, reflection losses are high (46% for two
surfaces). Transmission may be improved by the deposition of ZnSn film.
As all other semiconductors, absorption increases with temperature.
• Germanium (Ge; synthetic single crystal), 1.8 Jim < A < 23 Jim
0,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 15 20 25 30
A, Jim
n3 = 4.049 n9 = 4.004
n4 =
4.024 nlO =
4.003
n5 =
4.015 n12 =
4.002
- Density: 5.33
- =
Index of dispersion: IIg 88and vJl 1112 =
- Coefficient of expansion: 5.5 x 1Q-6(0C)-1
Optical Materials for the Infrared' 133
Germanium has a very high refractive index and is widely used in infrared
optics; it requires surface treatment to improve transmission (Si0 2 for the
band from 3 to 5JLm and ZnS for the band from 8 to 13JLm). Germa-
ntum becomes practically opaque above 150°C. When cost is important
this material is often used in the polycrystalline state.
• Gallium arsenide (GaAs; synthetic crystal), 1 I'm < A < 15 I'm
Refractive index: ns = 3.34 n13 = 2.97

nlO = 3.14 n20 = 2.3
- Density: 5.3
- Coefficient of expansion: 5.7 x 1O-6(0C)-1
(c) Oxides
• Sapphire (AI 2 0 3 ; natural or synthetic crystal) 0.17 I'm < A < 6.5 I'm
o,s 2 3 45678910111215202530
A,JLm
Refractive index : no.S = 1.775 n3 = 1.70
nl = 1.755 n4 = 1.67
n2 = 1.738 ns = 1.61
- Density: 3.98
- Coefficient of expansion : 5to7 x 1O-6(oC)-1
Sapphire is often used for windows, particularly in infrared detectors.
• Quart z (Si0 2 ; natural crystal) 0.2 pm < A < 4.5 pm

1)
0,5 2 3 4567891011121520 25 30
A, pm
Refractive index : no.S = 1.549 n3 = 1.499
nl= 1.535 n4 = 1.466
n2 = 1.520 ns = 1.417
- Density : 2.65
- Coefficient of expansion: 8xl0-6
. - 14xl0-6 (oC )-1
5.5.3 Plastics
• Polyethylene
•
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 15 20 25 30
A,pm
6
Optical Image Formation
\ /
~ ?"
-- ~
.
...... :s-..;.
.
-
. ,"
......
~ ""
.
"-
The radiation intercepted by an optical system passes through the dif-

ferent media in the system and is eventually collected by an optical receiver
that converts it into an image which is subsequently analysed in terms of
a spatial discrimination modeL The radiation detection capability of the
system is limited by the properties of its optical components. These limi-
tations arise, on the one hand, from geometrical and chromatic aberrations
and, on the other, from diffraction that imposes the ultimate theoretical
limit on the resolution of the system . The dimensions of the image of a
point object must not exceed the dimensions of the sensitive surface of the
detector . In this Chapter, these effects will be examined as part of a gen-
eral study of imaging, in the course of which we will compare optical theory
with the theory of linear filters. Finally, we will consider the fundamental
causes of noise in optical components.
6.1 GEOMETRlCAL OPTICS

The function of an image-forming optical system is to transform the spher-
ical wavefront E arising from each point M of the object into a wavefront
E' with finite dimensions, which generates the image M' of M. In a per-
fect system, the image wavefront is a portion of a sphere 5' centred on the
image M' of M. All rays that, by definition, are normal to the wavefronts,
then converge on M' and every point of the object has a point image. The
surface 5' is called the reference sphere; the defects of the optical system,
or aberrations, may be described in terms of the normal deviation ~ of
the actual wavefront E' from the sphere 5' of an ideal system. In prac-
tice, rays normal to E' do not converge to a unique point, .but give rise
to a spreading of the image point, i.e., the so-called circle of least confu-
sion, whose dimensions may be predicted from the normal deviation. The
normal deviation ~ corresponding to an aberrated optical path n~ in the
medium of refractive index n is a function of the space coordinates on the
wavefront.
Image wavefront, E'

Reference sphere
Plane object
OPt··
Jclir
~J8
Plane image
Fig. 6 .1 Image formation
The aberrations usually encountered in optical systems are of two kinds:

geometrical aberrations, associated with the aperture and the field in the
system, and chromatic aberrations that arise from the dispersive properties
of the different optical media. The materials must of course be transparent
in the spectral range to be used.
6.2 ABERRATIONS OF OPTICAL SYSTEMS
6.2.1 Chromatic aberrations

=
Consider a thin lens of focal length /, or convergence C 1//, and refrac-
tive index n. The radii of curvature of the two faces will be denoted Rand
R', respectively.
Optical Image Formation 137
1
aberration
(longitudinal)
AI'
Chromatic I
aberration
(lateral)
Fig. 6.2 Chromatic aberrations
The position of the image A' (OA' = x') of a point object A (OA = x)
is given by the thin-lens formula
1 1
-=-+C (6.1)
x, x
where
(6 .2)
The distances are assumed positive in the direction of propagation.

This relation is valid for monochromatic radiation and should be used
for each wavelength component of a polychromatic field . The refractive
index n(A) of a dispersive optical medium is a function of wavelength. The
spreading of a point image may be obtained by differentiating the lens
formula:
_ dx ' = dC = [~- ~] dn = ~ dn
X /2 R R' n-1
so that
dx ' C
x/2 V
where v = (n - l)jdn is the index of dispersion, or the constringence, of

the optical material. Chromatic aberrations can be corrected by combining
lenses in such a way that the dispersion of one cancels the dispersion of
another. When this correction is made over a relatively wide spectral range,
the optical materials must be chosen so that the index of dispersion has
the necessary values in this range.
Example Consider a system with total convergence C. It consists of

two lenses of convergence C I and Cz and indices of dispersion III and liZ,
respectively. The system will be achromatic if
C = CI + Cz
CI + Cz = 0 (6.3)
lIi liZ
or
Let us suppose that the system has a focal length of f = 0.1 m or C = 10,
and is to be used in the infrared in the range 8-11/lm. The two lenses
(convergence C I and Cz) will be assumed to be made of silicon and ger-
manium, respectively. The constringence of these materials in the relevant
wavelength range is of the same type, which is essential for an achromatic
system. The optical characteristics of these materials are summarised in
the following table.
Wavelength, J..lm
Refractive index 3 4 5 8 9 10 11
Silicon 3.4324 3.4254 3.4221 3.4184 3.4180 3.4177 3.4177
Gennanium 4.0490 4.0244 4.0151 4.0053 4.0040 4.0032 4.0028
The index of dispersion of each material is given by
n-1 ~(ns+nl1)-1
v - - - - ~:.........::.-:.........::.::..:.....-
- dn - ns - nll
where VI = 3454.36 for silicon between 8 and 11 /lm and Vz = 1112.57 for
germanium between 8 and 11 /lm. The convergences of the two elements
may be determined from the achromatic conditions:
CI =C VI = 10 x 3454.36 = -14.75
VI - Vz 3454.36 - 1112.57
C 10 1112.57 475
= C -v-z---V-l =
Vz
I x 1112.57 - 3454.36 = .
Silicon " Germanium

'1: 6,8cm
Achromatic doublet, f = 1cm

Fig. 6.3 The achromatic doublet
We have thus devised an achromatic doublet for the spectral range 8-11 j.lm.
Its arrangement is indicated in Fig. 6.3.
The spread dx' of the point image is shown in Fig. 6.4 as a function of
wavelength which compares the reduction in chromatic aberration with an
uncorrected system. Three or more elements may be needed when a higher
degree of correction is required to produce an apochromatic system.
We note that an optical system consisting entirely of mirrors is not
subject to chromatic aberration.
Wavelength, j.lm
Apochromatic
Achromatic I
I
--._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--10_ _. . ~I'
Image spread
Fig. 6.4 Correction of chromatic aberration
6.2.2 Geometrical aberrations

In geometrical optics, Gauss' approximation applies to an object near the
axis of an optical system, whose image is produced by rays near the axis
and at very small angles to it (paraxial rays).
In practice, optical systems often have to have large 'a pertures and ex-
tended fields, so that the Gaussian approximation ceases to be valid . This
leads to geometrical aberrations.
Consider a thin optical system centred at 0 with axis AOA'. The image
of AB (height y) is A' B' (height y'). These two quantities represent the
object and image fields of the system, respectively.
The rays BO and OB' will be called field rays and the angles 0 =
(0 A, 0 B) and Of = (0 A' ,0 B') the object and image field angles, where
AB y
tan 0 = - =-
OA x
A'B' y'
tan 0' = - - = -
OA' x'
The quantities 0, 0' or y, y' will also be referred to as the field parameters
of the system. The ray BOB' will be called a principal or field ray.
A ray originating at A, crossing the optical system at a point M and
finally arriving at A' will be called on aperture ray. The aperture angles
0'= (AO, AM) and a' = (A'O,A'M) are given by
OM h
tan a = =AO' =-
x
OM' h
tanO"===-
OA' x'
where h = OM and the quantities a, a' and h, h' are called aperture pa-
rameters of the system.
Fig. 6.5 Definition of geometrical parameters
Rays passing through the rim of the system at maximum aperture (h max
and O':"ax) are called marginal rays.
When the system suffers from aberrations, rays from A and B will not
all pass through A' and B', respectively, but through points more or less
close to them. The corresponding images will have a transverse aberration

dy'.
In terms of corrdinates (h, ¢) with the origin at 0, the replacement of
y' by -y' and h' by -h' corresponds to a rotation of 1r around the optical
axis AA' and a change in the sign of dy'.
All this means that the series expansion of the analytic expression for
the transverse geometric aberration dy' contains only odd powers of the
field parameters, i.e.,
dy' = Alh + BIy' + A3h3 + B3h2y' + C 3hy,2 + D 3y,3 + Ash s + '"
when a' and (J' are small enough, the higher-order terms may be neglected.
This is the case in Gauss' approximation in which dy' is effectively zero,
which implies that first-order terms must vanish, i.e.,
Al = BI = 0
The terms of third degree are the so-called third-order aberrations. The
corresponding physical phenomenon is described quite realistically by com-
paratively simple equations.
There are four fundamental third-order aberrations:
dy' = A3h3 (spherical aberration)
dy' = B3h2y' (coma)
dy' = C3hy'2 (astigmatism and field curvature)
dy' = D 3y,3 (distortion)
(aJ Spherical aberration

Spherical aberration is very dependent on the size of the aperture, but
is independent of the size y' of the image. It occurs even on the axis of the
system, and remains constant over the image field.
Fig. 6.6 Spherical aberration

Spherical aberration gives rise to a transverse image spread dy' with

rotational symmetry. Paraxial rays in the neighbourhood of the optical
axis, for which h ~ 0, are not affected by spherical aberration and converge
to the Gaussian image at A~. However non-paraxial rays cut the axis at
a point A', different to A~, whose position depends on h. The distance
dx' = A~A' = dy' / 0:' is cailed the IOhgitudinal spherical aberration.
Sections of the cone of rays by different planes in the neighbourhood of
the image show that the image of a point is no longer a point, but a certain
extended figure whose structure develops as one moves along the axis.
I . I
. ..ft..
V"6';'
,1J]<ij A' dx' A'
A r." ..... . -- AI 0
I
Circle of least confusion
Fig. 6.7 Cone of rays with spherical aberration
The cone of rays between the marginal and paraxial images produces
the circle of least confusion, i.e., the best image of a point object, at the
distance A~A' from A~. The corresponding transverse aberration is four
times less than at A~.
Analysis shows that the third-order spherical aberrations are:
dx' = ao:'2
dy' = -ao:,3 (6.4)
~$ ~ l
. 0
a'
'3' ao:
-ao: do: ~ --4-
,4
where a is the spherical aberration coefficient. Spherical aberration is cor-

rected by giving this coefficient the smallest possible value.
The spherical aberration coefficient a need not be zero, because the
aberration can be corrected by ensuring that third-order terms are cancelled
by fifth-order terms. We then have
dx' = ao:,2 + a' 0:'4 = 0

or
0"2 (a + a' 0"2) = 0
The longitudinal spherical aberration dx' will then be zero for two values
of the aperture, namely,
0" = 0
,2 a
0' 0 =--
a'
Aperture
__+-______________~--~--~-----------------+---.dx'
o
Fig. 6.8 Correction of spherical aberration
The graph of dx' as a function of dO" turns back, giving a small longi-
tudinal spread. A correction of this type may be obtained by employing a
pair of optical elements.
Spherical abeTTation of thin lenses. The spherical aberration of a simple
lens depends on its shape and the position of the object. For a lens of given
convergence, radii of curvature Rl and R2 and thickness e:
c = ~ = (n _ 1) [_1 _~] + (n - 1)2 e (6.5)

f Rl R2 nR1 R2
It is possible to find an infinity of values of Rl and R2 each yielding a
different form for the lens. The lens may be characterised by its form
factor q defined by
(6.6)
The shape of a lens is sometimes specified by its curvature r, given by
r = ~2 (.1.-
Rl
+.1.-)
R2
There is a relation between r and the form factor q, namely,
R R 1 + 1
- 2+ 1 _ ~ R;" - 2 ( - 1) f
q - R2 - Rl - -L _ -L - n r
Rl Rl
The longitudinal spherical aberration of a thin lens (e = 0) for an object

abscissa x and image of abscissa x' may be expressed in the third-order
approximation by
( 1) - -dx'-
d -Xi - X '2
h2 1 [n + 2
=8J3n(n-1) n-1 q +4(n+1)q-t
2
(6.7)
(3n+2)(n-1)p2+--
n
n-1
3
1
which is a quadratic in q. The factor p which is determined by the position
of the object:
p = 1 _ 2/ = x' + x
x, X'-X
1 1 1
-=-+-
x, x /
For a lens with minimum spherical aberration we have dx ' / dq = 0, so
that
c=~
x
-! = (n -1) [~-~]
X Rl R2
2(n2-1)
q=- n+2 p
which for an object at infinity (p = (x' + x)/(x' - x) = -1] may be written
1 1 c
Rl R2 n-1
~+~ =2C n + 1
Rl R2 n+2
Fig. 6.9 Thin lens

3Pc
-----=~---
-
- --=-~~~I--I
- --"'- ___ --- I Y'
_ - ~- 9' F_o_ _
n -~------
I d'
~
--------------->~~
in cm Direction of incidence -+ in cm
3~
In CIII
-0,2 I-----I----+----+:::::.....~ --+-~--+- ......--\-----::!.~~----i+O,02
o~----+----~----+---+--~~~~F_--t_--iO
-2 -1 o 1 2
f = 10cm, y' = 2cm Shape factor q = (R2 - Rd/(R2 - Rd
n = 1.5, 0' = 11 0
k = 1cm
Fig. 6.10 Spherical aberration and coma of a thin lens
or 1 n(2n + 1)C
=
Rl 2(n - 1)(n + 2)
(6.8)
1 _ (2n2 - n - 4) C
R2 2(n-1)(n+2)
Examples In the example of Fig. 6.11, a lens with minimum spherical
aberration is obtained for q = 0.714, or focal length of 10 cm:
Rl = 5.83cm
R2 = -35cm
R,=5.8cm
Fig. 6.11 Lens with minimum spherical aberration

Oc4
R,sIO em
Fig. 6.12 Germanium lens with minimum spherical aberration
A germanium lens of refractive index n = 4 and focal length 10 cm, work-

ing between infinity and the focal point (an objective lens) has minimum
=
spherical aberration for Rl 10 cm and R2 15 cm. =
Th~ spherical aberration of a simple lens decreases rapidly with increas-
ing refractive index
dx'
\, -- - _. --
'\I"'--- I,
t--- I-- i
I ~ 2 " 3 " 4 ~
Fig. 6.13 Spherical aberration of a thin lens as a function of its refractive index
The spherical aberration of an objective that focusses parallel rays is

not zero unless at least one of the two surfaces is aspherical or the lens
is divided into two. In the latter case, the two elements must produce
aberrations of opposite sign, which will cancel one another.
fa
Doublet
Fig. 6.14 Correction of the spherical aberration of thin lenses
We note, finally, that for equal apertures and focal lengths, the aberra-
tion of a spherical mirror is smaller by a factor of 8 as compared with an
equivalent lens with minimum spherical aberration:
ami r ror = -8f al ens =f

Parabolic mirrors have no spherical aberration.
(b) Coma
The coma of a lens arises from the terms involving h 2 y', i.e., proportional
to the size of the image. Coma vanishes on the axis of the system, except
when the elements of the system are misaligned, so that the optical axis is
poorly defined. Coma is an off-axis phenomenon that produces an image
spot which does not possess axial symmetry and which grows with the field
and aperture of the system.
B'
-- .... -
I .
~'E~~~~f:'-=-':: dy'
+
-..
B
Fig. 6.15 A bundle of rays with coma
Figure 6.15 shows the disposition of a bundle of rays suffering from coma.
The size of the image depends on the aperture h.
Coma may thus be characterised by the departure from the condition
that gives the transverse magnification of the system, i.e., the Abbe sine
condition:
nysin a = n'y' sin a'
A perfect optical system satisfying this condition is called aplanatic. Its

magnification is independent of aperture:
y' nsin a
go = -y = n' sin a'
The quantity go is also the paraxial magnification. Consequently, a perfect
system is characterised by
nysma = 1 (6.9)
n'y' sin a'
Coma occurs when this equ~tion is no longer satisfied and the magnification
is a function of the aperture a'. The last relation then takes the form
nysm Q: = 1 + If> (a')

n'y' sin a'
where the function ~(o') represents the deviation of the system from the
sine condition.
It can be shown that the normal deviation in a plane of azimuth <p in
the case of coma is
A ( . ,. ' ) cos <p
llc= nysmo-nysmo -,-
n
. cos <p
~c=-(nhO+n'y'smo') - , - (6.10)
n
~c = (nysino + n'h'O') cos,<P
n
where the last two relations apply to an object at infinity and an image at
infinity, respectively. The expression for the normal deviation, which yields
zero when the sine condition is satisfied, can be written in the form
~c = sino'cos<p
y'~(o') (6.11)
In the third-order approximation, the first term of the series expansion of
~(o') is
~(o') = bsin 2 0'
where b is the coma coefficient.
The normal deviation therefore takes the form
~c = by' sin 3 0' cos <p (6.12)
and the lateral spread is described by
dy' = y' ~(o') (2 + cos 2<p)
(6.13)
dz' = y' ~(o') sin 2<p
The blur spots obtained with an aperture 0' and field size y' are shown
in Fig. 6.16, constructed from a circle of radius
Pc = by' sin 2 0' = y' ~(o') (6.14)
and two straight lines tangential to this circle and intersecting at the parax-
ial image B' at an angle of 60° .
.....
- - 60
• +-~m.Ht-+ -~t-
3PC
I"
Fig. 6.16 Flared image produced in coma

The total size of the coma spot is therefore dy' = 3pe in the meridional
plane containing A' B ' , and dz' = 2pc in the perpendicular direction.
The above relations show that, as the aperture ray moves around the
system at a height h, so that ¢ varies from 0 to 211", the image point moves
twice around the coma circle in the image plane.
S'
l:' I 15
A ~-l~/__--~~~F48
A'
Fig. 6.17 Formation of coma
Correction of coma
As in the case of spherical aberration, the function ~(o/) can be chosen
so that the lateral spread is reduced.
Sina'
Fig. 6.18 Correction of coma - - - - + 0 : - - - - 4>[a 'J
Coma in presence of spherical aberration

It is unusual for coma to be present by itself in a system. It is usually
superimposed on spherical aberration. The sum of the two aberrations is
.Do =.Do$ +.Do e = yI sma

. I [
~(a/) -
dx ' p' ] cos¢
X, _
where dx ' is the longitudinal spherical aberration, x' the abscissa of the
image and p' the abscissa of the exit pupil. It is possible to arrange for
coma to be compensated by spherical aberration, so that .6. = 0 (isoplanatic
system).
Coma of a thin lens

As for spherical aberration, coma depends on the shape of the lens. The
lateral spread 3pc is a linear function of the form factor q. The variation of
this quantity is shown together with the spherical aberration in Fig. 6.10.
We note that coma vanishes for a value of q close to that for minimum
spherical aberration .
Consider a stopped-down thin lens of focal length I, form factor q and
refractive index n. For a point object at x and image at x', the radius of
the comatic circle in the third-order approximation is
h 2 y' [n+ 1 ] (6.15)

Pc= 4nJ2 n_1 q +(2n+1)p
where
p = 1_ 21 = x' X +
x, X'_X
Coma vanishes when

(2n + l)(n - 1)
q=- n+1 p
If the object is at infinity, then p = -1 and a lens with zero coma is
characterised by
Rl = n 2 - 1
1 (n 2 -n-1}C
R2 n2 - 1
B
Fig. 6.19 Coma produced by a thin lens

In practice it is preferable to choose a lens with no coma, which allows

the system a certain field of view whilst keeping spherical aberration at a
low level.
It is possible to design a two-lens objective so that it is corrected for
both coma and spherical aberration (aplanatic doublet).
(c) Astigmatism and field curvature

Astigmatism and field curvature vary as hy'2 and are thus proportional
to the aperture diameter. They arise even when the aperture has a small
diameter. When astigmatism is present, the cone of rays from the lens does
not come to a point. Instead, it forms two perpendicular short segments
T' and 5', which are called the primary, or tangential, image and the
secondary, or sagittal, image, respectively. T' is perpendicular to the plane
of symmetry of the ray cone whereas 5' lies in this plane. The axial distance
between T' and 5' is called the astigmatic difference.
Between T' and 5' there is a region in which the image spot is practically
circular. The size of this spot corresponds to the minimum cross section of
the cone of rays, and the circle is called the circle of least diffusion C'.
Away from C', the cone has an elliptical cross section. Near T', the
major axis of the ellipse is parallel to the primary focus, whilst near 5'
it is parallel to the secondary focus. The ellipse becomes steadily more
circular as we leave the focal region. These ellipses become circles as we
move away from the focal regions. When the field in the astigmatic system
is allowed to vary, the points T', 5' and C' move on paraboloidal surfaces
with tangential curvature Ct , sagittal curvature C, and field curvature C.
The existence of field curvature indicates that, strictly speaking, there
is no longer an image plane, but a curved image surface . Field curvature
can remain even in the absence of astigmatism.
If t', s' and c' are the projections of T' 5' and C' on to the optical axis,
and if t' = A't', s' = A's' and c' = A' c', it can be shown that, in the
first-order approximation, the lateral blurring is described by
dy' = -a' t' cos ¢ = -a' C2t y'2 cos ¢

(6.16)
The curvatures of the focal surfaces (reciprocals of their radii of curvature)

are
Ct = 12
2t'
C,
2s'
=
y'2
=
C Ct +C,
y 2
Fig. 6.2 0 Astigmatism and field curvature
It can be shown that the curvatures of the focal surfaces are
C. = P-A
Ct = P-3A
where P is the sum of optical powers
p_,,_1
- L.J nI
i "
and A is a measure of the astigmatism of the system. The latter is a

function of the positions of the object and pupil
C$-Ct s'-t'
A=-2-=lji2
The field curvature is defined by
C _ Ct + C$ _ s' + t'
- --2--lji2
and the normal deviation due to astigmatism and field curvature is

O/2y'2
.6..A,C = - - 4 - (C - A cos 2<p)
or
a'2
A,A = - - (t' - s') cos 2<jJ
4
(6.17)
a'2
Ac = -""4 (t' + s')
The field curvature term should approach the normal deviation introduced
by defocussing, which is proportional to a'2, this defocussing being propor-
tional to the square of the size of the image in the case of field curvature .
The astigmatic wave front has two different curvatures, depending on
the cross section of the beam.
Fig.6.21 Astigmatism of a refracting surface
Astigmatism of refracting surface

For a spherical refracting surface of radius r between media with indices
nand n', the position of the tangential and sagittal images are given by
n' cos 2 j' n cos 2 j n' cos j' - n cos j

T' T + R
(6.18)
n' n n' cosj' - n cosj
S' = s+ R
where j and j' are the angles of incidence and refraction of the principal
ray and S, T and S', T' are the respective abscissas of the points S, T, S'
and T', measured along the principal ray from the point of incidence J.
It goes without saying that, for a point object, Sand T coincide: the
abscissas of Sand T are then equal for the first refracting surface.
Astigmatism of thin lenses

For a point object B corresponding to a field angle (), a thin lens with
refractive index n, radii of curvature R 1 , R2 and aperture limited by its
holder will produce astigmatic images T' and S' whose projections on to
the optical axis are, respectively,
Os' -- x'a
where
S'
Is'
~
Fig. 6.22 Astigmatism of a thin lens

where x = OA is the distance between the lens and the projection of B

on to the optical axis. Astigmatism is a function of the convergence of the
lens, but does not vary very much with its shape. Even splitting the lens
into two is not sufficient to reduce it.
C
C,
, ,
Cs C
,, C ,. Cs
I
\
\
\
C
I ,, / "
I
\
I "
I
, ,,
\
\
\ I I \
I
\
\ I I
\ I
A' A'
2 3 4
Fig. 6.23 Correction of astigmatism and field curvature
In wide-field systems, the astigmatic correction, which depends strongly

on the position of the pupil (or stop), is taken care of by a judicious choice
of this position, or by the addition of other lenses (triple anastigmat). It
is then possible to obtain focal surfaces whose sections are illustrated in
Fig. 6.23 . We then have the following cases:
Case 1: uncorrected system with astigmatism Ct and C8 and field curvature
C.
Case 2: astigmatism corrected, focal surfaces Ct
and C. coincide with C, no
astigmatism, but there is significant field curvature.
Case 3: corrected for the field" curvature, but there is significant residual
astigmatism; the field is flat.
Case 4: corrected for field curvature and astigmatism; focal surfaces Ct and
C. are folded over (anastigmatic system).
Astigmatism of a spherical mirror

For a spherical mirror of finite aperture
111 112
-x + -x~ =
....,..---=--
f cos 2 {} -+-=--
T T' Rcos{}
1 1 1
-+-=-
x x~ f
These expressions show that the sagittal image produced by the spherical
mirror is in the plane of the paraxial image. The same spherical mirror,
._-- -t
I
B~~ ______________________<r__ ~ __~~
T'
---A I~t
L----xs
S'
i I- ~~ I
I
Fig. 6.24 Astigmatism of a spherical mirror

B
Fig. 6.25 Spherical mirror with a stop at the centre of curvature
limited in aperture at its cel!tre of curvature, presents no astigmatism. The

ray passing through the centre C is then the axis of revolution of the mirror.
For the same reason, there is no coma and the image B' of B is subject to
spherical aberration alone.
(d) Distortion
We have seen that distortion is measured by terms involving y,3 and
does not depend on the aperture h of the system. It is present even for
h = 0, i.e., for the ray passing through the centre of the pupil (principal
ray).
This ray comes from the object point B and cuts the plane of the paraxial
image A' B' at D' which is different from B'. The difference between D'
and B' depends on the ray angle (J or (J'.
Fig. 6.26 Distortion
To suppress distortion, the image A' B' has to be a homothetic transfor-

mation of the object AB, in other words, the magnification
must be constant for all 0, i.e.,
pi A' tan 0'

-==--- = const
PA tan 0
This is the so-called orthoscopic condition that a system without distortion

must satisfy (the points P and P' are the nodal points of the system,
equivalent to the principal points if the system is surrounded by air).
The lateral spread is described by the third degree expression
dy' = B'D' = y,3d (6.19)
where d is the distortion coefficient. When d > 0, the outer portion of the
image is more magnified and we have pin-cushion distortion. When d < 0,
the inner part is more magnified and we have barrel distortion.
Distortion does not affect the quality of the image, but alters the relative
position of image points. The wavefront E is spherical and centered on D',
and its deviation from the reference sphere S centered on B' is
~v = do/ y,3 cos 4J (6.20)
The distortion is very dependent on the position of the stop.

x'o
Marginal ray of pupil Paraxial image of pupil
Fig. 6.27 Spherical aberration of a pupil
Connection between distortion and spherical aberration of a pupil
Distortion is actually due to the spherical aberration present in the image

of pupils in the system.
In effect, the aperture of the system causes a shift of the point image Po
of the centre of the pupil, due to the spherical aberration, by the amount
PoP' = dp'
so that, paraxial image B' shifts to D' and the shift increases with ()'.
Distortion of thin lenses

A thin lens does not in itself produce distortion. Distortion is introduced
by placing a stop before or after the lens, which gives rise to barrel or pin-
cushion distortion, respectively.
We note that a symmetric two lens system with a stop at the centre of
symmetry exhibits no distortion. This configuration can often be corrected
for astigmatism as well.
The spherical mirror is free from distortion when it is stopped down at
its apex or its centre of curvature.
(e) Variation of aberrations
Generally, all these above defects coexist in optical systems to a greater
of lesser extent. Geometrical aberrations are functions of the position of
the object, the position of stops and, obviously, the refractive index of
B
B
B
B
B'
D' d=O
Fig. 6.28 Distortion by a thin lens
materials, which means that chromatic effects are present in geometrical

aberrations.
The purpose of optical calculations is to create a system in which the
resultant blurring due to all the aberrations does not exceed the size of
the detector element, i.e., the resolved elementary angular field of a well-
designed system should not be limited by its optical aberrations.
(fJ Aspherical surfaces

In certain cases, the use of aspherical refracting surfaces produces a
greater reduction of certain aberrations. Whilst maintaining the same cur-
vature at its apex, an aspherical surface has a meridional section of the
form
1
f (x, y, z) = x - 2R [(A + 1) x 2 + y2 + z2] = 0
where A is the coefficient of asphericity. When A = 0, the surface is spher-
ical; when A = -1 it is paraboloidal.
6.3 CALCULATION OF GEOMETRICAL ABERRATIONS
To assess the relative importance of the different types of aberration for a

given system, we have to examine the propagation of two special rays in
the system, namely, a marginal ray passing through the centre of the field
and the edge of the pupil and the principal ray crossing the center of the
pupil and the edge of the field.
6.3.1 Path of a marginal ray - imaging by an objective

Consider a spherical refracting surface centred at G, apex at S, radius of
curvature SG = R and refractive indices nand n' on the two sides. An
object point A is situated in the medium of index n, at a distance SA = x
along the optical axis defined by SG.
A ray from A crosses the refracting surface at I located at a height
h above the axis and, after refraction, cuts the optical axis at A', such
that SA' = x'. The angles of incidence and refraction at I are i and i',
respectively. The problem is to determine the image angle 0:' in terms of
the object aperture angle 0:, and then to calculate the position x' of the
image A' of A.
Object Entrance pupil Image field

Ifield I I
I
I I
H
I
A'
Y'
H
H'
1 I
I
x x'
-I
Fig. 6.29 Imaging by a.n objective
Let us erect the normals Gl{ and GK' to AI and lA', respectively. In
the right-angled triangle ACK,
CK = ACsino: = (R- x) sin 0:

and, similarly, in the right-angled triangle I KG
CK = ICsini = Rsini
so that
(6.21 )
On the other hand, Snell's law of refraction gives

. ., n ..
smz = -smz (6 .22)
n'
The sum of the angles of triangle AI A' is
7r = a + (7r - i) + i' + (-a')
and therefore
a' = a + i' - i (6.23)
In the right-angled triangle A' C K' ,
CK' = A'Csina' = (R - x') sin a'
and in the triangle C K' I,
C K' = I C sin i' = R sin i'

Combining these expressions, we obtain
Rsin i' = (R - x') sin a'
and therefore
x' = R (1 _ s.in i' ) (6.24)
sma'
In the case of an objective intended to produce the image of a relatively
distant point, x tends to infinity and sin a tends to a, the latter itself
tending to zero.
The above relationships then become
" R-x xa h
smz -+ --a~ - - =-
R R R
. . , n.. n h
sin z = -'- sm z = - - (6.25)
n' n'R
a ' = i' - i
It is possible to trace the path of this ray through a series of surfaces
1,2, .. . k, . .. m, by applying the above expressions to each surface, we find
that, generally,
Rk - Xk .
sin ik = Rk sm ak
" 1 nk ..
smzk = ,smzk
nk
Fig. 6.30 Successive refra.cting surfaces
(6.26)
where
nk+1 =n~
Xk+l = x~ - ek (6.27)
ak+l = a~
When R is very large,
, sinacos! (a' + i')

x=x---....::..,.--,--~
sin a' cos ~ (a + i)
and when R = 00 (plane boundary; i = a and i' = a'),

, n' cos a' tan a
x =x---=x--
n cosa tan a'
For an object at infinity
" h
sm2 = R a' = i' - i
6.3.2 The path of a principal ray - stop imaging

The principal ray, or field ray, is defined as crossing the edge of the field and
the centre of the stop . Its inclination to the axis () defines the field angle.
rt
Object Entrance Image Exit
.'
field field field pupil
p'
'8
y - n
S
n --- P'
~---.
I
Fig. 6.31 Stop imaging
In Fig. 6.31, BPJ is the principal incident ray and J B' P' the refracted ray.
The angles of incidence and refraction at J are j and j', respectively.
By analogy with the above discussion, and using (6.26), we have (see
Fig. 6.31)
. . R-p. 0
SlD) = ~SlD
sinj' = n, sinj
n
(6.28)
0' = 0 + j' - j
p' = R (1 _s~nSlDO'
j' )
When the pupil is at infinity and on the axis
SlD)---
" R-PO ~-
Y
R R
and
. ., n y
SiD) = n'R
(6.29)
0' = j' - j
In the case of a series of surfaces 1,2, ... , k, ... m, we just have to add to
these relationships the transfer formulae
PHl = Pk - e" (6.30)

Ok+l = Ok
When R is very large,
, sm
•
u cos"21 (1I1
1I
u +] ")
P = P--:---n;
Sill u
1 (ll
COS 2" u +].)
and when R = 00 (plane surface),
, n' cos 8' tan 0'

P =P---=P--
n cosO tan 0"
Finally, when the stop is at infinity (p = 00),
" Y
Sill] = R
8' = j' - j
6.3.3 Paraxial rays - the Gaussian approximation
(aJ Small apertures

We now assume that the optical system has a moderate aperture, i.e.,
small 0', so that sin 0' can be taken as equal to 0' (in radians). The angles
i, i' and 0" are then small and the sines of these angles can be taken as
equal to the angles themselves. In that case, the above relationships now
become
. R-xo
Z = ---0' 0" = 0' + i' - i
R
where the subscript 0 labels paraxial quantities. These equations enable us

to eliminate the angles 0',0", i and i', so that we finally obtain
n' n n' - n
-=-+-- (6.31)
x~ Xo R
where
n'xoR
x~=------.,.---...,..
nR + Xo (n' - n)
i.e., we have reached the Gaussian approximation, or the first-order ap-
proximation, since we have kept only the first terms in the series. This can
be described as paraxial optics.
When the object is at infinity, we have njxo = 0, i.e.,
n'R
x' -
0- n' - n
This is the focal length of the refracting surface in the first-order approxi-
mation.
(b) Small field angles

The same considerations can be applied to imaging by a stop in the case
of small field angles 0:
}. = R-Po a
--{l 0' = 0 + j' - j
R
(6.32)
., n.
} =-}
n'
(c) Cardinal elements and characteristics of the optical systems
• Object field angle 01
• Image field angle O:n
P'
m_
~,-~r
IH,
I m
I
p'Om
Fig. 6.32 Cardinal elements

• Position of the paraxial image x~m (already determined) .

• Transverse magnification by the objective
where
• Size of the paraxial image (Y01 is the size of the object)
Y~m = gOY01
• Paraxial position of exit pupil relative to the last surface, P~m (already
determined).
• Transverse magnification by the pupil
'Yo = 'Y01 'Y02 ·· ·'Yak· ..'Yam or
• Radius of exit stop( Hal is the radius of the entrance stop)
H:" = 'YaH 01
• Focal length in image space

The focal length of the system is obtained from the path of an aperture
ray incident parallel to the optical axis at a height h.
X01 = 00 and
I
, ----------j'----
, hll
O'~ ---++-
I
l 00'
f'
i
Fig. 6.33 The focal length in image space
The other values of XOk and x~k are calculated from the general formulae
given formally in terms of x~m
,
f =- - hl ,
O'F' = -xOm
hm
(6.33)
where x~ is the position of the focus and h m the height of the rayon the
last surface, which is obtained from the corresponding transfer relation
- h
h k+l- k-,-
XOk+l
x Ok
(6.34)
• Position of the principal image plane relative to the last refracting sur-
face
=
w' Sm 0' x~m - !' =
---,
--
x'ok+l
--~
I
I
I
I X'ok
t
Fig. 6.34 Determination of image position
6.3.4 The third-order approximation

Higher precision can be achieved in optical imaging calculations by taking
into account the third-order terms in the series
. (}'3
sm (}' = (}'- 6"" + ...
The third-order theory describes the ray path to a good approximation,
but in some special cases it is also necessary to include fifth-order terms.
The third and higher order terms describe the effect of deviation of the
path of a ray from the paraxial case and represent the third and higher
order aberrations.
6.3.5 Spherical aberration

Longitudinal spherical aberration is readily calculated as the difference
between the positions of the image point for a paraxial and marginal rays:
dx' = x' - x~ (6.35)
from which we obtain the lateral. spread and the normal deviation:
dy' = -dx' tan 0:'
(6.36)
dx' 0:'2
~. = ----
4
where
dx'
a = 0:'2
is the spherical aberration coefficient.
Fig. 6.35 Spherical aberration
6.3.6 The case of aplanatic optics - Abbe's sine condition

Let us again consider a refracting surface and a small object AB of height
y whose image A' B' has a height y'.
The relationships obtained previously enable us to write
R sin i = (R - x) sin 0:
Rsin i' = (R - x') sin 0:'

The ratio of these two equations and Snell's law give
sin i n' R - x sin 0:

= =------ (6.37)
sin i' n R - x' sin 0:'
and since the transverse magnification of the system is
y' R-x'
y R-x
--, A'o
I
IY'o
, x
R
-1B'0
,
I,
III(
X'
r-______________
X' __________________
~o I
~.:,
I
Fig. 6.36 Aplanatic condition
we obtain, finally, the general aplanatic condition (or the Abbe's sine con-
dition):
nysina = n'ysina' (6.38)
When the object is at infinity, sin a tends to a '" -h/x and y = x(J, so
that
-nh(J = n' y' sin a'
When the image is at infinity, sin a' tends to a' '" h/x and y' = x'(J, so
that
nysina = n'h'(J'
Optical systems satisfying these conditions are corrected for coma.
6.3.7 Calculation of coma

Coma will now be calculated from the above difference between the path
of a paraxial ray and that of a marginal ray. The paraxial path defines the
paraxial transverse magnification
R-x~
go= - - -
R-xo
where x~ is the position of the paraxial image. For a marginal path
nysma =1+<I1(a / )
n'yl sin a l
The function describes the deviation of the system from the sine condition
and takes the following forms: Object at a finite distance
<I1(a/) = nysina _ 1 = 2. nsina _ 1 (6.39)

n'yl sin a l go n l sin a l
Object at infinity
<I1(a / ) =_ nhO _ 1 (6.40)
n'ysina'
For an image at infinity
<I1( a l ) = _ nysin a _ 1 (6.41)

nhO
Hence radius of the comatic circle is
Pc = y'<I1(a / ) = ygo<I1(a /) (6.42)
and the normal deviation is
~c = y go<I1( a / ) sin a l cos ¢ (6.43)
The coma coefficient is given by
In general, coma accompanies spherical aberration. We then have
A
.u. c, = y,sm a <I1 (I)
., [
a - 1
d:t' 1 ] cos ¢
:to - Po
where :t~ and P~ are, respectively, the abscissas of the paraxial image and
the paraxial exit stop; dx' is the longitudinal spherical aberration of the
image.
When spherical aberration is present, the radius of the comatic circle is
Pc = Y, [ <I1 (I)
a -, 1
dX'] (6.44)
:to - Po
The system can then be corrected for coma when the stop is at Po, provided
4l(a') _ ,dx', = 0
Xo - Po
i.e.,
. 2 ,
. 2 ,
b sm _ a sm a - 0 a
a , ,- and b-, , =0
Xo - Po Xo - Po
which is the isoplanatic condition.
6.3.8 Astigmatism and field curvature
We will now use the relation giving the positions of the tangential and
sagittal images of the spherical refracting surface (T' and 8'):
n' cos 2 j' ncos2 j n' cosj' - ncosj
T' T + R
n' n
n' cosj' - n cosj
8' = S+ R
The distances T, T', 8 and 8' are measured along the principal ray:
T=JT=~ T'=J'T' 8=J8=~ 8' = J'8'
cosO cosO
I x
I~
, !
t' i
A
~.
~j
.\I~I
;--?--..! . ! A'
; iTo
: I
: I
dz'; !
~
I '
Fig. 6.37 Astigmatism

We now have ,
B'T' =T'- ~
o cos ()'
,
B'5' =5'- ~
o cos ()'
and
t' = B~T' cos ()' = T' cos ()' - x~
(6.45)
s' = B~5' cos ()' = 5' cos ()' - x~
It is thus possible to evaluate the following normal deviations:

• astigmatism
a,2
6.,.4 =""4 (s' - t') cos 2¢
• field curvature
a,2
6.c = -4 (s' + t')
• lateral spread in the plane of paraxial image
dy' = -a't' cos ¢
(6.46)
dz' = -a's' sin ¢
• astigmatic difference
s' - t' (6.47)
• radius of the circle of least confusion and its position
, s' - tl
p,),=a - - (6.48)
2
s' + t'
c'=--
2
(6.49)
6.3 .9 Distortion
The height of the final image produced by the system after the m-th surface
IS
(6.50)
where x:" is the abscissa of the paraxial image relative to the last surface,
p:" the abscissa of the image of the stop corresponding to the field angle
D'm
y'om
e'm
I A'm
I1
\
.,
\
p'Om
.. I
x'Om \
Fig. 6.38 Distortion
o and O:n is the image field angle. The paraxial path has already given us
the height of the Gaussian image
and hence the distortion is
dy:n = y:n - y~m (6.51)
which can also be expressed as the relative value
6.4 DIFFRACTION
So far, we have been concerned with geometrical optics and have ignored
the wave nature of light. However, this cannot be done when the scale
of an observed phenomenon (aberration difference, optical path difference
and so on) is comparable with the wavelength of the radiation, and we have
to take account of diffraction.
6.4.1 Diffraction by an aperture

Consider the very simple optical system consisting of an aperture with
centre at 0 in the yOz plane. The x axis is normal to the aperture. The
coordinates (Yi, Zi, R) define the general point M in the image plane at the
Fig. 6.39 Diffraction by an aperture x
distance x = on = R. The general point P on the aperture is defined by

the coordinates (YP' zp, 0).
We will assume that a source behind the aperture produces the wavefront
E on the aperture and that the vibration amplitude in the plane of the
aperture is Ap(Yp, zp), so that the amplitude radiated by a small element
of wavefront dE = dyp dzp containing the point P is Ap (yP zp) dyp dzp.
At the point M in the image plane, the vibration dAi(Yi, Zi) emitted by
the element dE has traversed the path PM, its amplitude is reduced by
the factor 1/ P M (energy is proportional to the inverse of the square of
the distance), and its phase delay is represented by exp( -jkP M), where
=
k 27r/). is the wave vector, ). the wavelength and j = v=r. Hence
-- -->
The optical path PM can now be written as a function of the vector PM
and of the unit vector U in the direction of PM. The respective compo-
nents of these vectors are
and
u (Yi - Yp Zi - zp
PM ' PM 'PM
R)
where
so that
When the aperture and the field are small, the quantities Yp, ZP' Yi, Zi are
small compared with R, and the expression for PM can be rewritten in
the approximate form
PM = R + Yi
2 2
+ Zi + Yp
2 + z2p
2R 2R
where R = on is the radius of the reference spherical wave surface centred
on n (Fig. 6.39) .
To a first approximation the contribution due to the small surface ele-
ment dE on the aperture is therefore given by
exp(-jkR) ( . Yf+Zf)
dA;(Yi,zi) = Ap(Yp,zp) R exp -)k 2R
+ z;) exp)
x exp ( - )'kY; 2R + Zi ZP ) d Yp d zp
('k YiYP R
Finally, the vibration at M is obtained by integrating over the aperture:
x exp (-)k. Yp22R

+ zp2) exp)k
( . YiYp +R ZiZp ) dyp dzp
If we now consider the two quadratic phase factors
y2 + z2)
exp ( -jk p 2R p
and
exp ( -)
'kYf +
2R
zl)
the former becomes a constant if we replace the plane aperture with a
spherical cup of radius R and centre at n. The same goes for the second
factor if we replace the plane of observation with a sphere of radius R,

centred on O.
In the neighbourhood of the optical axis, it is of course possible to iden-
tify these spheres with the corresponding tangential planes, so that, with
the above assumptions, we have
exp(-jkR)jrr ( ) (.
Ai (Yi, Zi) ~ R J Ap Yp, zp exp Jk
YiYP+Zi ZP )
R dyp dzp
We now define the point P in terms of the angular coordinates (,8, r) (see
Fig. 6.39)
,8 = Yp
R
z
r= .J!..
R
so that
Ai (Yi, Zi) ~ Rexp( -jkR) JJAp (,8, r) exp Uk (,8 Yi + r z;)] d,8 dr
Finally, substituting ,8 = >.p and r = >.v or
z
v=-p
>'R
(p and v have the dimensions of spatial frequencies), we obtain
Ai (Yi, Zi) ~ >. 2Rexp( - jkR) JJ Ap (p, v) exp [21rj (p Yi + v Zi)] dp dv

(6 .52)
This shows that, apart from a constant factor, the disturbance at M is the
Fourier transform of the amplitude Ap(p, v) on the aperture.
The result of all this is that the image of a point of light produced by a
perfect optical system with a circular aperture cannot be a point .
Indeed, a point object produces a spherical wavefront with a uniform
amplitude distribution. After passing through the system, the wavefront
is cut by the circular edge of the aperture, and the distribution A(p, v) is
given by the circular function defined by
Ap (p, v) =1 p2 + v2 < p2
=0 elsewhere
where p is the radius of the aperture p = hi>' R. The image spot is then
given by the Fourier transform of the above function, i.e.,
Fig. 6.40 Diffraction by a circular aperture
Fig. 6.41 The Airy disc
in which r is the radial coordinate in the YiOZi plane and J1(21rrp) is the
first order Bessel function. The zeros of this function occur for 21rrp =
3.83,7.02,10.17 .....
The diffraction pattern, called the Airy disc, is axially symmetric. It
has a central maximum, surrounded by rings of zero amplitude, separated
by rings of much lower and decreasing amplitude.
The central maximum of the diffraction pattern contains almost all the
diffracted radiation. The radius ro of the first dark ring gives the effective
size of the image spot . It is defined by the first zero of the Bessel function
J 1(21rrp), i.e.,
3.83 1.22,,\
ro = 21rp = 2hjR (6.53)
The spot size decreases with increasing relative aperture of the system
2hj R and decreasing wavelength A.
In the infrared the wavelengths are long, so that large-aperture systems
are needed to produce small image spots, i.e., good spatial resolution. On
the other hand, increasing the aperture tends to result in much greater
aberrations. This means that the design of an optical system operating in
the infrared must take into account the combined effects of diffraction and
aberrations in order to produce a resolved image spot that is smaller than,
or equal to, the size of the radiation detector.
A perfect optical system with a focal length R = 0.5m, aperture di-
ameter 2h =: 0.15m and operating at a wavelength A = 10 /lm = 10- 5 m
produces an image spot of diameter given by
2ro = 2 x 1.22 X 10- 5 x 0.5 8 10- 5

= x m=
80
/lm
0.15
In practice, it is relatively easy to obtain for such optics an aberration spot
of less than 80/lm. The system is then said to be diffraction limited and
this constrains the dimepsion of the detectors to approximately 80 J-lm in
this example.
6.4.2 Image formation - linear filter theory

To each object point Mo with coordinates (Yo, zo) and a radiance rep-
resented by a two-dimensional Dirac function 6 (y - Yo, z - zo) on the
yOz plane, there corresponds an image spot around a point Mf(14,zD,
the paraxial conjugate of Mo on the y'O' z' plane. We saw above that,
when aberrations are present, the latter is a diffraction spot whose radi-
ance distribution is described by a function known as the spread function
D (y' - y:, z' - zD which is assumed to be translation invariant within a
certain region known as the isoplanatic region.
To simplify our notation, we assume that the magnification ofthe system
is unity and Yo = y:' Zo = z:. An area element dydz on the object in the
Oyz plane produces a radiance Lo (y, z) dydz and each point on the object
M with coordinates y, z gives rise to an irradiance
dE (y' z') = Lo (y, z) D (y' - y, z' - z) dy dz
The total irradiance on the image plane is therefore given by
E(y'z') = 11 Lo(y,z)D(y'-yz'-z)dydz (6.54)
This is a convolution of object radiance distribution Lo (y, z) and the spread

function D (y' , z') considered here as the impulse response of the system:
E (y', z') = Lo (y, z) * D (y', z') (6.55)

Irradiance on image point

o{J'- J, Z'-z}
Fig. 6.42 Impulse response - image of a point object
Fig. 6.43 Image formation
This analytical approach to im~ging phenomena thus leads to the consid-

eration of the optical system as a linear filter operating in the same way as
an electrical system. The time-dependent electrical system is replaced by
an optical signal (object) that is two-dimensional and a function of space

coordinates. It is then possible to apply to the optical system the formalism
of Fourier analysis. The method consists of dividing the object, assumed
flat and defined by the radiance distribution Lo (y, z), into an infinite num-
ber of elements with radiance distributions that are sinusoidal and have
continuousl~ variable periods.
Consider the special case in which we wish to construct the image of
a Foucault test card whose radiance distribution is a regular alternating
pattern of bright and dark zones separated by parallel and clearly defined
borders. The object function Lo (y, z) is then a 'square wave' of period Po
with the 'lines' of the grid running in the Oz direction. The object function
can be taken to be
1
Lo (y) = 1 for 0 < y < 2"Po
1
Lo (y) = 0 for "2Po < y < Po
Lo(Y+Po) = Lo(Y)
The Fourier expansion of this function is
1 2. 211" Y 2. 211" Y 2. 211" Y
Lo(y) = -+-sm-+ -sm3-+-sm5-+ ...
2 11" Po ,311" Po 511" Po
12. ~
L 1(Y)=-2 +-sm
1t Po
Lo(Y)
112 1/2 ¥ - - - - \ - - - - - - 1 / - - - - t -
0 y
Po
.. !
r : :
I
2 . 21t I
Ls(Y)=- sm5~....
I
: ;
51t Po 0 r'\ ri. A r\ IA r\Al .. y
VV\..rVUVv
Fig. 6.44 Fourier analysis

Each component is effectively a sinusoidal grating with period p or spa-

tial frequency II = lip (number of 'lines' per unit length). A period of
0.01 mm corresponds to a spatial frequency of 100 mm- 1 , i.e., 100 lines per
millimetre .
6.4.3 The optical transfer function

Fourier analysis applied to imagi~g yields
E (y', z') = Lo (y, z) * D (y', z')
and has the advantage of transforming the convolution of 'object' and

'spread' functions into a simple product of the spectra of these functions.
Indeed, if Lo (y, z) ,D (y', z') and E (y', z') have Fourier transforms
10 (J.l, II) ,d (J.l, II) and e (J.l, II), it can be shown that
(6.56)
This shows that the function d (1', II) filters the object spectrum 10(J.l, II)
to give the image spectrum e (J.l, II). This is the optical transfer function
(OTF) of the variables J.l and II, i.e., the spatial frequencies. In general,
it is complex and its modulus is called the modulation transfer function
(MTF) and accounts for the attenuation of the sinusoidal components of
the object. Its argument, called the phase transfer function (PTF), has the
effect of translating the images of each elementary periodic grid so that
(OTF) = (MTF)expj(PTF)
The optical transfer function of a perfect system is always real and positive.
The optical transfer function of a system is therefore involved in the
Fourier transform of its radiance impulse response:
d(J.l, II) = TF [D (y', z')] (6.57)
The dependence of the radiance spread function D (y', z') on the amplitude
spread function A (y', z') is given by
D (y', z') =Ai(y', z') . A;(y', z')

which, according to (6.52), leads to:
d(jl, II) = TF [Ai (y',z') .Ai (y', z')] = Ap (J.l,II) * A; (-1',-11) (6.58)
The optical transfer function is thus equal to the autocorrelation function

of the aperture amplitude distribution function Ap (J.l, II).
J.I.
~----~~~~--~----+---~v
OTF
o .....----.a------'"...--__ v
o
Fig. 6.45 Optical transfer function
The optical transfer function (OTF) is generally normalised with respect

to its central value:
OTF = d (/Jo, vo) = .;...;II_A......;p-,(...../J_,v_)_A......;_(_/J_-_/J,-o_,V....,..-_M_O)_d_/J_d_v

d(O,O) II Ap (/J,v) A; (/J,v) d/Jdv
We must now examine the physical significance of the aperture autocor-
relation function for a perfect optical system with a circular aperture. The
function Ap (/J, v) is then real and constant within the aperture and zero
everywhere else.
The autocorrelation function can be given a simple geometrical inter-
pretation by considering the outline of the aperture centred at 0, and the
same outline after translation in the direction v chosen arbitrarily for the
axially symmetric Ap (/J, v). The OTF for spatial frequency Vo is obtained
by estimating the ratio of the area common to these two circles after the
translation and the total area of the aperture. The transfer function is then
a surface of revolution with meridional section given by
d (v) = -2 [ arccos -v - -
1r Vc
vR]2
Vc
1 - "2
Vc
for ,,< Vc
It is clear that for a spatial frequency v e , called the cut-off frequency, the
common area vanishes when the translation is equal to twice the aperture
radius 'Y = AV, and the system no longer transmits any modulation.
A perfect optical system and a circular pupil with an angular aperture 'Y
behaves like a low pass linear filter whose spatial cut-off frequency is given
by
(6.59)
Measurement of the optical transfer function

The optical transfer function provides us with a quantitative measure of
the performances of an instrument. The simplest measurement involves us-
ing test patterns whose exitance is a sinusoidal function of space. Analysis
of the image then enables the determination of the modulation fac.t.or.
Lo Object radiance OTF =~

LI
Distance
________+-________
lj Image radiance
-.~ ~~v
Distance
Fig. 6.46 Modulation tra.nsfer function
Other methods rely on the fact that the OTF is the aperture autocor-
relation function or the Fourier transform of the spread function.
Example Consider a perfect optical system with a circular aperture, used
to form the image of a sinusoidal test pattern (this could be the fundamental
component of the Foucault pattern).
The object function will be taken to be
Lo (y, z) = 1 + cos 2; Z = 1 + ~ [exp(211'iz/p) + exp( -211'iz/p)]

Its spectrum thus has three components with frequencies v = 0 and v =
±l/p.
Since the instrument is perfect, the spread function is represented by the
Airy disc. The mechanism of image formation is then as shown in Fig. 6.48.
The spectrum of the image contains a continuous background and there
is some attenuation at the frequencies -lIp and +l/p, leading to a lowering
of contrast in the modulation of the image which takes the form
211' Zl
E(y', z') = 1 + a cos - -
p
y'
y
x
z'
Image
Object
Fig. 6.47 Imaging a test pattern

D(y',z')
E(y',z')
v
object
:;l2
0..
en
(d 1 - --
v
----.z
~O ............
Fourier '\7 transformation

'\7
e(ll,v)
lo(ll,v) d(ll,v)
t object OTF •, ,.image
spectrum ' .spectrum
0.5 )( 0.5 '.
-L--'':-_L-_V
I o
Ii
Fig. 6.48 Image formation
The spatial frequencies of the image pattern remain identical to those of

the object pattern, and the function d (1-',1/) characterises the lowering of
the contrast in the image.
Had the system contained aberrations, we would have had
211" Z'
E (y', z') = 1 + (MTF) cos [ -p- + (PTF) ]
Degradations of the optical transfer function

Generally, the presence of aberrations (Ap complex) reduces the modulus
of the optical transfer function , However, for small aberrations, which is
OTF
Perfect optics
System with aberrations
Fig. 6.49 Degradation of the optical transfer function
common in real systems, the loss of quality is not uniform and degradation
tends to be confined to medium spatial frequencies.
We note also the influence of the central occultation of telescope-type op-
tical systems that contain mirrors. This configuration exhibits a reduction
in the optical transfer function at intermediate frequencies, proportional to
the occultation ratio.
The optical transfer function can sometimes become negative, which is
equivalent to an inversion of image contrast. In particular, this is so in
infrared systems for which the spread function is generally determined by
the area of the radiation detector.
Detector transfer function

The detector whose meridional cross section of the energy response in
the image plane is a rectangle of width a, equal to the linear dimension of
the detector sensitive area, gives an OTF of the form sin 7ral//7rI/, i.e., the
Fourier transform of the rectangle. This transfer function falls to zero for
spatial frequencies 1/ a, 2/ a, 3/ a ... with alternating inversions of contrast.
Electrical transfer function

The processing of the radiation detector signal also involves a transfer
function, governed by the response time of the detector and the associated
electrical filtering.
For a pattern with period p = 1/1/, scanned by a detector of width a at
a rate v, the output signal has a time period T = p/v or
f = 1/ = 1/-a
V
T
Hz
where T is the time taken to scan the width of the detector.

Image
IR detector'
O(y',z')
Spread function
D(y',z')=rect!.' OTF(IJ.,V)=~
I a
3
a
~~~~-+~r-+-'~~--V
i ~ i /'
Fourier transformation
Fig. 6.50 Detector transfer function
Fig. 6.51 Analysing a test chart
We have thus arrived at an electrical transfer function which depends

on the response time of the detector.
Transfer function of a visual display unit
The spot on the screen of a cathode-ray tube represents the impulse re-
sponse of the system with a transfer function corresponding to the Fourier
transform of the spatial distribution of the spot radiance, which is approx-
imately Gaussian. The OTF is then itself Gaussian.
Transfer function of a system
Spread function OTF
,2
D(y',z')=exp[-1t ~2] d(ll,v)=b exp[ _1tb2v2)
• b
-TF4=>
Monito, MT
g,.-
Fig. 6.52 Transfer function of a visual dis lay unit
i_-_:'-MTF
........ ~......~
', ,~?~
'~~-- - .
\ " . -: : .-_' __ Electrolllcs
\ '-.... .. -. Optical
\
, '---_ Monitor
,
"-
Optical MTF Electronics -- _ Detector
Detector MTF
MTF
Fig. 6.53 Transfer function of a system
A complete thermographic system suffers from all the causes of degra-
dation stated earlier. Its global modulation transfer function is therefore
the superposition of the transfer functions of the optics, the detector, the
processing electronics and the visual display unit. Since this function is
the product of several other transfer functions, it tends statistically to a
Gaussian shape.
The theory of linear filtering by thermographic devices has to be devel-
oped with some care. Indeed, the invariance of the impulse response over
the entire field is rarely attained in thermal imaging systems because of the
presence of aberrations and the nonlinearity of certain deflection systems
used in field analysis.
There is a number of optical transfer functions for the different points
in the field . Moreover, the system is generally noisy, which is contrary to
the principle of linearity because a quantity of random noise is added to
the signal associated with each image point, so that the same causes do
not necessarily produce the same effect. Furthermore, the amplification
of the signal is sometimes made deliberately nonlinear in order to achieve
dynamic compression. Finally, the radiance of the visual display unit is

generally a non-linear function of the applied signal.
6.4.4 Optics for the infrared

The optics used in the infrared range can consist entirely of mirrors. It is
then totally achromatic and can operate at all wavelengths with very good
transmittance, but its field of view is then restricted by off-axis geometrical
aberrations. The result is a catoptric, or reflecting, telescope.
The field can be enhanced by refractive elements called correctors. This
correction is introduced at the expense of having spectral transmittance
that depends on the materials of the refracting elements. The result is a
catadioptric (reflection and refraction) telescope.
Finally, refracting components have become common in wide-field op-
tics. Satisfactory correction of the chromatic and geometrical aberrations
requires a relatively large number of refracting surfaces, but the introduc-
tion of aspherical surfaces can lead to a significant reduction in the number
of elements in optical systems for particular applications.
Optical transmittance can be improved by surface coating of the re-
fracting surfaces especially when the materials used have high refractive
indices. Spectral limitations depend on the intrinsic transmittance of these
materials.
6.4.5 ReHecting telescopes

Reflecting telescopes, because of their narrow field, are used in objectives
working in a wide spectral range in applications such as remote detection
systems (spectrometry and radiometry). They are also used in systems with
large-area pupils.
Geometrical aberrations between infinity and the focal point of an opti-
cal system can be corrected by using mirrors with conical meridional cross
sections.
In some systems, it is useful to eliminate the central obstruction of the
pupil by a secondary mirror or the detector. These are, in particular,
radiometric systems working by conjugate pairing of pupil and detector, in
which the central obstruction tends to reduce the maximum sensitivity of
the detector.
Example The Cassegrain telescope consists of two mirrors: the principal
mirror Ml with a parabolic meridional cross section and a secondary mirror
M2 with a hyperbolic meridional cross sction. The optical axis is common
to both mirrors. This combination is perfectly corrected for an object point
situated on the axis at infinity. The image is then at the focal point of the
telescope. The quality of the image deteriorates very quickly with distance
from the optical axis.
Newtonian telescope
Parabolic mirror
Ml - parabolic mirror,
M2 - plane mirror M\
Gregory telescope
Cassegrain telescope Ml - parabolic mirror,
Ml - parabolic mirror, r.h - elliptic mirror
M2 - hyperbolic mirror
:--,
\ I
", I
, I
~~1 ~-+~ __ ______ ~

Herschel telescope
(without occultation) Axial telescope wlthout occultation
Ml - off-axis parabolic mirror Ml - parabolic mirror
M2 v. small fiat mirror
Fig. 6.54 Mirror optics M3 elliptic mirror
We shall examine this system for the following parameter values: focal
length H F = J = 300 mm, diameter of the entrance pupil 2h = 175 mm

(the entrance pupil is located in the principal image plane at H) and field
angle 2() = 0.02 radians.
HF=f
S\F\ =f\
S\F=d
Positive direction
k-----
:
:h
--- - ·
-- ... - ----- ...
•• F
I ~-
..: -._.---t;;-_.
~~~--~
IH IF,
,
I I.
I I I
I
I
I
I
I... -,I .. d
-I
I
f I
.. I
Fig. 6.55 Cassegrain telescope
Let It = SIFI be the focal length of the parabolic mirror MI with apex
Sl and h the focal length of the hyperbolic mirror M2 with apex S2 .
For reasons of space limitation caused by the presence of mirror and
detector supports, the distance SIF is set at d. We shall calculate h for
given J, It and d. If h2 is the height of the marginal rayon the mirror M 2 ,
UI the angular aperture of the mirror MI and U the angular aperture of
the combination, we have
h2 = FS2 tan u = FI S 2 tan UI
This expression allows us to calculate transverse magnification of mirror

M2:
Moreover,
h h
tanu= =
FH
=--
J
so that
(6 .60)
and
Since for M2
we obtain
h = s;p;s;y = ~S2F1 (6.61)
S2F + S2F1 92 - 1
We can now evaluate S2F1 from the relationships
from which
(6.62)
Inserting this value in (6.61), we finally obtain the focal length of the
secondary mirror:
f 2 -- 92 (II
2
- d)
(6 .63)
92 - 1
We now turn to the calculation of S2F. From (6.60)
and the distance S2S1 between the two mirrors is given by
The diameter of M2 should be
and the area of the pupil

Numerical example
If we let
S1 F1 = It = -180mm
S1F = d= 44mm
we obtain
I
g2 = - - = 1.667
It
f - g2 (11 - d) - -210
2 - g2 1 - mm
2-
S2 F = (1 - g2) h = 140 mm
S2S1 = (1 - g2) 12 - d = 96 mm
2h2 = 2 (1 - g2) 12 7h = 81.66 mm

S= 7r (h 2 - hD = 1.88 x 104 mm2
We note that the above evaluation of the diameter of the secondary mirror
does not take the optical field into account. In order not to stop down the
rays at the edge of the field, especially in a wide field, we have to increase
the radius h2 of the small mirror by dh 2 , where
and y = 10 is the height of the image at the focal point. Hence
_ _ _ Ray in nuU field

~ Ray in max field
Fig. 6.56 Aperture field

dh2 = 10HF+F'S; =10 [/-(1- 92

HF 1
)h] =0[/-(1-92)12]
= 10- 2 [300 - (1 - 1.667) x (-210)] = 1.6 mm
The effective diameter of M2 is then
2(h2 + dh 2) = 81.66 + (1.6 x 2) ~ 85mm
For the same reason, the mirror Ml must have its diameter increased by
2dh, where
dh=HSIO = (HF+FSd 0 =(J-d)O =2.56mm
Hence, the effective diameter of the large mirror is
2 (h + dh) = 175 + (2 x 2.56) ~ 180 mm
We shall now find the equation of the meridional cross section of the
mirror Ml paraboloidal. This cross section (Fig. 6.56) is described by
(6.64)
- ---- ......
........
""
"
.x
/
./
.....
/
'.
------,,"'"
Fig. 6.57 Paraboloidal mirror

The paraboloidal mirror is obtained by deforming the edges of a spher-

ical mirror touching to the paraboloid (Fig. 6.56). The equation of the
osculating circle of radius 211 = 360 mm is
(6.65)
These two equations give the marginal difference ilx between the sphere
and the paraboloid, i.e., the depth of material to be removed at the edge of
the mirror to transform from the spherical to the paraboloidal mirror. This
difference is obtained by setting y = h in the equations of the two curves
and then taking the difference between the values of x. For the parabola
y2 (90)2
xp = 720 = 720 = 1l.25mm
and for the circle
(360 - X)2 = (360)2 _ y2
Xc = 360 - )(360)2 - y2 = 360 - )(360)2 - (90)2 = 11.43 mm

Hence
ilx = Xc - xp = 0.1815 mm
y
-Ff:·_··-.. . . ... '

- - I t - : : - - -.. ----:;::~I----4~ x
I
I ..
I
I c
.. c
j4
Fig. 6.58 Hyperboloidal mirror

We must now derive the equation of the meridional cross section of mir-
ror M2 which is a hyperboloid ofrevolution. The equation of its meridional
cross section is
where a =8 20, C = OF = FlO. Moreover, from (6.60),
-180
= -140 x 300 = 84mm
a + c = S20+0F= S2F= 140 mm

from which
c = 140 + 84 = 112 mm
2
a = 140-112 = 28mm
These two parameters enable us to write the equation of the hyperbola:
(6.66)
The radius of the osculating sphere is equal 212 = -420 mm and the equa-
tion of the meridional cross section of the sphere is
(6.67)
The difference C!..,; between the sphere and the hyperbola can now be
= =
found for y h2 42.5 mm. For the hyperbola
Xh = 784 [1 + 11~;60] = 30.0753
and for the circle
Xc = 448 - V(420)2 - h~ = 30.1558

so that
/).,; = Xc - Xh = 0.082 mm
For the hyperbola, the marginal difference is such that the circle does not
allow the removal of material at the edge; it is in the neighborhood of the
apex S2 that the sphere has to be trimmed to obtain a hyperbolic mirror.
y
------~
",
", "
/
",
~~------------1-~~~----------~----~x
C2 o
I
I
I
I
I
1~1 • . -_ _ _ _ 42_0___/__
I
/77~,/_I ~··II~
__ ___
a=_2_8__ ~~
...,..,,/"
--- ----
Fig. 6.59 Hyperboloidal mirror
Aplanatic telescope This is a telescope corrected on the axis, whilst ac-

cepting a large field by correcting for coma. This type of telescope is ob-
tained by a modification of the Cassegrain whereby the mirrors are altered
to have a meridional section satisfying the sine condition (Ritchey-Chretien
solution).
6.4.6 Catadioptric telescopes

The above systems use mirrors with aspherical surfaces that are sometimes
difficult to make. For systems with a wider field, it is often preferable to use
spherical mirrors and then correct the wavefront by means of a refracting
system. A large number of correctors has been devised. We present the
most popular solutions (Fig. 6.60) .
All these solutions use mirrors that enable the systems to have an en-
trance pupil with a large area without an excessive increase in construction
cost. The different solutions are compared in the Table below. The Schmidt
telescope offers very good performance for an aperture of f /2 and focal
length of 100 mm. The other solutions show markedly poorer performance.
6.4.7 Evaluation of image-spot aberration for different simple

optical systems
By considering the propagation of rays in different optical systems, we have
obtained relationships for the rapid evaluation of the angular width dO of
the image spot, determined by the geometrical and chromatic aberrations

of such systems.
Fig. 6.60
Consider an optical system with aperture f / N, where N = f /2h, half-

field = 0 and the index of dispersion 1/ = (n - 1) / d of the refracting media.
The angular diameter of the diffraction spot is (in radians)
dO. _ 2.44A
dlff - 2h
5 6
[J
1: Schmidt telescope (Ml - spherical mirror, corrected for spherical aber-
ration); 2: Bouwers telescope (Ml - spherical mirror; the correcting menis-
cus lens is concentric with the mirror; the system is corrected for coma and
astigmatism; image subject to significant curvature; can be made achro-
matic); 3: Mangin telescope (correcting element is placed on the mirror);
4: Cassegrain with Bouwers correcting element; 5: Cassegrain with Mangin
correcting element; 6: telescope with correcting element near the focus.
For data relating to Fig. see Appendix.
Fig.6.Bl Catadioptric telescopes
Example Consider f = 100 mm, aperture f /2, half-field (J =0.1 rad and
2h = 50mm. Diffraction (A = 41'm) gives

3
d(J diff = 2.44 x 50
4 x 10-
= 2 x 10- 4 rad
• Spherical mirror stopped down at its apex
Spherical aberration
d(J 3 -- 0.008
3 -
_ 0.008 - 10-3 d
3 - ra
N (2)
Coma
(J
d(Jc = 16N2 = 16 0.1
x (2)
2 = 1.56 x 10
-3
rad
Astigmatism
(J2 (0 ;1)2
d(JA = 2N = 2 x 2 = 2.5 x 1O-3 rad
Total spread at the edge of the field
d(Jtotal = (1 + 1.56 + 2.5) 10- 3 = 5 X 10-3 rad
• Schmidt telescope
(J2 (0.1)2
d(Jtotal = 24 x N3 ---'---'-~
24 x (2)3
=5.2 X 10- 5 rad
In this example, the Schmidt telescope is diffraction limited at A = 4 I'm.

• Mangin telescope
10- 3 10- 3
d(J, = 4N4 = 4 x (2) 4 = 1.56 x 1O- 5 rad
Coma
(J
d(Jc = 32N2 = 32 0.1
x (2)
2 = 7.8 x 10
-4
rad
Astigmatism
(J2 (0.1)2
d(J A = -2N =-
2x 2
- = 2.5 X lO-3 rad
Chromatic aberration (germanium plate; /I = 88 for 3-5I'm)
1 1
d(Jch = 6/1N = 6 x 88 x 2 = 0.95 x 1O-3 rad
dOtotal = (2.5 + 0.95 + 0.78 + 0.016) 10- 3 = 4.25 X 10- 3 rad

• Simple lens of better shape (germanium, n = 4; v~ = 88 and v§ l = 1112)
dO 8-- 0.0087 -_ 0.0087

3 -
_ 10- 3 d
rn
N3 (2)
Coma
o ---- 0.1- - n = 2.6 x 10- 4 rad
dOc = 16 (n + 2) N2 16 x (4 + 2) X (2)2
Astigmatism
02 (0.1)2 -3
dOA = 2 N = 2 x 2 = 2.5 x 10 rad
Chromatic aberration (at 3-5/Lm)
1
dO ch = --
2v N
= 2 x 881 x 2 = 2.8 x 10-3 rad
Chromatic aberration (at 8-11 /Lm)
dO ch 1 =
= -- 1 = 2.2 x 10 -4 rad
2vN 2 x 1122 x 2
dOtotal (3 - 5/Lm) = 6.5 x 10- 3 rad
6.4.8 Refractive optics

Refractive systems are now frequently used in the infrared . The relative
abundance of materials and very efficient surface coating facilitate the fab-
rication of compact, high-grade optical systems.
The sensitivity of infrared detectors is linked to the aperture of the op-
tics, and it is quite common to come across optical systems with apertures
greater than f /1 in this spectral range.
The resolving power of infrared optics is generally much lower than that
of systems designed for the visible range.
We saw that a simple germanium lens with a focal length of 100 mm and
an aperture of f /2 produces a diffraction spot of the order of 5 mrad for a
total field of 12 0 •
A well-corrected refractive system, consisting of several elements, would
produce an elementary field close to the angular limit set by diffraction,
i.e., 0.5 mrad in the range 8-13/Lm. The size of the image spot is then 0.05
mm, and the corresponding resolution is 20 lines per mm. In the visible
range, a perfectly corrected objective of this type would have a resolving

power of 400 lines per mm.
Generally, the refractive components are chosen to be thin, in order to
reduce absorption as much as possible, and few in number, in order to
minimise losses by parasitic reflections.
Germanium is popular because of its wide spectral transmittance and
its very low dispersion in the range 2-16 pm. On the other hand, its high
refractive index requires an anti-reflection coating suitable for the working
wavelength range.
Finally, the presence of an entrance lens in the system relieves us of the
need for a window. This lens provides the mechanical interface between
the exterior and the interior of the system.
6.4.9 Simple germanium lens for)' = 10 pm

We assume a focal length f' = 100 mm, aperture f /2 and field angle 28 =
12°. The form factor q corresponding to minimum spherical aberration is
(object at infinity)
q-
Rl+R2
-
2(n 2 -1)
- R2 - RI - n +2
For a germanium lens with n = 4, radii of curvature RI and R2 and
thickness e, the expression
gives
To determine these radii, we write down the equation for the focal length
and replace R2 by 1.5RI:
.!. = (n _ 1) [o.5nR I + (n -1)e]

f 1.5nRl
For f = 100 mm, e = 5 mm and n = 4, we obtain the second-order equation
Ri - 100 Rl - 750 = 0
Fig. 6.62 Ray diagram
the solution of which is
Rl = 107.0088mm
R2 = 160.5132mm
(a) Determination of the cardinal elements of a thin lens

• Focal length (verification)
The image focal length f' is obtained by a paraxial calculation for an
axial object point at infinity:
!' = h01Xbm
hom
where ho represents the height of a paraxial ray incident on the successive
refracting surfaces labeled from 1 to m, Xbm is the depth of focus relative to
the last surface and the index 0 indicates that we are dealing with paraxial
quantities .
The values of ho and the xb are given by the expressions for the propa-
gation of rays between successive refracting surfaces:
ho Hl = hOk -
XOk+l
,-
x Ok
n~ = n2 =4
n~ = n3 = 1
Depth of paraxial focus X~2:
, ni R1
x 01 -- n' n = 4 x 107.0088 = 142.6784mm
1 - 1 4-1
X02 = x~l - e = 142.6784 - 5 = 137.6784mm

n~x02R2
x~2 = -----=:,----,...--
n 2 R2 - (n2 - n 2) X02
1 x 137.6784 x 160.5132
- 4 x 160.5132 - (4 - 1) x 137.6784
= 96.495643 mm
Calculation of hI! h 2 :
!!:..!.. = X~l = 142.6784 = 1.0363165

h2 X02 137.6784
Calculation of f' :
f
I
= hI,
h2 x02 = 1.0363165 x 96.495643 = 100.000mm
Position of the principal image plane:
S2H' = x~2 -!' = 96,495643 -100,000 = -3,504mm
(b) Imaging by an objective

We suppose that the lens defined below (Fig. 6.20) produces the image
of an object situated 1 m away from its front surface (SIAl = X01 =
.---
-1000 mm). The pupil of the system is the mount of the lens, the aperture
is f /2 and the lens diameter is 2h1 = 50 mm .
, ·,=1
-- ---
"
~
Fig. 6.63 Imaging by an objective lens
We shall calculate the path of aperture rays through the two surfaces of
=
the lens. For a half-field 0 6° and height of object Yl 105.1 mm, we=
have:
• Object aperture angle al
hl hl 25
tan al = =AlS l
= - -
XOl
= - (-1000)
= 0.025
al = 0.0249947
sin al = 0.0249921
• Path of a paraxial aperture ray
First refracting surface:
nl = 1; n~ = 4; XOl = -1000; Rl = 107.0088
1 + 107.0088 - (-1000) (1 - 4)
=147,95592mm
Path through the second refracting surface:
X02 = x~l - e = 147.95592 - 5 = 142.95592 rum

n2 = n~ = 4
n~ = n3 = 1
R2 = 160,5132
Second surface; position of the paraxial image: S2A~2 = x~2
n~ X02 R2
x~2 = ----=---,----,..,..
n2R2 - X02 (n2 - n~)
1 x 142.95592 x 160.5132
=-:-~~~~-:-~~~-~-~
4 x 160.5132 - 142.95592 x (4 - 1)
= 107.63565 mm
• Path of marginal ray:
SlAl = XOl = Xl
.. _ Rl - Xl. _ 107.0088 - (-1000) 00249921 - 0 2585439

Smtl - Rl smal - 107.0088 x. - .
il = 0.2615145
sin i~ = n~ sin il = ~ x 0.2585439 = 0.0646359

n1 4
i~ = 0.064681
0:' = 0:1 + i~ - il = 0.0249947 + 0.064681 - 0.2615145 = -0.1718387
sin o:~ = -0 .1709942
, [ s i n i~ ] [0.0646359 ]
xl = Rl 1- sino:~ = 107.0088 1- (-0.1709942) = 147.45816mm
Path through the second refracting surface:
X2 = x~ - e = 147.45816 - 5 = 142.45816 mm
sin 0:2 = sin o:~ = -0 .1709942

Second surface (position of marginal image)
. . _ R2 - X2. _ 160.5132 - 142.45816 (0 1709942)

sm t2 - R sm 0:2 - 32 x - .
2 160.51
= -0.0192339
i2 = -0 .0192351
sin i~ = n;
n2
sin i2 = i1 x (-0.0192339) = -0.0769359
i~ = -0.077012
o:~ = 0:2 + i~ - i2
= -0.1718387 + (-0.077012) - (-0.0192351)
= -0.2296156
sin o:~ = -0.2276032
, [ s i n i~ ] [ - 0.0769359]
X2 = R2 1 - sin o:~ = 160.5132 1 - -0.2276032 = 106.2555 mm
• Paraxial magnification
gO l = Rl - x~l = 107,0088 - 147,95592 = -0 0369889

Rl - XOl 107,0088 - (-1000) ,
Second surface
R2 - xb 160.5132 - 107.63565
g02 = R2 _ X02 = 160.5132 _ 142.95592 = 3.0117165
Overall magnification of the objective:
go = gOl X g02 = -0.0369889 x 3.0117165 = -0.1114

Size of the paraxial image:
Y~2 = Yl X go = 105.1 x (-0.1114) = -11.7082mm
(c) Pupil imaging

• Object field angle 01 = _6° :
tanOl = Yl = -0.1051042
SlA l
01 = -0.1047197
sin 01 = -0.1045284
• Paraxial pupil imaging (paraxial path of the principal ray)
Position of entrance pupil relative to the first surface, POI:
POI = PI = 0
from which
P~l = P~l = 0
• Path through the second refracting surface:
P02 = P~l - e = -5 mm
• Second surface (position of exit pupil)
- 4 x 160.5132+5 x (4-1)
= -1.2214634mm
• Marginal pupil imaging

First refracting surface, Pl = 0, pi = 0:
sinh = Rl~ PI sinOI = sin 01 = -0.1045284
J1 = 01 = -0.1047197
sin j~ = nn~ sin iI = ~4 x (-0.1045284) = -0.0261321

1
j~ = -0.026135
8'1 = 81 + j~ - it = j~ = -0.026135
sin O~ sinj~ = -0.0261321
Path to the second surface:
P2 = p~ - e = -5 mm
sin O2 = sin O~ = -0.0261321

Second surface:
+5 (
..
sm J2 = R2R2- P2 sm. 82 = 160.5132 )
160.5132 x 0.0261321 = -0.0269461
h= -0.0269493
sinj~ = n~
n
sinh = ~1 x (-0.0269461) = -0.1077844
2
j~ = -0.1079942
O~ = O2 + j~ - h = -0.026135 - 0.1079942 + 0.0269493 = -0.1071799
sinO~ = -0.1069748
, = R [1- Sinj~] = 160.5132 x [1- -0.1077844] = -1 21468m

P2 2 sin O~ -0.1069748' m
• Pupil magnification
/0 = /01 X /02 /01 =1

_ _ R2 - P~2 _ 160.5132 + 1.22146 _ 0 977
/0 - /02 - R2 - P02 - 160.5132 + 5 -.
Fig. 6.64 Ray diagram

• Size of the exit pupil
h~ = hI X 10 = 25 x 0,977 = 24.429 mm
(d) Spherical aberration

• Longitudinal spherical aberration
dx~ = x~ - X~2 = 106.2555 - 107.63565 = -1.380mm
• Transverse spherical aberration
dy~ = -dx~ tan o'~ = + 1.380 x (-0.2337379) = -0.323 mm

• Normal deviation
D. __ dx~ o'~ 2 = 1.38 X (0.2296156)2 = 0.018 mm

3 - 4 4
• Third-order spherical aberration coefficient
dx' 1.38 _ -26 174

a - _2 -
- 0',2 - (0.2296156)2 - .
2
(e) Coma
• Difference due to the sine condition
"" ( ') _ nl sin 0'1 _ 1 x 0.0249921

go ~ 0' - - go - -:-----:-::-::-::-::-::-:-::-c:-:-
n~ sin o'~ 1 x (0.2276032)
+0.1114 = 1.594 x 10- 3
4> (0") = 1.594 X 10- 3 = 1.594 10- 3

X = -0.01431
go -0.1114
• Coma with spherical aberration
\If (a') = 4> (a') _ , dx~ ,

x 02 - P02
1.380
= -0 .01431 + 107.63565 + 1.2214634
= -1.63 x 10- 3
Fig. 6.65 Sagittal astigmatism
Radius of comatic circle:
p = y~ W(a') = -11.7082 x (-1.63 x 10- 3 ) = 0,019mm
(I) Astigmatism
• Sagittal astigmatism
First refracting surface
nj cosj~ - nl cosil = 4 x 0.9996585 - 1 x 0.9945219 = 0.0280735

Rl 107.0088
XOl -1000
Sl = COS Ol = 0.9945219 = -1005.5082mm
nl 1 -4
Sl -1005.5082 = -9 .94521 x 10
, , ., .
n l = nl + _n=-lC_OS-..:..J=-,l:::--_n_l_c_oS...:;J_l
S~ Sl Rl
= -9.94521 X 10- 4 + 0.0280735 = 0.0270789
S'1 = 4
0.0270789 = 147.71605mm
, e 5
S2 = Sl - cos O~ = 147.71605 - 0.9996585 = 142.71434 mm
Second surface:
n2 5
S2 142.71434 = 0.028028
n2cosi2 - n2 cosh = 1 x 0.9941742 - 4 x 0.9996368 = -0.0187172

R2 160.5132
, , ., .
;~ = ;~ + n2 COSh~ n2cosJ2 = 0.028028 _ 0.0187172 = 9.3107 x 10- 3
5 2' = 9.3107 1X 10- 3 = 107.40328 mm

s = 5~cosO~ - x~2 = 107.40328 x 0.9942617 -107.63565 = -0.849mm
• Tangential astigmatism
First surface:
T1 = 51 = -0-
X01
cos 1
= -1005.5082
n1 cos 2 i1 =1 X(0.9945219)2 = -9.83655 X 10- 4

T1 -1005.5082
= -9.83655 X 10- 4 + 0.0280735

= 0.0270898
T' = n~ cos 2 i~ = 4 X (0.9996585)2 = 14755621

1 0.0270898 0.0270898 . mm
-t--- ---- x'02
=1 -
Ins,
~ c t A'02
- - ----------;-1":-
0'2 : I
I I
I
I I
I
I
Fig. 6.66 Tangential astigmatism


, e 5
T2 = Tl - -()-
cos 1
= 147.55621- 09996
. 585
= 142.55451 mm
Second surface:
n2 cos 2 h =4 X (0 .9996368)2 = 0.028039

T2 142,55451
n2 cos2 j~ 2 . ,.,
nt cos J2 + n2 cos 12 - n2 cos J2
.
T'2 T2 112
= 0.028039 - 0.0187172 = 9.3219 x 10-3
T' n2 COS 2 j~ 1 X (0.9941742)2 2
= 9.3219 X 10-3 = 9.3219 X 10-3 = 106.0 8 mm
2
t = T~ COS()~ - X~2 = 106.028 x 0 9. 942617 - 1.07.63565 = -2.216mm
• Astigmatism distance:
t- s = -2.216 + 0 8. 49 = -1.367 mm
• Radius of the circle of least diffusion:
, t- s -0.2296 x (-1.367)
0!2 -2- = 2 = 0.16mm
• Lateral diffusion in the image plane
dy~ = -O!~t = +0 .2296 x (-2.216) = 0.509 mm

• Field curvature
t+ s
~
02 c = -2- = -2.2162- 0.849
= -1.5 33 mm
(9) Distortion
• Spherical aberration by pupil
dp~ = p~ - P~2 = -1.21468 + 1.2214634 = 6.78 x 10- 3 mm

• Distortion
y~ = (X~2 - p~) tan ()~
= (107.63565 + 1.21468) x (-0.1075922)
= -11.71145 mm
dy; = y; - y~2 = -11.71145+ 11.7082 = -3 .25 x 1O- 3 mm

• Relative distortion
-3.25 X 10- 3 = 2.78 X 10-4

-11.7082
(h) Conclusion
The above calculations enable us to estimate the value of the spread for
each aberration:
• spread due to spherical aberration: D, =
2dy; 0.65 mm =
• spread due to the coma: Dc = 3p = 0.06 mm
• spread due to astigmatism: DA = 2dY2 = 1 mm.
In practice, by setting the image plane in the plane of the circle of least
spherical aberration, the latter is reduced to the quarter of its value. The
required defocussing is
3 I
-dx 2
4
= - 1.384 x 3 = -1.035 mm
and
D, = -0.65
4
= 0.16mm
Dc = O.06mm
3
D A = -2a;(t - 4dx~) = 2 x (-0.2296)(-2 .216 + 1.035) = 0.54 mm
The values of dB = D / fare:
dB, = 1.6 x 10- 3 rad
dB c = 6 x 10- 4 rad
dB A = 5.4 x 1O- 3 rad
These are slightly greater than the results given in the example on spreading
in an optical system. Here we are dealing with an optical system working
at a finite distance, initially planned to give the image of objects located
at infinity.
7
Scanning and Imaging
))
))
7.1 RADIOMETERS
The infrared radiation emitted by different objects can be measured with a

system called a radiometer. This consists (Fig. 7.1) of the necessary optics
(diameter <p, focal length J) and a detector (or a group of detectors) of area
A, located at the distance x' from the optics.
The detector is then the image of the object field, situated at the distance
x such that
1 1 1
-+-=-
x x' f
the object area being given by S = A (x/X,)2 .
The geometrical spread defined by the system is
Object field
Diameter <jJ
{
{ Radiance Lo
optics Focal length f
Area S
Detector
Area A
Fig. 7.1 Object and detector in conjugate planes of the optics
G = 7r<jJ2 S = 7r<jJ2 A
4x 2 4X'2
If the radiance Lo is uniform over the area S, the flux received by the
detector is:
F= LoTopTatG
where Top is the transmittance of the optics and Tat the transmittance of
the atmosphere over the propagation distance x + x' .
Under normal operating conditions, the electrical signal produced by the
detector has an amplitude s that is a linear function of the received optical
flux:
s=SF
where the proportionality factor S is the sensitivity of the detector.
When all these proportionality factors are known, each value of the
amplitude of the signal s can be associated with a mean temperature T
over S. This information can be obtained either by calculation, or by
comparison with standard sources of radiation.
In practice, the surface of the detector rarely has a uniform response. To
avoid fluctuations in the measured object field, the system often contains a
field lens in the image plane, whose role is to couple the detector optically to
the entrance pupil of the main optics, on which the irradiance is generally
uniform (except for the pupils of telescopes with central occultation).
7.2 RADIOMETERS FOR SPATIAL ANALYSIS

These radiometers are designed for meaSurements on point sources, or
sources with a very small angular dimension, by spatial filtering.
Scanning and Imaging 215
Object field
Main optics
Field image
Fig. 7.2 Uniform-field radiometer
Consider an object plane with the radiance distribution L(V, z). The
main optics, or the objective of the system, produces an image in the plane
of an analysing grid m(v' , Z/), where V, z and V', Zl are spatial coordinates
of points in the object and image planes, respectively.
The field optics, responsible for the pupil-detector conjugation, gather
all the flux arriving from the filtering plane on to the sensitive surface. The
flux element sent by an element of object surface dS = dV dz in the pupil
of the objective is given by
7r¢2dS 7r¢2dy dz
dF(y , z) = L (y,z) ~ = L (y,z) 4.x 2
The flux passing through the pupil must be corrected for the atmospheric
transmittance Tat over the path length .x, and for the transmittance of the
entrance optics Top:
dF (y', Z/) = Tat Top dF (V, z)

The image irradiance distribution is then given by the ratio of the-flux
element received and the image surface element dS /:
E (' ') _ dF (y', Z/)

y,z - dS '
The spatial filtering is translated by the modulation of this irradiance, using
the analysing grid represented by the function m (y', Z/). The distribution
of the filtered irradiance is given by
E (' ') _ dF(yl,Z/) m(v',z/)

m V,Z - dS'
All that needs to be done then is to multiply this expression by the surface
element dS ' , which yields the flux element sent by tliis distribution towards
the detector:
OBJECTIVE
Plane of image
Field lens
Z'
DETECTOR
Fig. 7.3 Radiometry and spatial analysis
Em (y', z')dS' = dF (y', z') m (y', z')
The field optics affects this flux through its transmittance Te, so that the
detector finally receives
dFdet = TedF (y' ,z') m (y', z')

The grid can, for example, take the form of a grating of equally-spaced
alternate opaque and transparent lines. The grating travels with uniform
velocity v' in the Oy' direction in the plane of filtering. Its image, projected
back on to the object space moves with the velocity v in' the Oy direction .
The filtering function in object space is then m(y',vt,z) and the flux
element received by the detector at time t is
7r¢J2
dFdet = Tat Top Te 4x 2 L (y, z) m (y + vt, z) dydz
The resultant contribution of all the elements of the object is obtained by
integration:
F(i) = Ta.t7'op Tc '4x2

Tr1jJ21+ 1+
00 00
-00 -00 L(y,z)m(y+vi,z)dydz
Let us now suppose that the resultant irradiance distribution on the object
L(y, z) is made up of a relatively uniform continuous background! (y, z),
covering the whole field (Yo, zo) (Fig. 7.4), and a source p(y, z) with very
small spatial dimensions (6.y,6.z):
L(y,z) = !(y,z)+p(y,z)
L ( I,l ) f( I ,l)
Fig. 7.4 Calculation of the radiance distribution
In calculations, these functions can be compared to the two-dimensional

rectangular functions
!(x, y) = a rect(y/yo) rect(z/zo)

p( x, y) = € rect(y/6.y) rect(z / 6.z)
where a is the mean background radiance and € is the difference between
the source radiance and a. The rectangular shape of the field and of the
point source is chosen solely in order to simplify the calculations; a circular
shape would lead to similar results .
The filtering function m (y + vi, z) has the shape of a series of rectan-
gular steps that are alternatively opaque and transparent with a period
26.Ym, and can be represented by its fundamental Fourier component, for
the sake of simplicity:
m (y, z) = '12 [ 1 + cos i1Ym

'Try ]
m(y,z)
~ym
Fig. 7.5 Spatial filtering function
This approximation becomes rigorous when the system operates in syn-

chronous detection mode, i.e., when the electrical filtering of the circuits
amplifying the signal is narrow and is centered on the modulation frequency.
The relationship giving the flux F(t) received by the detector can be
used to determine the shape of the signal if we use the above assumptions
about L (y, z) and m (y, z) . This signal s(t) is the convolution
7r¢>2
s(t)=STatTo p T"e 4x2 -00
j+oo j+oo
-00 [f(y,z)+p(y,z)]m(y+vt,z)dydz
Hence s(t) = s I + sp where
JJ
+00 +00
sl = K f(y,z)m(y+vt,z)dydz
-00 -00
JJ
+00+00
sp = K p(y,z)m(y+vt,z)dydz
-00 - 00
and
7r¢>2
K = STat Top T"e 4x 2
Let us first consider the signal s I due to the continuous background:
+00 1+00 a y z [ (y + vt)]

- rect - rect - 1 + cos
7r
sI = K 1 dy dz
-00 -00 2 Yo Zo AYm
= aK/2 j +':I0/ 2
-':10/2
1+
-zo/2
Z0 / 2 [
1 + cos
7r (y + vt)]
A
Ym
dydz
aK j+YO/2 +Z O/2 aK j+YO/2 1r (y + vt) j+ZO/2

=- j dz +- cos dy dz
2 -Yo/2 -zo/2 2 -yo/2 ~ym -zo/2
[. 1r (y + vt)] +Yo/2
=
aK Yo Zo
+ aK zo~ ym sm ----'-7---'-
2 21r ~ Ym -110/2
ayoz o }:?azo~ym -1 [.
= k --+'- sm (1r
-- YO 1rvt)
+- . (1r
- -sm -- YO 1rvt)]
+- -
2 1r 2 2~Ym ~Ym 2~Ym ~Ym
Hence
_ kayozo Kazo~Ym. ~ 1rvt
sf - 2 + 1r
sm 2 A
~Ym
cos A
~Ym
(7.1)
A strictly analogous calculation shows that the signal due to the source
with small linear dimension is
_ T/€~Y~Z T/€~z~Ym. 1r~Y 1rvt

sp - n 2
1r
+n
~Ym ~Ym
(7.2)
sm -A 2 cos ~
If we now choose the relative values of the period of the grating ~Ym and
of the dimension of the field Yo in such a way that Yo = 2n~Ym where n is
an integer, i.e., the field contains an integral number of grid periods, then
. 1r Yo
sm---= 0
2~Ym
and the signal due to the background is
sf =Kayozo
2
This is a steady signal that is is no longer a function of time.
The resultant signal detected in this way is
( ) _ K a Yo Zo K € ~y ~z T/ ~z ~ym . 1r ~y 1rvt (7.3)

S t - 2 + 2 +n € 1r sm 2~ym cos ~ym
This signal is the sum of a steady component, describing essentially one-

half of the power due to the background, and a periodic term that contains
information relating exclusively to the small source. The steady component
is simply removed by electrical filtering.
If the source is essentially a point source, we may write
~ym = N~y
where N is very large and
(t ) = K € N ~y ~z . 1r 1r vt }:? € ~y ~z 1r vt
S sm-cos--:::::: \. cos--
1r 2N ~ym 2 ~ym
Sit)
_KtAYAZ
2
Fig. 7.6 Detected signal
where itl.ytl.Z represents the energy of the source ..

By suitably choosing the function m (y, z) we can determine the position
in space of the infrared point source.
7.3 THERMOGRAPHY
Thermography, or thermal imaging, is a method of determining the spatial
distribution.ofheat in objects under examination, and its time dependence.
The system used for this purpose must be able to transform an infrared
image into a visible image. Its function is thus to create a visible image
with a radiance distribution that is proportional to the infrared radiance
distribution of the object, i.e., its spatial temperature distribution T (y, z)
or its emissivity distribution g (y, z). This conversion is usually achieved
by rapid sequential scanning of the object with a radiometer field element
of area S.
The scanned-object infrared radiance distribution L (y, z) produces a
detector signal s(t) whose dependence on time represents the radiance dis-
tribution over the object (video signa~.
The signal s(t) is amplified and fed to a visual display unit whose beam
is locked to the scanner, and the visible image produced in this way is
proportional to the infrared radiance of the object. This presupposes that
the temporal variations of the thermal distribution of the object are slow,
compared with the total imaging time.
In summary, in a system for infrared thermography, the scanning device
is programmed so that a coded video signal is eventually generated. This
signal can be recorded or simultaneously displayed as an image by means
of a decoding process.
7.4 SCANNING METHODS

In infrared imaging, the field element is deflected optomechanically, i.e.,
by mechanically driven spinning mirrors or refracting prisms. There are
sit)
Video signal
Detector
Display
Fig. 7.7 Schematic diagram of a thermographic system
also systems in which optomechanical scanning is replaced by electronic

scanning. They employ pyroelectric image tubes or charge-transfer arrays.
Optomechanical beam deflectors operate as optical angular deviators
and can work with parallel or converging beams.
A scan line can be analysed in a number of ways, some of which will
be mentioned here. Clearly, our list will not be exhaustive, since optical
beams can be deflected in a great many ways.
7.4.1 Line scanners
(a) Rotation of entire system

Here the entire system consisting of the optics and the detector is ro-
tating about an axis perpendicular to the optical axis of the scanned line
(Fig. 7.9).
The angular velocity of the system determines the scanning rate which
cannot be very high because it is limited by the inertia of the system.
The method offers easy 360 0 exploration in each complete revolution, but
provision must be made for data transfer from the rotating head by means
of a rotating collector. We note that, for finite distances, the object space
explored is cylindrical.
I-Rotation of entire system 2-0scillation of mirror
\J.}
3-Rotation of drum of mirrors 4-Rotation of refracting prism
5-Rotation of drum of lenses 6-Prism doublet
- - - -'_~---I
Linear detector array

Fig. 7.8 Different types of line scanning
A variant of this device incorporates a reflecting mirror in front of the

system, which revolves around the optical axis of the latter. This configu-
ration has the advantage of much lighter rotating elements, whilst avoiding
the need for a rotating collector.
The image is kept erect by a derotator in the form of a Wollaston or
Pechan prism, or a two-sided reflector, whose angular velocity around the
beam axis is half that of the mirror.
---- --
---------~~1IIo..
Field element ---- __
Fig. 7.9 Rotation of complete system
Fig. 7.10 Rotating mirror with a derotator
(b) Oscillating plane mirror
Here the axis of rotation crosses the central ray of the beam at right
angles to it. As the plane mirror rotates, the reflected beam rotates with
angular velocity that is twice that of the mirror.
The rotation of the plane mirror causes no problems for a parallel inci-
dent beam, but this is no longer the case for a converging beam for which
the exploration of the field is accompanied by the defocusing of the image.
Indeed, the defocusing due to a deflection 0 of a converging beam, i.e., a
rotation of the scanning mirror by 0/2 around an axis passing through the
Detector (image of field centre)
- - - --+t- ---===-+C,- Field centre
-~+ Field centre
Defocusing Field
periphery
Fig. 7.11 Oscillating mirror
point M on the central ray of the beam, is given by
€ ,, C cos
= C B = MB - M = -Xo- -
(J
Xo = Xo [1]
-- -
cos
(J
1
The geometrical diameter of the image spot on the detector for an optical
system with focal length f and useful diameter IjJ is
d-
- €
p.-
f - Xo
[I-COS(J]
cos (J
p.
f
This defocusing due to scanning with a convergent beam can eliminated by
deforming the image plane. The focal surface of the optics must be chosen,
and calculated, so as to be as close as possible to the portion of the sphere
of radius equal to MC and centred on M.
We note that, because of the principle of reversibility of light, a scanning
system located in front of the optics, and operating with finite distances,
will be subject to the same effects.
Finally, in the case of very fast line scanning, oscillating mirrors experi-
ence important kinematic discontinuities, so that it is difficult to guarantee
linear scanning over a wide angular range.
(c) Rotation of a drum of polygonal mirrors

The rapid rotation of a multifacetted prism allows scanning rates that
are high but are still limited by the centrifugal inertia of the drum. The
scanning is of the 'sawtooth' type, which means that line scan is followed
by a practically instantaneous return to the initial position.
Fig. 7.12 Reflecting polygon
The axis of rotation of each mirror does not then cross the central ray of
the beam, and the secondary effect of beam translation is superimposed on
the deflection of the central ray ray and produces defocusing in a converging
beam. This deflection system is more often used in a parallel beam. Finally,
we note that a slight and judiciously chosen inclination of each face to the
axis of rotation allows interlaced line scanning.
(d) Rotation of a refracting polygon

The polygon has an even number of plane faces, so that it presents suc-
cessive plane parallel plates (Fig. 7.13). If the centre of the prism coincides
with the image of the centre of the field Po produced by the optics, it is
possible to calculate the transverse displacement y = PoP of the image of
the centre of the field as a function of the angle of rotation Il' of the prism.
The calculation is carried out by considering the ray ABeD whose path in
air is parallel to the optical axis OD of the objective.
A rotation Il' of a plane parallel plate of thickness e and refractive index
n produces a lateral displacement PoP = /{ B = y given by
y
Fig. 7.13 Refracting polygon
Fig. 7.14 Refraction in a parallel plate
y = BL cos a = (H L - H B) cos a =e (tan a - tan a') cos a

The angles a and a' are related by Snell's law sin a = n sin a', so that
For an objective with focal length OPo = /, the field angle 8 (Fig. 7.13) is
given by
PoP y
tan 0 = OPo = 7
A prism which with eight faces would theoretically give a complete line for
0'= ±22.5°. In practice, the beams spread and it is necessary to allow for
a dead time of approximately 30% per line (this time is used for flyback) .
Under these conditions, the maximum useful scan angle is:
It is possible to derive an expression for the beam translation y as a function

of the angle of rotation a and hence for the deviation from linearity of such
a system. We have to compare the function y (a) with the straight lines
global linearity
dy(O')
y=-- paraxial linearity
dO'
Paraxial linearity dy(O')/dO'
y(O') Scan y(O')

Y(O' max )
Deviation Global linearity
from linearity ~ par~ial y( a.max)/y(a.max)
~ global --,-__0/
Rotation of prism
-«I .. a
Fig. 7.15 Beam translation y as a function of the prism rotation angle 0/
The relative distortion is very small because the maximum relative de-
viation from overall linearity is of the order of 2 X 10- 4 , whereas for the
paraxial linearity the corresponding figure is 5 X 10- 4
This very compact scanning system allows high scanning rates, but re-
quires a correction for aberrations introduced by the parallel-sided plates
in a converging beam, and also surface coating aimed at improving the
transparency of the prism. We note that the thickness varies with the field
0.5 ....----.---....---,--y-----r-,----r-,----r----,
§. 0.0 k--+-+--f==-+~I"'_-Ic=:I_-+-+-_'t
Q,
-0.5 L--L_.L.---L-_-'----'-_..L..---L_-'----'-----'
-0.5 0.0 0.5
Fig. 7.16 Relative image scanning distortion for a prism with eight faces: extinc-
tion ratio 0.3, useful angle 31.6 0 (curve 1- relative deviation for overall linearity,
curve 2 - relative deviation for paraxial linearity)
angle, so that prism absorption and emission are different at the centre and
the edge of the field. Finally, interlacing can be produced by cutting the
faces to a slight bevel.
(e)Rotation of a cylindrical array of lenses
This is a relatively old method that employs scanning by continuous

rotation, but has the disadvantage that the detector receives radiation from
different directions, i.e., the useful flux is superimposed on the stray flux
due to the system itself in the field of view of the detector.
The detector response varies with the angle of incidence and is not uni-
form when a line of constant flux is scanned.
Instantaneous field and aperture
r---:::~~+::;;.1:o.. Detector
Field scanned
by detector
Fig. 7.17 A drum of lenses

5canning and Imaging 229
(f) Rotation of prism doublets

The overall beam deviation produced by the doublet depends on the
angle of the equivalent prism that in turn depends on the relative rotation
of one prism with respect to the other around the optical axis of the incident
beam. The system suffers from considerable geometrical aberrations when
used with a converging beam.
It is therefore usually used with a parallel beam and must be achromatic,
i.e., the deviation must be wavelength independent in a wide spectral range.
51, 5 2 -Apex of prisms 1, 2

SI
Null deviation
Fig. 7.18 Prism doublet
The geometrical and kinetic parameters (prism angles, indices of refrac-

tion, angular velocity) can be chosen so as describe a variety of scanned
figures (straight lines, ellipses, spirals, complex curves and so on).
The overall deviation D of the equivalent prism is obtained by the vector
addition of the deviations Dl and D2 of the individual prisms:
where f3 is the angle between the two prisms, i.e., between 51 and 52.
Finally,
D = JDr + D~ + 2D I D2 cosf3
= =
For identical counter-rotating prisms with Dl D2 Do and equal angu-
lar velocities, the beam scans a segment of a straight line with an overall
deviation that is approximately given by
D = J2D5 (1 + cos(3) = 4D5 cos 2 2"f3 = 2Do cos 2"f3

Fig. 7.19 Combination of the effects of two prisms
The deviation is a cosinusoidal function of the angle of rotation of each

prism, 20 = f3:
D = 2Docoso
This produces a deviation from scanning linearity that becomes very large
at the edges of the field. The slowing down of the scanning rate at the ends
of the line leads to an excessive pile up of image points as compared to the
central distribution.
~u)
\..-- S2_ 1
o r -u
Fig. 7.20 Sinusoidal deviation produced by a prism doublet
(g)Linear detector array

This is a set of detector elements arranged in a linear array. Each element
of size a subtends a field element
d8= La
where f is the focal length of the system. There are as many field elements
as there are detectors. The detectors are staggered in order not to leave
empty spaces between the elements (Fig. 7.1).
The line is then scanned electronically by examining the signal from each
detector and allowing for any possible path length difference between even
and odd pairs.
Terminals
Fig. 7.21 Detector array
The linear scanning method has the advantage of being entirely non-
mechanical. However, it employs a multi-element detector, which is very
expensive if the number of elements required in the array is large.
-
Oscillating mirror Exit pupil
Image
......
Detector
Fig. 7.22 Pupil imaging
7.4.2 Image scanning

A complete image, rectangular in shape, is obtained by using a combination
of two linear scanning methods chosen from those listed above and applied
orthogonally.
The ratio of the scanning rates in the two directions, which generate the
lines and frames defines the format and the number of lines per frame in
the image. Line scanning is generally horizontal and fast, whereas frame
scanning is vertical and much slower.
Thermography is particularly effective when it is conducted by remote
sensing or from a moving platform, e.g., when the equipment is airborne or
carried by a vehicle travelling with uniform velocity. The resultant motion
of the system effectively produces a one-dimensional scan, and the scene is
completed by introducing simple scanning in the perpendicular direction.
Such systems are usually referred to as line scanners and allow us to
obtain, through the motion of the carrier or of the object being examined,
a two-dimensional image by simple line scanning. The scanning rate must,
of course, be related to the angular size of the field element and the velocity
of the carrier, so that a continuous image is obtained.
The image is often displayed graphically, in which case the chart speed
is proportional to that of the carrier and line tracing is synchronised with
the linear scanning.
7.5 IMAGING
The imaging system produces the video signal proper and also the synchro-
nising signals used to set the positions of the line and frame starts. These
signals can be multiplexed or transmitted by separate lines.
The synchronising signals are produced by position sensors carried by
the mobile optomechanical equipment and are used to initiate the scanning
process that generates the visible image on a grid whose' spatial character-
istics are analogous to those of the scene under investigation.
The display unit is generally a cathode-ray tube whose spot intensity
is modulated by the amplitude of the video signal. The horizontal and
vertical deflections are synchronised with those of the analyser (Fig. 7.24).
Some infrared imaging systems, particularly those designed for military
applications employing passive infrared surveillance, use a different type
of image generation. The video signal is first amplified and then used
to modulate the intensity of light-emitting diodes whose image is scanned.
This method requires an analyser employing achromatic mirrors that can be
used in both infrared and visible ranges (Fig. 7.25) .. The image produced in
this way is inspected either directly by eye through an eyepiece or indirectly
via a television camera. Of course, image quality is then governed by the
TV standard employed. If the infrared detector is a linear array with n
elements, the image has to be reconstructed by a linear array of n light-
emitting diodes. Imaging with light-emitting diodes can provide automatic
correction of instrumental distortion.
1: Two-prism refracting analyser
Oscillating mirror
(vertical scan)
Detector
Mirror drum
(horizontal scanning)
2: Image analyser employing a
mirror drum and oscillating mirror Object field
(achromatic system)
Detector array
1
3: Image analyser employing

a prism doublet and a detector array
Fig. 7.23 Types if image scanning

Object field Two-dimensional array detector
i
Detector array
(scanned electronically)
Fig.7.24 Types of image scanning (cont. from Fig. 2.23)
7.6 IMAGING WITH MULTI-ELEMENT DETECTORS

A good infrared image must be undistorted, sharp and scanned at a rate
suitable for visual observation; at the same time, it must possess a video
spectrum of minimum width in order to keep the noise level as low as
possible.
The imaging process must therefore be as linear as possible, with short
dead times (sawtooth sweep) . The optics must not produce any vignetting
associated with infrared noise due to the system itself. Once these con-
ditions are satisfied, it is possible to define several types of scanning of a
scene by a detector.
7.6.1 Two-dimensional scanning with a single detector

A scan with a total horizontal range y and a total vertical range z, which
uses a field element dydz, delivers yz/dydz image points per frame, i.e.,
Nyz/dydz points per second when the frame is repeated at frequency N.
Generally, 20-30% of these total scan ranges are used in reversing the
scanning direction, so that the useful field is reduced proportionally. This
type of scanning, performed with 100% modulation, can resolve a periodic
grid with spatial period equal to twice the size of the field element, i.e.,
2dy or 2dz, depending on the grid direction.
Line scanner (prism)
Image analyser using

uniform translation
Fig. 7.25 Airborne line scanning
The corresponding electrical signal s(t) produced by the detector has

the period
T= ~ dydz
N yz
The pass band necessary to cover the interval between zero frequency (con-
tinuous background) and the maximum frequency is therefore
Av=~Nyz
2 dydz
However, in some cases, the video pass band is made twice as high to
improve the transient response of the system.
The video pass band can now be estimated from the number of image
points delivered per second:
. yz
Av = N dydz
7.6.2 Scanning by a parallel array of n elements

The array perpendicular to the scanning direction writes simultaneously n
/
1: Synchro position sensor (vertical) 7: Video signal
2: Synchro position sensor (horizontal) 8: Cathode ray tube
3: Vertically scanning mirror 9: Vertical deflection
4: Horizontally scanning mirror 10: Horizontal deflection
5: Infrared optics. 11: Electron beam
6: Infrared detector 12: Visible image
1: Observed infrared image 7: Photodiode array

2: Infrared objective 8: TV objective
3: Line scanner (mirror drum) 9: Vidicon imager
4: Reflecting mirror (two face) 10: Cathode ray tube
5: Infrared detector array 11: Visible image
6: Video signal
Fig. 7.26 Different types of infrared imagers
Image distorton
V
0
IR detector
'----L.....- ----.~
~ ~ ..
IR detector
1: Optics ~_-::o.5
2-3: Reflecting mirrors
4: Mirror drum
5: IR detector
6: Photodiode
7: Visible optics
8: Reflecting prism
9: TV camera
Fig. 7.27 Bidirectional scanning with a single detector
lines for a single horizontal sweep. The n instantaneous fields are read in
parallel, and the pass band of the video signal becomes
~v=~ Nyz Nyz

or
2 ndydz ndydz
~dy
B
a
• dz a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
B
Fig. 7.28 Parallel scanning
This configuration has the advantage of reducing the sweep rate, the
pass band is reduced by the factor n and the signal to noise ratio
V. _ SbbRt/JpD*tanO:TatTop
Vb 2o:2y1n~v
(given in Section 11.3.1) increases in this way by the factor ..;n.

On the other hand, the sensitivity dispersion (approximately 20%) and,
especially, the noise dispersion (which can reach 200% or more) of each el-
ement creates spatial noise that is very difficult to deal with. Furthermore,
the loss of one element leads to the loss of a whole line.
~(YW-ll 12o*(CmW-1HzYlI
.
1,0 •• •• . •• :. •• ••
• ••
;-
10 't~~~~~~§~~'~iF-~
'.j- --" !'F-'-~
=+= f-f-
• . .- -t' ..1-1-
e.. . . -. . .
0,8
1-+--0.:-1--11:0.-+--+--+.... . _. ... ... ..-
• • ,
0,6
• • •• ••
0,4 10"~·~~~~~~~~L~-·t·~~~ .c-. _ • f--+-
. - --f--
l=t=t=t .... -..... . -- --

-- -
0,2
.~- - - .... --
!
° 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 n
1010L....L.....L.....L.....L.....I.....I.....I.....I....t....t....t.....I
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
n = number of elements
Fig. 7.29 Sensitivity and detectivity of a HgTeCd array as functions of the num-
ber of elements
If n = z/dz is the number of lines per frame, the analysis is then with
single-sweep scanning and the pass band becomes
~ = ~ N .JL or N .JL
2 dy dy
Video amp
n detectors
n preamplifiers Video signal
Fig. 7.30 Parallel scanning configuration
7.6.3 Scanning using an array of p elements in series
The array is considered here as a single detector (see Fig. 7.31), and a field
point is looked at successively by each detector. The signals obtained are
phase shifted by delay lines and added (time delay integration). Because
of this integration, the resulting signal exhibits a signal to noise ratio that
is again improved by the factor .;p.
P dy
dl
000= _---
---------
t
Fig. 7.31 Serial scanning

Serial scanning, which still has the inconvenience of rapid two-

dimensional scanning, gives on the other hand a higher effective detectivity
(D:ff '" ..[pD·); moreover, the loss of one element does not produce any
visible effect in the image. Finally, the coherent summation of signals from
the resp~ctive detector elements eliminates the effects due to the spread of
detectivities.
p detectors
~ ........
p preamps
delay lines Video signal
-
=
=
( P-1)t
Fig. 7.32 Serial scanner configuration
7.6.4 Serial-parallel scanning with a two-dimensional array

We have seen that the two scanning configurations considered above give
approximately equivalent performance. It is possible to retain the advan-
tages of the two methods by combining parallel and serial scanning with
the aid of an array of np detectors. The gain in detection sensitivity is
then VnVp and the scanning rate can be lower. This approach is tech-
nically feasible in thermography because the sensitivity is uniform in the
field. Unfortunately, two-dimensional detector arrays are still expensive
and difficult to cool.
Finally, we note that if the number of detectors is such that n = z/dz
and p = y/dy, the entire field can be imaged in one go without optical scan-
ning. The information is then extracted from each detector by electronic
scanning.
7.7 ELECTRONIC IMAGING
The principle of the electronic infrared imager is similar to that of the

classical vidicon tube used in television. A beam of electrons emitted by
p dy
- ~PDq!;
~ --- -----
ndz DOD
~DDDDD ---
Fig. 7.33 Series-parallel scanning
an electron gun is steered by the sawtooth field produced by deflecting

coils and scans the tube target on which the optical image is formed. The
change in the local electrical conductivity of the target produces a drift of
electrons towards the signal electrode. The current generated in this way is
intensity modulated by the target conductivity variations, and constitutes
the video signal.
The target itself can be photoconductive or pyroelectric but, in the mid-
dle infrared, only the pyroelectric target can work without cooling.
In the pyroelectric tube, the electron beam neutralises the local electrical
charges spread over the target and due to incident radiation. Such an
image tube is not sensitive to a steady infrared flux, i.e., the image must
be modulated by a chopper (Section 9.6.2.).
1: Optics
2: Modulator
3: Germanium window
4: Pyroelectric target
-sY
5: Electron gun (cathode)
6: Deflecting coils
7: Video signal
Fig. 7.34 Principle of the pyroelectric vidicon tube

7.7.1 The pyroelectric image tube

The structure and operating principle of this tube are analogous to those
of the vidicon used in ordinary television. Abeam produced by an electron
gun (emitting cathode plus control and accelerating electrodes) is focused
and steered by deflecting coils or electrodes, and scans the surface of an
infrared-sensitive single-crystal pyroelectric screen in the form of a thin
disc. The pyroelectric material has very low thermal conductivity and its
crystals are spontaneously polarised in a favoured direction. An infrared
image projected on such a material gives rise to (by absorption of emission)
local temperature variations that in turn induce local changes in the elec-
trical polarisation (pyroelectric effect). The infrared image then appears
as a pattern of electrical charges, which is destroyed by electrons in the
scanning beam, and it is this that gives rise to the video signal due to
the flow of compensating charges. The most common material exhibiting
pyroelectric effects is triglycine sulphate (TGS).
Theoretically, the pyroelectric effect increases with the temperature of
the material, which should give rise to higher sensitivity, but the associated
increase in permittivity leads to lower resitivity and, hence, poorer readout
efficiency of the electronic beam. Moreover, beyond the transition temper-
ature known as the Curie point, thermal vibrations of the crystal lattice
remove the pyroelectric effect, so that a compromise operating temperature
must be chosen for the target . This lies somewhere in the range 25 - 40°C
for a Curie point of 49°C (TGS) and 0 - 53°C for a Curie point of 61°C
(DTGS) .
T.
Frame 1
Ip = current pedestal
~T=T'-T'
~.
Frame 2
Fig. 7.35 Principle of the pyroelectric vidicon
The best sensitivity is obtained when all the crystals on the sensitive
area (or target) have their polarisation axes parallel. This is achieved by
applying a high electric field with the tube is turned on.
The pyroelectric image tubes have the advantage of being able to work at
room temperature. The sensitivity remains satisfactory because the pixel
integration time constant is consistent with the image formation time.
The spectral response is uniform over the 2-25 p.m range and is even-
tually limited by the transmission of the optics or windows used. Recent
improvements rely on targets with higher Curie points.
7.7.2 Pyroelectric arrays

Arrays of uncooled LiTa03 or BaSrTiO pyroelectric detectors working in
the 8-12 p.m band are currently being developed for low cost thermal im-
agers. Pyroelectric detectors which do not operate continuously require a
modulator that chops the optical flux.
7.7.3 Solid state arrays (see Section 9.12)

8
Spectral Filtering
"\ ( (
)) I
( (
)) )
~.~.
The spectral response of an infrared system is determined by the spec-

tral behaviour of all its optical and opto-electronic components, i.e., the
spectral transmittance of the absorbing materials, the spectral reflectance
of the reflecting materials, the spectral properties of the surface-treated
materials, the spectral transmittance of filters and the spectral response of
the radiation detector.
8.1 SPECTRAL TRANSMITTANCE OF MATERIALS
We saw in Section 5.2 that the optical properties of a medium are defined
by its complex refractive index N = n - jk.
When the material is transparent, i.e., when its index of extinction k is
close to zero, the reflectance of its surface at normal incidence is
R= (~)2
n+1
(8.1)
Spectral Filtering 245
where n is the refractive index. This is the case when the surface is in air.
When it is in contact with a medium of refractive index n', the reflectance
n--n')2
1S
R-
-
(-
n+n'
(8.2)
If the material has negligible absorption, the transmittance is
4n
T=1-R= 2
(n + 1)
In the case of an optical system consisting of p air-medium interfaces, the
transmission is given by:
p
T- [ 4n ] (8.3)
- (n+ 1)2
/ ,y
Fig. 8.1 Multiple reflection and transmission
This relationship is not quite correct in practice because of multiple re-

flections that, in some cases, actually increase the resultant transmittance:
T2 T
2---
1-(1-T) 2-T
Hence
T=~}T2
112 + 1
The difference is very small for low indices of refraction, but much more
important for materials with high indices such as germanium (n = 4). For
example,
n = 1.5 T = 0.923 T2 = 0.922
n=4 T = 0.47 T2 = 0.41
The spectral reflectance of a surface is radically altered by the deposition

of thin layers of materials with different indices of refraction.
8.2 THE PROPERTIES OF THIN LAYERS

Consider a thin layer of constant thickness el and refractive index nl,
deposited on a material of refractive index n2, called the suI)strate. The
outer face of the layer is assumed to be in air (refractive index no = 1).
Fig. 8.2 Thin film
An incident electromagnetic plane wave, defined by its electric field Eo

and its magnetic intensity H o , is modified as it crosses the medium.
The tangential components Et and H t of the vectors E and H are con-
tinuous across each separation boundary. If the electric field vector Eo is
perpendicular to the plane of incidence, the magnetic intensity Ho will be
in the plane of incidence. The instantaneous amplitudes of the fields at a
point A (Fig. 8.3) will be indicated in our calculations by the index (+) for
propagation to the right wave and by the index (-) for propagation to the
left:
(8.4)
(He)A = (Ht - Ho) cosio = (Hi - HI) cosi l

where io is the angle of incidence in air, i l the angle of refraction in the
medium and i2 the angle of refraction in the substrate.
In Section 5.1 we met Maxwell's equation
curlE = -JL-
oH
ot
n,
e,
I- - - - - ---i
Fig. 8.3 Field amplitudes in a layer of refracting material
For a plane wave of the form E = (Er,O,O), H = (O,Hy,O), this gives a re-
lationship between the components Er and Hy of the electric and magnetic
field vectors of the form
aEr aHy
--=-1-'--
az at
y
Fig. 8.4 The electromagnetic field
If the electric field varies sinusoidally,i.e.,
Er = acosw (t -~)
where w is the angular velocity of the wave, z is the direction of propagation
and v is the speed of propagation, we have
aHy
-I-'Tt =
aEr
~ =
aw.
-;-SIDW
( Z)
t- ~
H
y
= - ow
~vh
t sin w (t _ :.)v dt = ~
~v
cos w (t _:.) = Ex
v ~v
Since €~ = 1/v2 we can write
so that finally,
H=nE (8.5)
This new relationship enables us to simplify the equations given by (8.5)
(8 .6)
(Ht)A = (E; - Eo)no cos io = (Et - E1)nl cos il

Similar expressions hold for interface B between the layer and the substrate:
(8.7)
(HdB = [Et exp( -jkc5d - E1 exp(jkc5d] nl COSil = Etn2 COSi2

where 01 = nlel COSil and k = 27r/).. in which 01 is the optical path differ-
ence between rays crossing the layer.
Eliminating Et and E1 by substitution from (8.6) and (8,7), we obtain
(8.8)
which can be rewritten in matrix form as follows:
The 2 x 2 matrix on the right contains only the parameters of the thin layer
and the path length of the wave in the latter. It enables us to calculate the
tangential components of E and H at exit from the layer if we know the
tangential components of these fields at entry.
The above matrix

[M] = [: !]
is called the characteristic matrix of the thin layer. A set of several thin
layers can be described by the product of characteristic matrices:
The amplitudes Et and Eo can be found from (8.6) by replacing (Et)A

and (Ht)A with their values given by (8.7) and (8.8), and it can be shown
that the amplitude reflectance of the thin layer is
Eo no cosio (a + bn2 cosi 2 ) - (c + dn2 cosi 2 )

(8.9)
r= Et = nocosio(a+bn2cosi2)+(c+dn2cosi2)
At normal incidence (io = i 1 = i2 = 0), the energy reflectance is
(8.10)
8.3 ANTIREFLECTIVE THIN FILMS
8.3.1 Antireflective coating using a single layer

The reflectance n of a thin layer at normal incidence is given by
(8.11)
and is a minimum when cos2 knlel = 0, i.e., when the optical thickness of
the layer is equal to one quarter of the working wavelength:
The characteristic matrix of such a layer is
and the reflectance is

(8.12)
If, in addition, the refractive index of the layer nl is chosen so that
the reflectance of the layer vanishes (R = 0) for the wavelength A, and we

have an antireflective layer.
The materials used for infrared optical systems have refractive indices
in the range of 1.5-4. Materials with low indices (n2 = 1.5-1.7) have low
reflectance and rarely require antireflective surface treatment. Such treat-
ment is, however, essential for materials with high refractive n2. They can
be coated with antireflective layers ofrefractive index nl such that nr = n2
(for operation in air no = 1), with optical thickness equal to one quarter of
the wavelength.
Commonly used coatings are listed in the table below.
Material nl n1 2 Spectral range,llm
A1F3 1.32 1.74 0.2-10

MgF2 1.35 1.82 0.12-5
ThF4 1045 2.10 0.2-10
SiO 1.5-1.9 2.25-3.61 0.4-8
Ce02 2.2 4.84 0.4-5
ZnS 2.25 5.06 004-15
Sb 2 S 3 2.8 7.84
Ti0 2 2.3-2.8 5.29-7.84 0.4-7
A single-layer antireflective film reduces the reflectance of the coated

material at a wavelength A set by the condition nlel = A/4. In practice, the
reflectance of the treated surface varies relatively slowly with wavelength,
so that the coating is effective within a certain spectral band LlA.
Consider the example of germanium (n2 = 4) coated with a layer of zinc
sulphide (nl = =
2.25) with an optical thickness of A/4 at A 4 {lm. The
geometrical thickness of the layer is el = A/4nl. The reflectance of the
system is then
R = (n2 - n~)2 = 0.014

n2 + n 1
The same material, untreated, would have
n2 _1)2
R = ( n2 + 1 = 0.36
0,5
InS
0.4
..... .... . .... ..... ....
0,3 K I'
0,2 1\\ /
0,1 ~
y'"
0,0
~O14 \. ./~
2 3 4 5 6
n' - bare surface Wavelength A, J.lm
n - with quarter-wave ZnS film
Fig. 8.5 Reflectance of germanium at normal incidence
We note in passing that a 25% deviation from the condition ni = n2

produces a 1.4% change in the effective reflectance. The range of available
materials for antireflective layers is therefore quite wide.
8.3.2 Two-layer antireflective coating

Consider a material with refractive index n3, coated with two layers with
indices nl and n2 and thicknesses el and e2. The properties of this system
are described by the product of the individual layer matrices. The number
of parameters available allows several antireflective configurations. The
simplest condition is
A
nlel = n2 e2 = '4
The reflectance at normal incidence then takes the form
(8 .13)
=
which vanishes for ndn2 fo3 (in air no 1). =
=
For a germanium substrate (n3 4), this condition is satisfied if n2/nl =
2, which corresponds to a layer of magnesium fluoride (MgF2' nl = 1.38)
and a layer of antimonide trisulphide (Sb 2 S3, n3 = 2.8); the layers each have
an optical thickness equal to one quarter of the wavelength (A = 4 J.lm).
The two-layer coating has a wider working wavelength band ~A.
8.3.3 Multilayer antireflective coating

As the number of layers increases, the calculations become more complex.
The problem can be simplified by choosing layers of optical thickness A/4
at normal incidence.
Tt
0,25
0.2 a
\
\
\
0,15
\,
0.10
;
005
Itt. 10 L----'
-4
V
0,00
2
"-
3 4 6
Wavelength A, J.Lm
Fig. 8.6 Reflectance of a two-layer coating
0,0 a
J
:::\1------+------+-j
L
--+----Ii~I
. ....::::::::l.===::t.==::!':::::=-~6
2 3 4 5
Wavelength A, J.Lm
Fig. 8.7 Reflectance of germanium (or silicon) with a multilayer coating for ~A :::::
3- 5ILm (Rmean :::::: 1%)
Multilayer treatments reduce the reflectance of a surface over a wider

spectral range.
8.3.4 Examples of surface treatments for improving the

transmission of materials
(aJ Transmission of a germanium plate coated on both sides with a layer

of ZnS for A = lOJ.Lm
n
We note that the condition that minimises the reflectance of a surface,
i.e., the condition that ensures the best transmittance of the material
has the solution

1) Transmission
I,D
,.....
~ ~L ~
"
0,8 ~'l).
0,6 II \cp'll>,
Not coated
0.4
/.,. - --- --- --- --- ... -"'''' ---
0,2
0,0
o 6 8 10 12 14 16
Wavelength >., J-Lm
Fig. 8.8 Effect of a coa.ting on germanium
1) Transmission M
1,0 ..---.---r-:Q-';J', ,-,/. ,. ., , r-:..:.:.~"""""
" ~- ..,-r-
, " ,--.," quarter
0,8 t---+--f-->o£..j+--+-;----"~_i CD-wave
0,6 ~+--~:'---+/+----+-:=-+----+--1
@ """ (MgF2 films
:1/ 0) SiD - COS')
e 2- I
:~....... ........ - --- ... -
0,4 1---+---.;'.£----1--+-+--+-;
Q)Single
DJ/
0,2 I---+---j:-t----li---+-+--+-; quarter-wave
0,0 L...-.L.--&..I-......J"--....L.._~....I_..1
SiO film
o 6 Ge 0)
Wavelength >., J-Lm / ~
Bare surface
Fig. 8.9 Germanium coa.ted with a graded-index film (nJ =1.5-4)
where p is an integer.
It is clear that the working wavelength >'0 = 4nlel corresponding to p =
ois not the only one that satisfies the equation for maximum transmittance,
For example, for p = 1, we have the solution
This shows that an antireflective coating, optimised for a wavelength

>'0,produces a second transmittance peak at >'0/3, When the optics has
to work solely in the spectral band centred on >'0, the second peak can be
removed with a high-pass filter,
(b) Transmittance of a germanium plate treated on both faces for.Ao = 4 {tm

b Transmission
',0
/
.... r-.....
0,8 Coated
II
I I f'
0" I-- t-- Not coated
.... - .. - - --- -- - --- - --
.,,1,5 n,'4
0,2
0,0
o 6 8 '0 '2 ,~
Wavelength .A, {tm

Fig. 8.10 Different coatings on germanium
(c) Treatments for wide working spectral intervals
It is possible to produce antireflective surfaces with a wide working spec-

tral interval by using judiciously chosen multilayers, or a single layer with
a graded index of refraction.
8.4 FILTERS
By adding a filter to an infrared system we can ensure that the radiation
reaching the detector consists of one or several well-defined spectral inter-
vals. These bands are chosen in accordance with the prevailing conditions
of measurement.
For example, if we wish to measure the temperature of a glass surface
by thermography, we choose a spectral region in which the emissivity of
the material is a maximum whilst the reflectance and transmittance are as
low as possible.
Examination of the spectral reflectance ?l(.A) and spectral transmittance
T(A) at normal incidence leads to the following values, bearing in mind that
c(A) + R(A) + r(.A) = 1:
AVeTa2e val. £:(1.) R 0,) T( I.)

3_5 - 5 urn 0.86 0.06 0.08
3 - 5 J1ffi 0.80 0.06 0.14
8 -12 um 0.80 0.20 0.00
These results show that the thermographic measurement of the temper-
ature of glass can be optimised by spectral filtering with D.A = 3.5 - 5 pm
(indium antimonide detector with a high-pass filter above 3.5 {tm).
It is important to note that the reflectance of glass is relatively low in this
band, but is not zero, and can give rise to a large error when intense stray
radiation is present (solar radiation, for example). It is therefore preferable
10
. ..
0,8
,
,,
, - -....
.
T(A} , ... - ....
0,6
, •
, borosilicate crown
•
1\ . -'. v.-
0,4
,
, window glass
. 0,3
/ ' .........
,,
0,2 ~ ~
'\- - --(1" ['.... L~

_
, 'R(A) 'Jt~
l./
o * •
o
"
05 2 3 5 8 9 10 II 12 15
Wavelength A, pm
Fig. 8.11 Reflectance and transmittance of glass
to make measurements of this ' type in darkness because the solar emission
intensity is actually quite high at these wavelengths .
It is also necesssary to avoid intense sources seen in transmission (heat-
ing, hot points and so on). Finally, we must not forget that the reflectance
of glass increases with the angle of incidence, so that measurements must
be made at normal incidence.
Another example of spectral filtering in thermography is the observation
of very distant objects through atmospheric transparency 'windows'. The
filter must then let through wavelength bands that are readily transmit-
ted by the atmosphere in order to eliminate the emission at wavelengths
corresponding to absorptions bands. The filter defined in this way must
be cooled to reduce its own emission at wavelengths corresponding to its
absorption bands.
A final example is that of furnaces (e.g., in petrochemistry) where it is
often necessary to perform thermographic surveys of furnace walls through
flames that obscure the furnace. The combined use of a fil ter and surface
coatings for the optics, which reject the spectral emission of the flames,
gives useable results.
8.4.1 Different types of filter
(a)Low-pass filters
These filters eliminate long wavelengths beyond a certain spectral
threshold Ad.
(b) Hig h-pass filte rs

These filters transmit only wavelengths below a certain a limit AC 2 .
'-----~A.
Fig. 8.12 Low-pass filter
Fig. 8.13 High-pass filter
(c) Band-pass filters

These filters transmit only in a range of between, say, Ac2 and Act. They
can be obtained as a result of the superposition of a low-pass and a high-
pass filter.
. Low pass High pass
Fig. 8.14 Band-pass filter
All these filters are characterised by cut-off wavelengths and by the slope
of the transmission curve close to these wavelengths.
8.4.2 Filter fabrication technologies

Optical filters usually consist of selectively absorbing materials (some of
which are described in Chapter 5) or thin-film systems that selectively
enhance transmission within a chosen optical spectral interval.
The spectral sensitivity of infrared quantum detectors usually falls off
very rapidly beyond a certain wavelength. These detectors are therefore
effectively low-pass filters or pass-band filters which remove short wave-
lengths as well.
(aJ Absorption filters
Semiconductors are very often used as absorbing high-pass filters, usu-

ally opaque in the visible and transparent in the infrared. Their cut-off
wavelength Ac2 is a function of their band gap t::.E
and of the thickness of the material. For example, silicon becomes trans-
parent near 1.1 J.lm, germanium near 1.8 J.lm and indium antimonide near
7.2 J.lm. These materials have a high refractive index and must be provided
with an antireflective coating for the spectral interval that is transmitted.
(b) Reflection filters
Selective reflection filters that exploit the variation of reflectance with

wavelength are commonly employed in the infrared. They take the form of
dichroic mirrors which define two different spectral regions D.Al and D.A2
(Fig. 8.15).
j{ Reflectance of dichroic plate

1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
oL-~~~~----~~~
AA, AA.2
Transm. Refl.
Fig. 8.15 Dichroic mirror
We have seen that the spectral emissivity of metals is very low in the
infrared, but higher in the visible. Metals are good reflectors in the infrare.d.
To achieve better performance, the metal surface can be coated with thin
films that increase the reflectance of the system within a chosen spectral
interval.
Dielectric films have better mechanical properties than metal films.
They are also useful as protective coatings for mirrors, since they facil-
litate cleaning. Indeed, it is very difficult to clean a highly polished metal
surface, because of its sensitivity to scratching by the smallest amount of
dust .
3t
1
.. ------- ..... ::~::~:~~:=;~:~
. . . . .. .... ... .
......... Aluminium
0,5 Chromium
Wavelength A, 11m
o 2
0,3 0,5 3 5 10
Fig. 8 .16 Reflectance of metals
Metal Dielectric Metal "G Transmission
o~----~~~----
Fig. 8.17 Interference filters
Multilayer surface coatings of alternate metal and dielectric films on a

metal surface produce very wavelength-selective reflectance.
(c) Interference filters

Very selective filtering, with a very large drop in transmittance at one
or several cut-off wavelengths, can be obtained by exploiting the high spec-
tral selectivity of multiple-beam interferometers of the Fabry-Perot type,
operating in transmission.
Efficient filtering is obtained in such a metal-dielectric-metal system by
giving very high reflectance to the metal films, which must therefore be
relatively thick . The absorption of the filter is then quite high.
The maximum transmittance of an interference filter is sub&tantially
increased when metal films are replaced with a series of thin dielectric
films having alternately low and high refractive indices.
(d) Dispersion, diffusion and diffraction filters

These filters exploit the wavelength-dependent phenomenon of disper-
sion, the phenomenon of diffusion whose spectral efficiency depends on the
.1t
1,0
O~
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Number of films N
Fig. 8.18 Dispersion filter
b Transmission
1 ____ _
--
N films
Fig. 8.19 Reflectance as a function of the number N of a.iternating films
relative size of diffusing particles (and the wavelength) and, finally, the phe-
nomenon of diffraction which introduces an angular spread that depends
on wavelength .
In Fig. 8.21, the two thermographic systems are arranged so as to pro-
duce a quasi-identical image of the curtain located on the left. Thermogram
a, was recorded with lower sensitivity (or gain) and demonstrates the sig-
nificant reflectivity of glass in the band 8 to 13 microns (Chapter 8.4). Note
that the auto collimation of the camera detectors gives a cold appearance
to the image of the objectives.
Dispersing prism
6"'1
6"'2
:W--.....- 6 "'1 Scattering medium
Diffraction grating
Fig. 8.20 Bispectral observation of a reference source by reflection from a glass

window
.2 . I .
,-. .• •~
::.
+ .... I
o
...
'I .. . •
Fig. 8.21 Bispectral observation of a reference source by reflection from a glass

window
9
Radiation Detectors
9.1 GENERALITIES
Since the discovery of infrared radiation by Herschel in 1800 (thermal ef-

fects beyond the red in the visible spectrum produced by a prism) and the
discovery of the ultraviolet by Ritter in 1801 (effect on photosensitive ma-
terials), there has been a need for the quantitative detection of radiation
in the spectral region visible to eye. Indeed, it is often advantageous to
be able to work outside the visible region because of the low sensitivity of
visual photometric methods.
A radiation detector transforms an incident optical signal that is a func-
tion of position x, y and time t (it can be a flux, an irradiance or any
other quantity corresponding to luminous energy) into an electrical signal
or response (which can be voltage, current or power).
There are two basic types of detector. There are detectors of flux (ra-
diometry), which integrate the optical signal over the space variables and
produce a response that is a function of time, i.e.,
JJ
:r: II
F(x,y,t)dxdy=4>(t)
and there are detectors of image (eye , photography) that ,integrate over
time, so that the response is a function of the space variables
J F (x, y, t)dt = \If (x, y)
The detector of flux produces a response that is a function of time and

must describe the temporal evolution of the incident signal.
When this temporal evolution comes from the displacement of the in-
stantaneous field of view seen by the detector, we have a system that com-
bines the two modes of operation, i.e., television or infrared thermal imag-
ing.
The detection of low levels of radiation is limited by the superposition
of a random function called noise on the output signal. The quality of
detection is then measured by the ratio of the output signal to the noise.
This ratio must be as high as possible .
9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DETECTORS
9.2.1 Current-voltage characteristic

The properties of a detector can be represented by an equivalent circuit
and its static current-voltage characteric
i = f(v)
This circuit, which must be limited to the range of electrical power that
will not destroy the detector, allows us to choose the working point that
is satisfactory in terms of linearity of response to the amplitude of the
incident signal. The working point lies on the load line determined by the
load R of the detector and the bias Vo .
On the linear portion of the characteristic, the changes in the detector
variables are related by the two partial differential equations
oi oi
di = 0 F dF + 0 v dv = Si dF + A dv (9 .1)
dv = : ; dF + ~ ~ di = Stl dF + Z di (9.2)
Radiation Detectors 263
Incident flux F
F=O
F= I
F=2
Fig. 9.1 The current-voltage characteristic of a detector
dF
dv
Fig. 9.2 Equivalent circuit in terms of impedance
These relationships allow us to define the detector parameters, namely, its

voltage and current sensitivities of response at constant incident flux F
av
s" = aF (in V /W)
(inA/W)
and its impedance at constant flux
Z = av
ai
It is also possible to define the admittance
A = ai
av
These parameters then enable us to represent the detector by its equiv-
alent ciruit:
di
...-
~dF
elv
Z="A
Fig. 9.3 Equivalent circuit in terms of admittance
The power developed di dv is a maximum when the load IS suitably

matched to the impedance of the detector.
9.2.2 Shape of signal

It is interesting to examine, for example, the response of a detector to a
square wave. The response is illustrated in Fig. 9.4 and is subject to two
types of variation.
Firstly, there are drifts that depend on external parameters (temper-
ature, flux, interference etc.) and those that result from aging (fatigue,
training, memory).
Secondly, there are variations due to the particle nature of matter and
radiation (atoms, photons) and those due to the thermal vibrations of the
particles. These variations appear as fluctuations around the mean value
of the signal.
The former variations can be reduced, and even eliminated, by using
thermostatic enclosures, stops and screens. However, this is not possible
for the the latter fluctuations (or noise) which set the limits of detection
and experimental precision.
9.3 NOISE
9.3.1 The spectral distribution and technological causes of noise

The spectral distribution of voltage or current fluctuations expressed in
terms of the mean square values
-dv = -1-
611
2
6t 611
lto
to +bt
dv 2 dt
di 2
- = --
611
1
6 tbll
lto
to +b t di 2 dt
Optical signal
rlt~~
1
Detector response
Time
..
(I) Drift
(2) Fatigue
(3) Training
(4) Memory
(5)Fluctuations
(6) Dark current
Time
Fig. 9.4 Detector response to a square wave
oL---------------------------~v
Fig. 9.5 Spectral distribution of noise
has, generally, the shape illustrated in Fig. 9.5.

At low frequencies, the noise level decreases as I/v due to surface imper-
fections of the detector material. At intermediate frequencies, the sp~ctral
distribution of the noise is constant, and the noise said to be white. The
latter noise is fundamentally irreducible because it is due to the thermal
vibrations and the particle nature of light and electricity.
At high frequencies, the noise is again a decreasing function of frequency,
but this is now due to a loss in detector sensitivity which is limited by
transit-time effects and stray impedances.
9.3.2 Signal-to-noise ratio

Consider a sinusoidal optical signal of frequency Vo and peak value F with
l\i
Z'
dv
Fig. 9 .6 Equivalent circuit
its associated load Z' . The equivalent impedance circuit then gives
Sf) F + Zi = -Z'i
so that
. Sf)F
1=----
Z+Z'
The power developed across Z' is
For optimum matching Z = Z' and
W _ (Sf) F)2
S - 8Z' (9.3)
1
The noise power is
1 00 2
dvd
Wb=- - v (9.4)
Z' 0 6v
If the detector is followed by a preamplifier whose gain G(v) is a function
of frequency, the power response is
W = G( ) (SI/ F)2
S vo 8Z'
1 ((X) dv2
Wb = z'lo G(v) Tz; dv
The signal to noise ratio is the ratio of the power Ws due to the signal
and the power Wb due to the noise:
Ws (Sf) F)2
(9.5)
Wb 8 It [G (v)/G (vo)][dv 2 /6v] dv
G(v )
o
o v
v
o
Fig. 9.7 Electrical filtering
For good detection we must have a high signal to noise ratio. WSjWb,
which implies small G(v)jG(vo), i.e. filtering. The bandwidth defined by
~v = G (vo)
1 1 0
00
G (v) dv
will be small when G(v)jG(vo) is small, which means a high signal to noise
ratio.
Under these conditions, the spectral fluctuation of noise dv 2jov can be
assumed constant over a small frequency interval ov, and the signal to noise
ratio is given by
Ws (Sv F)2
(9.6)
Wb - 8 (dv2jov) ~v
9.3.3 The noise equivalent power (NEP)

It is always possible to illuminate the detector with a low enough flux Fo,
so that the signal power Ws is equal to the noise power Wb. The signal to
noise ratio is then unity and the corresponding flux Fo is called the noise
equivalent flux. It is given by:
(inW) (9 .7)
9.3.4 Detectivity
The detectivity of a radiation detector is the reciprocal of the noise equiv-
alent power, i.e., in the most general case
D = Fo1 = Svj 8 10
00
dv 2 dv
[G(v)jG(vo)]6; (9.8)
or, with narrow-band filtering
D-~-
- Fo - V8 SI! ~II
dv l
6v
(9.9)
The detectivity, which must high to obtain a large signal to noise ratio,
depends a large number of parameters, including the spectral composition
and modulation frequency of the incident optical radiation and the detector
bias, bandwidth and temperature.
For most detectors, the detectivity D is inversely proportional to the
square root of the detector area A . Furthermore, if the modulation fre-
quency II is sufficiently high to avoid the 1/11 noise, the noise spectral
density no longer depends on frequency and the noise level is proportional
to the square root of the chosen electrical frequency band ~II.
Different detectors can be compared by introducing the detectivity per
unit linear dimension of sensitive area and unit passband, i.e., the specific
detectivity:
(9.10)
9.3.5 Detectivity limit of a perfect detector

A perfect detector produces the same number of electrons for each pho-
ton received. Its fluctuations are therefore identical to those of the photon
flux. Real detectors are far from being perfect. Nevertheless, in certain
cases (infrared detectors), radiation noise is the fundamental cause of lim-
ited detectivity. This radiation noise can be calculated by considering the
emission of a black body at temperature T, assuming that the production
of a photon is a random process.
9.4 DETECTOR SENSITIVITY
9.4.1 Local variation of sensitivity

The response to the constant flux F of a conical beam intercepted by a
detector is a function of position on the sensitive area because the sensi-
tivity of the detector is generally not uniform over its surface. It can be
represented by a function S (x, y) .
In systems designed for the measurement of flux, it is advisable to image
the sensitive area of the detector with an entrance stop within which the
Sensitive area
Fig. 9.8 Variation of the local sensitivity of a detector

Plane of image
--- --
area
of detector
Objective
(entrance pupil)
Fig. 9.9 Uniform illumination of the sensitive area of a detector
distribution of flux is uniform (assuming, of course, that there is no cen-

tral occultation of the type encountered in objectives with mirrors). This
arrangement prevents damage to the sensitive element by high-intensity
source points.
9.4.2 Spectral sensitivity

The flux sensitivity of a detector depends on the spectral composition of the
incident radiation. For a flux with uniform spectral distribution, the de-
tector produces a response that varies with the wavelength . This variation
is represented by a function 5 (A).
9.4.3 Global sensitivity

If the detector receives light with given spectral composition, its global
sensitivity for this light is
5g = (~)
{) F
=9
1 (~)
0
00
{)
dF dA/l°O dF dA
F >. dA 0 dA
sA ..
ai)A
(W
in J.'A/W
2 3 4 5
Fig. 9.10 Spectral response of a detector
Io
in which OO (dFld>t)4).. represents the total flux received by the detector
Io
and oo (oil of) >. dFI d)" d)" is the response.
9.4.4 Sensitivity as a function of frequency
By examining the sensitivity of a detector toa periodic excitation (sinu-

soidal or rectangular) of constant amplitude but variable frequency, we can
determine toe optimum operating conditions.
- 3 dB
log v
o Log Vc
Frequency
Fig. 9.11 Frequency reponse of a detector
The function S(II), i.e., the sensitivity of the detector as a function of

frequency, leads to the definition of the detector time constant r :
1
r=-- (9.11)
211" lie
where the cut-off frequency lie corresponds to a 3-dB drop in sensitivity.

9,5 THERMAL DETECTORS

Thermal detectors transform the incident luminous flux into heat by ab-
sorption. The resulting measured temperature variation produces the out-
put signal.
9.5.1 Fluctuations
Consider the material of a detector of area A, thickness e, specific heat c
and mass m, illuminated by a flux F.
Fig. 9.12 Thermal detector
Fluctuations in heat exchange between the detector body at temperature

T and the ambient medium at temperature Ta can be expressed in terms
of mean square values in the form
where k is Boltzm~n's constant and C is the heat capacity of the detector.

The detector will therefore exhibit temperature fluctuations dT2 that are
directly responsible for noise.
Since dU = Cdt,
--2 2
dT2 = dU = kT
C2 C
9.5.2 General principle of operation

We assume that the rise !:l.T in the detector temperature depends only on
the power absorbed and radiated by the detector. The energy of the system
then varies at the rate
dU = CdT =
dt dt Ws + Wa - Wd
where the terms on the right represent, respectively, the signal energy,
the energy received from the environment and the energy radiated by the
detector.
(a) Energy due to the signal

This is due to the absorption of the radiant flux:
Ws =€F~ F
The absorptance € of the sensitive area is chosen to be very close to unity

and independent of the wavelength, so that thermal detectors have a con-
stant spectral sensitivity (they can be used as standards).
(b) The energy due to the ambient medium at temperature To

This is obtained by comparing the atmosphere to a black body with the
aid of Stefan's law of radiation:
• energy exitance: Ro = O'Ti
= =
• energy flux: Fa LoG (Ro/7r)G
• energy:Wo = Fa = O'TiG/7r = AO'To 4
where 0' is Stefan's constant and G = =
7rAsin 2 p 7rA is the geometrical
spreading of the beam on the half-space associated with the sensitive side
of the detector. The other sides will be assumed to be reflectors with € = O.
(c) Energy radiated by the detector at temperature T

This energy is given by
The heat transfer equation then becomes
dT
edt = F - AO' (r - r:)
When .!:l.T = T - To ~ To, we can write
so that
c~~ = F -4AO'T3 liT (9.12)
In thermodynamic equilibrium edT/ dt = 0 and F = 4AO'T3.!:l.T.

The quantity that is observed is the temperature change .!:l.T, and the
sensitivity of a thermal detector can be written in the form
.!:l.T 1 1
SF = F = 4 AO' T3 = K (9.13)
where K is the thermal conductance of the detector.

The thermal time constant is given by
C mce
r=-=--
K 4/TT3
9.5.3 Signal-to-noise ratio

The power produced by the signal proportional to D.T is given by
The noise spectral density is determined by heat-transfer fluctuations
The system is sensitive to a continuous flux, it crosses zero frequency, and

in this case
1 K
Dv=-=-
4r 4C
from which
dT2 4kT2
DV K
The noise power is therefore given by (for filtering in a narrow band D.v)
which leads to the signal to noise ratio
W$ (SF F)2
(9.14)
Wb - (4 kT2/K) D.v
9.5.4 Detectivity of heat detectors

The noise equivalent power is given by Wb = W s , i.e.,
D - _1_ _ -:r=:=:==1==::::;:==::=
- NEP - 4v'Ak /T T5 D.v
D* = 1 in W- l cmHz~ (9.15)
4v'k CT T5
where K = 4ACTT3, k = 1.38 x 1O- 23 J K-l and CT = 5.67 X 1O- l2 W cm 2 K- 4
The specific detectivity of a perfect thermal detector depends on the
temperature alone. For example, for T = 300 0 K, we have D* = 1.81 X
10 10 cm Hz~ W- l .
9.6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF THERMAL DETECTOR
9.6.1 Bolometers
These are heat detectors in which the incident radiation produces a change
in temperature and, hence, in conductivity. The bolometer is usually part
of a bridge and the incident radiation produces a response di while a cur-
rent i flows in the detector (this current adds further noise due to its own
fl uctuations) .
To avoid drifts due to variations in ambient temperature, the resistance
R' is replaced by a bolometer element of the same nature as R, but not
ill uminated .
+ v
di Signal
R
Amplifier
c
- v
Fig. 9.13 Bolometer bridge
Bolometers are slow detectors because a short T implies large K, which

is incompatible with a good sensitivity:
In practice, the time constant lies in the range 0.I-o.00Is.

Radjatjon Detectors 275
The materials used are metals or semiconductors (thermistors). For

sensitive areas of a few mm 2, current bolometers reach NEP values of 10- 9
W without cooling and 10- 14 W at 2 K (D· '" 5 x 108 cm W- 1 Hz1/2).
9.6.2 Pyroelectric detectors

These detectors are made of crystal wafers that produce surface electric
charges when heated. The electrical signal corresponds to the removal of
the charges by conducting electrodes deposited on the crystal.
A change dT in the temperature of the crystal due to the absorption of
radiation in a time dt produces a change dq in polarisation charge. The
detector produces an electrical signal proportional to dq/dT and cannot be
used in a continuous flux .
Fig. 9.14 Pyroelectric detector
The most common pyroelectric material is triglycine sulphate (TGS).

At present, the operating temperature must remain below the Curie point
of the crystal, i.e. , 45°C for TGS and 60°C for deuterated TGS.
The characteristics of these detectors may be summarised as follows:
• area of the sensitive element - a few mm 2
• sensitivity of the order of 105 V/W
• specific detectivity D· '" 5 x 108 cm HZ1/2W- 1 at 10 Hz and 5 x
107 cmHz1/2 W- 1 at 1000 Hz (maximum frequency)
• NEP ~ 4 x 10- 10 W
• spectral response 2-35 jlm.
The principle of pyroelectric detectors is used in pyroelectric image
tubes. The distribution of electric charge produced by the distribution
infrared radiation in the image on the TGS target is analysed by neutral-
ising it with an electron beam that scans it and produces a standard video
signal.
The system producing this type of infrared image has a wide spectral
bandwidth, and the detector does not need mechanical scanning. However,
the detectivity is low as compared with quantum detectors. Finally, the
detector ignores the continuous component of the optical flux, so that the
tube cannot be used as a measuring instrument in thermography, but is
perfectly satisfactory for surveillance applications.
9.6.3 Thermopiles
Thermopiles are detectors which that generate a thermoelectric emf.
A thermopile consists of a large number of series-connected thermocou-
ples. The cold junctions are maintained at a constant temperature by
contact with a body of large thermal inertia. The optical signal heats the
other junctions, producing a voltage across the terminals of the circuit.
These devices require virtually no energy and are often used as infrared
sensors on satellites.
di
F~ dv
Fig. 9.15 The thermopile
Continuous fluxes are measured by slow thermopiles with large heat

capacities (D* = 108 cm Hz 1 / 2 W- 1 , time constant of a few hundred mil-
liseconds, sensitivity of a few V jW and sensitive area of, say, 50 mm 2 ).
The measurement of modulated fluxes leads to the design of fast ther-
mopiles (D* ~ 5 x 108 cmHz 1/ 2 W- 1 , time constant of a few tens of mil-
liseconds and sensitivity of a few tens of V jW).
9.6.4 Pneumatic detectors

The signal is produced by a change in the pressure of given mass of a gas.
The detector consists of two chambers Cl and C2 separated by a membrane
M and connected by a capilliary. The luminous flux F heats the sensitive
element A in chamber C 1 , producing an expansion of the gas contained by
it. The rapid pressure change due to this expansion deforms the membrance
M and can be measured by measuring the electrostatic capacitance of a
condenser of which M is one of the electrodes (Luft pneumatic detector)
or by an optical interference method (Golay detector).
9.7 QUANTUM DETECTORS
Quantum detectors measure the direct excitation of its electrons to con-

duction states by incident photons (photoelectric detectors). Photoelectric
detectors deviate from the ideal case of the perfect detector, defined in
Section 9.3.5, for two reasons: (1) some of the incident photons are not
Sensitive element Membrane
Capillary
Fig. 9.16 Pneumatic detector
absorbed and are lost and (2) excited electrons -return to the ground state
inside the sensitive element (electron-hole recombination etc.)
The ratio of the number of freed electrons to the number of incident
photons is called the quantum efficiency of the detector:
}'-' =-
i
F
We have to mention also the existence of a photoelectric threshold for
quantum detectors due to the fact that the incident photon must have an
energy Uo at least sufficient to excite electrons in the receiver material:
hc
Uo = hvo =- (9.16)
AD
9.7.1 Fluctuations
If the detector is assumed perfect, its fluctuations are those of the photon
beam (Section 9.3.5). The signal can then be calculated from the number
of photons received by the detector, i.e.,
luminous energy flux x observation time Fr

n= energy of one photon = U
The fluctuations expressed in terms of mean square values dn 2 of the num-

ber of incident particles are given by the thermodynamic relation
d (dn2) = kT2 dn
u dT
where
n = F T = G T (dR) d>'
U 7r U d>'
The photon flux is assumed to be due to a black body, so that the spectral
distribution of its energy emittance dR/d>. is given by Planck's law
dR 27rhe2 >. -5
d>' exp he/ >. kt - 1
Hence
d (dn2) = kT2 G T d>' ~ (dR)
U 7r U dT d>'
After differentiation of Planck's law with respect to temperature, we obtain
d (dn2) = kT2 G T ~ 1 (dR) d>'

7rU >. kT2 1- exp (-he/>. kt) d>'
d (dn2) = G T 1 (dR) d>'

7rU 1- exp (-he/>. kt) . d>'
The fluctuations are finally found by integrating the above relation with
respect to >.:
- 2 GT rn4
dn = - (11 - 1 (>'0)
7rU
where 1 (>'0) is a dimensionless function, independent ofT, which represents

the presence of a photoelectric threshold >'0.
It is then possible to express the fluctuation spectral density for the
number of photons as follows:
(9.17)
where ov = 1/2 T for a system which does not transmit at zero frequency.
9.7.2 Detectivity of quantum detectors

The above calculations lead to the evaluation of the signal to noise ratio.
The power associated with the signal (number of incident photons) is pro-
portional to n 2, so that if the filter bandwidth /l.v is narrow enough for
dn 2 / ov to be sensibly constant within this interval, we have
Ws n2 F2T2/u 2 7r F2
Wb - (dn2/ov)/l.v - (2GT 2/7rU)(1T4 I(>'o}/l.v = 2uG (1 T4 1(>'0) /l.v

The noise equivalent power is obtained when signal power is equal to the
noise power, i.e.,
NEP = F = )2; G(]'T4 1(>'0) Av

where G =1rAsin2 p and u =hc/>., so that
U is then possible to write down the detectivity of a photoelectric detector:

1 1
D = NEP = --p.=========
V2 (he/ >.) A Av (]' T4 1 (>'0) sin
2 p
D* = --;::===1==== in W- 1 cmHz~ (9 .18)

V(2
he/>.) (]'T4 1 (>'0)sin 2 p
where h = 6.63 X 10- 34 J s, (]' = 5.67 X 10- 12 W cm- 2 K- 4 and e =3x

10 10 cms- 1
Fig. 9 .17 Beam geometry
The specific detectivity of a quantum detector depends only on the tem-

perature T, the photoelectric threshold defined by its wavelength >'0 and
the geometric parameter p (half the apex angle of the conical beam falling
on the detector).
For the best possible detectivity, we have to:
• reduce T, i.e., cool the detector and the sources of stray radiation (di-
aphragms, filters etc)
• minimise the function 1 (>'0), i.e., spectral filtering, and apply a high
threshold Uo = he/ >'0
• reduce the aperture angle p of the beam incident on the detector.
The expression for D* therefore sets the theoretical limit on the detec-
tivity of perfect detectors. Real detectors are always operate below this
limit.
280 Infrared Thermogra.phy
9.8 DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUANTUM DETECTOR
9.8.1 Photoemissive detectors

These are photoemissive cells whose output is a measure of the number of
electrons removed from a solid by the combined effects of incident photons
and a static bias voltage.
The sensitivity and quantum efficiency of photoemissive detectors de-
pends on the work function, i.e., the energy that has to be given to electrons
to make them pass from the material into the vacuum.
glass
anode
photocathode
F
Fig. 9.18 Photoemissive cell
cathode
cylindrical anode
Fig. 9.19 Photoemissive cell
Photoemissive detectors typically consist of a metal photocathode (Ag-

CS 2 - 0 - Cs) at a negative voltage and an anode facing it and held at a pos-
itive voltage. The assembly is held in an evacuated tube (p = 10- 7 Torr).
Photons incident on the photocathode transfer their energy to its elec-
trons. If this energy u = hc/ >.. is greater than the energy threshold that
binds these particles to the metal, the electrons leave the metal for the vac-
uum and can be captured by the anode, thus contributing to the creation
of a current.
The spectral sensitivity of these detectors depends on the photocath-
ode. Some photoemissive cells contain an inert gas, which has the effect
photocathode
i=f(v)
_-----F 3
+ electron
__- - - - - - F 2
v
__- - - - - - F
........~--------_ F =0
o v
Fig. 9.20 The characteristic of a photoemissive cell
of increasing the sensitivity by ionising the gas (at the expense of creating
considerable noise).
There are also photoemissive detectors that rely on secondary emission.
These are the photomultipliers which consist of a set of electrodes, called
dynodes, held at the appropriate potentials. Each electron colliding with a
dynode produces several electrons which travel towards the next dynode,
and so on, so that the anode (the final signal electrode) receives a very
large number of electrons for each incident photon.
It is now possible to manufacture electron multipliers in the shape of
tiny tubes in which the walls act as the dynodes. These tubes, 20 J..lm in
diameter, are made from materials that are poor conductors but good sec-
ondary emitters. They are held at very high voltages and are assembled into
bundles, called microchannel plates, which are used in image intensifiers.
)oov 300V SOOV
600V
-~- anode
photon .-I"'U~:"• ...
photocathode dynodes
Fig. 9 .21 The photomultiplier
Photoemissive detectors are sensitive in the ultraviolet, the visible and

the near infrared (up to 1 J..lm).
Photocathodes are characterised by their sensitivty ai/oF in A/W or
in J..lA/lm.
F
photon
Fig. 9.22 Microchannel tube
9.8.2 Summary of solid state physics

The electrons that circulate around the nuclei of atoms in a solid have
specific energies that are divided into bands. At absolute zero temperature,
these electrons occupy the lowest energy levels in a band called the valence
band (because it contains the peripheral electrons which are responsible for
the chemical properties of the atom, including its valence).
~(AW-I) r----r--,---,--,----,r---r-...,.--,----,
of S20 = UlIlC,-
S25 = K.SUa_CI-
0,01 t-----1~__:;~-t_-t---30-r-i'<-~t--t____I
As Ga
4 AI.US
0,2 ,
03 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 1,0
Fig. 9.23 Spectral response of photoca.thodes
Energy
\:r~:
...
1,
1\
,
\
\
,
\
o 1/2 p
Fig. 9.24 Semiconductor energy bands
When the electrons receive sufficient energy, they can, after having
crossed the forbidden band, enter an allowed conduction band. They thus
escape from the attraction of the nuclei and can contribute to the creation
of a current.
The difference between conduction band energy Ec and valence band
energy E" is called the activation energy (LlE), where
The probability that an electron occupies a given energy level E is given

by the Fermi-Dirac distribution
1
p = -:-----:~--=--:-:-=-=
1 +exp[(E - EF)/kT]
where k is Boltzmann's constant.

When E is equal to the Fermi level energy EF, we have p = !.
The
Fermi level energy depends on the nature and temperature of the solid.
(a) Insulators
In an insulator, the conduction band is completely empty and the valence
band is saturated. The Fermi level lies approximately in the middle of the
forbidden band. As the temperature increases, a few electrons can pass to
the conduction band (high LlE), but the conductivity remains negligible,
except when a strong electric field is applied and breakdown may occur.
(b) Intrinsic semiconductors

When LlE is relatively small compared to kT, a greater fraction of elec-
trons can cross the forbidden band (the band gap), the solid begins to
conduct a little and we have an intrinsic semiconductor.
(c) Extrinsic semiconductors

The phenomenon of conductivity can be enhanced by the addition of
impurities (an impurity atom replacing an atom of the solid). The material
then becomes an extrinsic semiconductor.
Energy
Conduction band
Donor level
Fermi level
Valence band
Fig. 9.25 n-type photoconductor
If the valence of the impurity is greater than that of the solid, extra
electrons will appear. These electrons will gather in energy levels (donor
levels) close to the conduction band , and can therefore easily pass into that
band and make the material a conductor (conduction by electrons) . This
is an n-type semiconductor. The presence of the donor levels has the effect
of raising the Fermi level.
If the valence of the impurity is lower than that of the solid, there is a
deficit of electrons, and empty levels appear (acceptor levels) in the neigh-
borhood of the valence band. These levels are easily filled and the valence
band ceases to be saturated. The material then becomes a conductor (con-
duction by holes or lack of electrons) . This is a p-type semiconductor.
For germanium or silicon the valence is 4, the donors are pentavalent
atoms (P, As, Sb) and the acceptors are trivalent atoms (B , AI, In, Ga).
( d) Metal conductor
In the case of metal conductors, the valence and conduction bands have
a common region. The Fermi level has to lie in this zone and the electrons
can circulate freely from one band to the other. Metals of this type are
therefore always conductors.
9.8.3 Photoconductive detectors

The signal produced by these detectors is a measure of the conductivity of
Conduction band
Fermi level
Acceptor level
Valence band
Fig. 9.26 p-type photoconductor
Conduction band
Valence band
Fig. 9.27 Energy bands of a metal
the crystal lattice, due to the creation of semi-free electrons by absorption

of incident radiation.
Photoconduction can occur in intrinsic or extrinsic semiconductors. The
photoelectric effect is the creation of an electron-hole pair by absorption of
a photon of sufficient energy in the crystalline lattice. Photoconduction is
therefore the inverse of the electroluminescence of solids. Thus, a photon
with energy u = hv can be absorbed by an electron with energy Ee if there
is an allowed state for this electron at energy Ee + u. The corresponding
change in electrical conductivity is detected by passing a current through
the material, using an external source.
(a) Intrinsic photoconductivity

In order to produce absorption by an intrinsic semiconductor, the energy
u of the incident photon must be greater than the width of the forbidden
Fig. 9.28 Photoconduction
band t::..E = Ec - Ev . The excited electron can then pass from the valence
band to the conduction band, and this contributes to the conductivity of
the semiconductor (PbS, PbSe, InSb, As Ga, InAs, HgCdTe ... ).
Detectors that rely on intrinsic photoconductivity can be replaced by
photodiodes which have an identical spectral response and sensitivity, but
are much faster.
Sensitive element
. Fig. 9.2 9 PbS photoconductive cell
i=f (v) F =3
Fig. 9.3 0 Characteristics of photoconductive cells

(b) Extrinsic photoconductivity

Certain impurities contained in a semiconductor introduce allowed levels
Ei into the forbidden band. These levels are available for photoelectric
transitions at photon energies much smaller than tiE.
The absorption of a photon with energy greater than Ec - Ei makes an
electron pass from an impurity level to the conduction band; similarly the
absorption of a photon with energy greater than Ei - Ev makes an electron
pass from the valence band to an impurity level. This process releases
electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band, and the
result is photoconduction (germanium or silicon doped with gold, mercury,
copper, etc).
Perfect photoconductive detectors are limited by generation and recom-
bination noise due to the electron-hole pairs created by absorption of radi-
ation.
9.8.4 Photovoltaic detectors

These are detectors in which the incident photon flux modifies the potential
barrier in a junction inside an inhomogeneous semiconductor.
The presence of a junction in a semiconductor gives rise to a local change
·in the electric field E, which distorts the conduction and valence bands
between the nand p regions.
The absorption of photons of energy hv that is sufficient to produce a
transition inside the semiconductor frees some electrons and some holes
which then diffuse across the junction under the influence of the field E.
n-type region p-type region

Fig. 9.31 Photovoltaic detector
The edge of the p region becomes positive and that of the n region
negative . For example, the absorption of a photon in the p-type region
causes an electron to pass from an acceptor level to the conduction band.

The electron is carried by the electric field in the neighbourhood of the
potential barrier of the junction and diffuses towards the n-type region , thus
contributing to the creation of a current, which has the effect of modifying
the potential barrier. Similarly, absorption of photons in the n-type region
creates a diffusion of the holes from n to p regions.
Photovoltaic detectors therefore behave as generators of energy and can
produce a signal even in the absence of bias. On the other hand, a reverse-
biased junction behaves as a photodiode. It is interesting to note that, for
equal sensitivities, a photovoltaic detector is much faster than a photocon-
ductive detector (1 GHz for the Hg-Cd-Te photovoltaic cell) .
Sensitive element
Cooling Dewar
~:J
Fig. 9.32 ShIn photovoltaic cell

i
v
F = 0
F =
-
F = 2
F = 3
Fig. 9.33 Characteristic of photovoltaic cells
The photovoltatic effect is exploited in photodiodes, phototransistors

and infrared detectors such as InAs (indium arsenide) InSb (indium anti-
monide) and TeCdHg (cadmium mercury telluride).
Perfect photovoltaic detectors have a lower noise limit than photo con-
ductors because of the absence of recombination noise. The diffusion of
charge carriers (electrons and holes) prevents recombination.
9.9 APPLICATIONS OF DETECTORS
The choice of a detector for an infrared system depends on the working

conditions expected of the system, e.g., the spectral sensitivity range, the
optical signal strength to be detected, the desired electrical signal level,
the maximum acceptable noise, the response to high or low frequencies,
the electrical bias constraints and the cooling constraints.
Of course, the detector operating in a given system must have a field of
view and a sensitive area consistent with the the optics, the geometrical
dimensions and the cost of the rest of the system.
9.9.1 Spectral sensitivity range

The required spectral range of a detector dictates the type of material that
has to be used in the sensitive element.
In the infrared, the thermal detector offers the advantage of a very wide
and approximately uniform spectral response, but at the expense of sen-
sitivity and speed. It is generally the window that limits the spectral
response.
Relative spectral response
1,0
~
0,9
~ ,z"'1 .... .....
0,8 r----
' .... Z
... _- r-... ~
-- --
0,7
1---....
0,6 .. -
-.----
1-.......
0,5
0,4
o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 A.eR ~
I-pyroelectric
without window
2-thermistor bolometer
Fig. 9.34 Spectral response of thermal detectors
We have seen that quantum detectors, which are spectrally more se-
lective, have much better sensitivity and are faster. There are sensitive
detectors for each region of the infrared spectrum:
photocathodes S1(0.3 - Ipm),S2o(0 .3 - 0 7. 5pm),S2S(0.3 - 0.95pm)
silicon photodiodes 0.5 - 1.1 pm
germanium photodiodes 0.8 - 1.8 pm
PbS 1.3 - 3 pm (extended to 4.2 by cooling)
PbSe 2 - 5pm
InSb 3 - 5.5 pm
HgTeCd 2 -14pm
PbSnTe 2 - 12 pm
Detectors such as Hg(1 - x )CdxTe or Pb(l - x )Sn x Te photoconduc-

tive or photovoltaic cells offer maximum spectral sensitivity at wavelengths
that vary with the concentration x of cadmium or tin. It is thus possible
to match a detector to a chosen working spectral range. The maximum
sensitivity at 10/-lm is obtained for x = 0.2. Furthermore, the operating
temperature of these detectors has a profound effect on detectivity and
slightly shifts the spectral distribution.
J.lm
Fig. 9.35 Spectral detectivity
lnSb and Hg(l- x)CdxTe detectors are sensitive in the range of 3 to

5/-lm and have a detectivity at 77 K that is nearly ten times higher than
that obtained by cooling to the so-called intermediate temperatures (195
K) produced by multistage thermoelectric devices.
On the other hand, in thermoelectric devices or PbSe detectors used
under the same conditions and with identical detectivity, only the spec-
1012 - - - - , - - - - , - - - - - ,
Ideal
photoconductor
~ 10"
:c
~
E
u
*~IOIO~_-
Q
o
:~
u
9
8~ 10 t - - - - - - - - t - - + - - - - - ;
108 --~""""""'''''''''''''''''I+--''''''''''''''''''
I 2 3 4 5 10 20
Fig. 9.36 Spectral detectivity of HgTeCd detectors A,l1m
tral sensitivity is shifted towards longer wavelengths by cooling to 77°K.

The lead sulphide detector (PbS) has their best detectivity at intermediate
temperatures.
6l
..5
10 11 t--+--+----t-+--i
~
- ,
~
~ r\~~
,q N
:- 101°t---t---I:-Ir=rH
/{
\
~
V~~ E
~ "6
~
109 ~-+--+~~-Hcti
V
\
108 .........................- - 108 108 '-~""''''''_4-'''
I 2 3 4 5 6 I 2 3 4 5 6 I 2 3 4 5 6
A,l1m A,l1m A,l1m
Fig. 9.37 Detectivity as a function of detector temperature
9.9.2 Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a detector S" = 8v/8F is a decreasing function of the

sensitive area that receives photons.
Sensitivity, ov /of V W- 1
10 8 _--,.----.,....---r----,
6
10
2
10 . . .- -.....- -....- . .- .......
0,01 0,1 10 100
Sensitive area A, mm 2
Fig. 9.38 Detector sensitivity as a function of surface area
Photoconductive detectors have a higher sensitivity than the correspond-

ing photovoltaic detectors. The product of sensitivity and NEP gives the
minimum electrical signal level, which must be higher than preamplifier
noise at its input. This condition determines the type of preamplifier to be
used.
9.9.3 Noise and detectivity
The NEP, i.e., the minimum detectable optical flux, is one of the criteria
for selecting a detector. It must be consistent with the photometric char-
acteristics of the system. In other words, the radiation flux that passes
through the different media in the measurement chain, must arrive at the
detector with power greater than the NEP of the detector. If this is not
so, we have to increase the aperture of the optics, improve its transmission
or increase the intensity of the source. The detectivity, the reciprocal of
NEP, is a measure of the improvement in the qualities of the detector.
For monochromatic radiation (given A) it is possible to calculate
D* (A, v, ~v) and to draw the spectral detectivity curve that represents
the properties of the detector for a modulation frequency v and fixed elec-
trical passband ~v (usually of 1 Hz).
The detectivity is often quoted at the wavelength of maximum sensitiv-

ity, Apeak :
D· (Apeak,/.I,~/.I)
For black-body radiation at temperature T, the total detectivity is written
D* (T,/.I,~/.I)
For example, for InSb,
D· (Apeak' 1000, 1) ~ 5.5'

D· (500,1000,1)
and for HgCdTe

D(Apeak' 2500, 1) ~ 2
D(500, 2500, 1)
10 12
~ lOll
N
:z:
~
E 1010
3-
~
'"Cl.
.<
• 109
0
108 0 77 tOO 200 300
Detector temperature, K
Fig. 9.39 Detectivity as a function of detector temperature
Detectivity depends on the operating temperature of the detector. In

middle infrared, detectivity is optimised by cooling the detectors to low
temperatures, which has the effect of reducing noise due to internal molec-
ular vibrations .
9.9.4 Frequency response of detectors

The sensitivity of a detector is affected by the modulation frequency of
the optical signal. The rate of modulation sets the time constant of the
detector. 0 77 100 200 300
Detector temperature, K
D* cmW- 1 Hzl/2
"
1011
InSb photoconductor 779 i'"
/' Onrl
,/' . .... 1111
'"
0
/
~~~ V Te Cd H photovoItaic ~ .....
10 10
+-
/
I .... i V
10 9
108
II
II " .....
'4 5 10~6
10 1 10 2 10 3 10 10
Fig. 9.40 Detectivity as a. function of frequency
Thermal detectors are slow for T > 1O~3 s for the best thermistor
bolometers . Quantum detectors are much faster : T 1O- 5 s for photo- 'V
conductors and T < 1O- 6 s for photovoltaics.
9.9.5 Detector bias arrangements
Both the generated signal and the noise depend on the detector bias. At
high currents, noise increases faster than the signal, which gives a signal
to noise ratio that passes through a maximum for some value of the bias
current. Photovoltaic detector
luSb photoconductor
60
'"VW-, 1 .J xt .1
Hn
,
1--", . 'l
~~
0 Sensitivity'
, .f.-
~I T11
t-~!
I - . - t--
10 '=x
FM
t- Olse,
\=~ - p,V I,
~
,
,
"I
- - :- \
~::t::
...
1/
.-""I \
1.0 F=~ I /'
I=E:
I=t.l -
,
V
V I
~
f'.-
. ' .
,
r- Polarisation current, rnA t-- Polarising voltage, mV_
0.1 I i 1II1I 11 I I 1 '111111 1 '1 I , I I I I I I
0.01 0.1 5 -40 -20 o 20 40
Fig. 9.41 Response as a. function of bias
The specific detectivity D* follows the same variation, since it is pro-

portional to the signal to noise ratio:
D* = (V3/ Vb) v'AlW

F
where v, is the signal voltage, Vb is noise voltage, A .is the detector area,
~l/ is the electrical pass band and F is the optical flux incident on the
detector.
Relative D*
i
I ; i
I I I ! \
\ 9 I
I
P, Theory \~
; \ I
I !
\ I Cold e nclosure
I i i ! !
I I
I ;
I
r)i I
I 77 0 K Sensitiv e surface
\ I
\ ,, .- . L_ j I _--
:- ..
\
i . I
~ 'j
i
-~~
,iJl'er ..:::..-.- --;.-. I
.. t..,...-
l r ~
o 40 80 120 160
Detector field of view e, deg

Fig. 9.42 Response as a function of field angle
There are also problems with matching the internal impedance of the
detector to the input impedance of the amplifier.
The choice of the bias is very important for photovoltaic detectors.
9.9.6 Effect of detector field angle

The detectivity of a detector increases as its field angle is reduced by placing
stops near the sensitive surface. The stops are cooled to avoid adding
further noise. When the stops are attached to the detector, both are cooled
at the same time (see fig 9.42).
9.9.7 Passivation of detectors

Cadmium mercury telluride (HgTeCd) detectors cooled by liquid nitrogen
and used in the spectral range 8-12 J.Lm are, of course, mounted in Dewars.
There are several techniques for making these cryogenic enclosures, e.g.,
metal vessels, half glass - half metal vessels and glass vessels. All of them
have a window that is transparent to the infrared (sapphire, germanium,
ZnS and so on).
At the present time, the most reliable technology is that of the all-glass
Dewar. Metal solders have finite porosity which eventually leads to a poorer
vacuum and poorer cryogenic insulation, and hence to icing of the window.
This type of Dewar must therefore be reconditioned from time to time to
improve the vacuum. This inconvenience is rare with all-glass Dewars .
In any case, we note that the sensitive area of the detector tends to
sublimate in vacuum or, more precisely, the mercury in the semiconducting
material is unstable, which leads to the deterioration in the quality of the
detector.
Most high-grade detectors are nowadays subjected to passivation, i.e .,
the sensitive HgTeCd element is coated with a film (usually zinc sulphide)
that protects it against pollution and instability in vacuum. An unpro-
tected detector would not be able to sustain temperatures higher than
about 60 0 without serious risks of deterioration despite the very random
partial natural passivation. This problem does not occur for indium an-
timonide detectors (InSb) that are sensitive in the range 3-5I-£m. The
compound is very stable.
9.10 MULTIELEMENT DETECTORS

Detectors are used as single elements or as linear arrays of elements placed
side by side. These arrays can contain more than 100 detector elements
with dimensions of the order of a few tens of microns and sensitivity vari-
ance of 20-50%. Linear arrays often consist of even and odd rows slightly
shifted relative to one another to produce a small overlap during scanning
at right angles to the array and thus recover the scanned zone in its en-
tirety (staggered arrays). The phase difference between the even and odd
elements is controlled by delay lines.
Scanning
direction
I
Fig. 9.43 Multielement array
Finally, there are mosaic detectors that take the form of matrices with
m x n elements. They are used in the series-parallel scanning systems. In
theory, the two-dimensional detector mosaics require as many preamplifiers

as there are receiving elements. However, in practice, when the number of
elements is large, it is necessary to introduce new multiplexing and reading
techniques employing charge coupled devices.
At present, because of their high performance, high-number multiele-
ment detectors are used mostly in military applications, but not in the
thermographic measurement systems, since the element sensitivity variance
is too high, as is the intrinsic cost of the detectors and of the associated
electronics. Moreover, the large number of detectors introduces cooling
problems and the thermal inertia is much higher.
9.11 DETECTORS USED IN THERMOGRAPHY
.PbS
Photoconducting lead sulphide detector, sensitive at 1.3-3 J.lm with a
=
possible extension to 4.2 J.lm by cooling. Relatively slow (T 100 J.ls, 300 K,
5 J.ls when cooled).
D* (Apeak)
D* (5000 K) = 100 at room temperature and 50 at 195 K
.PbSe
Intrinsic photoconductive material, faster than PbS (T = 2 at 30 J.ls). At
195 K, this detector has a detectivity D* that is lower by a factor of only
two as compared with InSb cooled to 77 K. PbSe is therefore often used
with thermoelectric cooling in the 3 to 5pm band.
D* (Apeak)
D* (5000 J<) = 10 at room temperature and 5 at 195 K
• InSb
Photoconductive or photovoltaic detector cooled to 77 K, sensitive at
2-5.5-J.lm.
D* (Apeak)
D* (5000 J<) = 5 or 6
T = 10 J.lS for intrinsically photoconductive InSb; T < 1 J.lS for photovolta.ic
InSb .
• HgCdTe
Photoconductive or photovoltaic semiconductor whose maximum spec-
tral sensitivity can be adjusted between 1 and 50 J.lm by varying the cad-
mium concentration . Spectral sensitivity range 8-14J.1m (at 17K).
D* (Apeak)
D* (500 0J<) ~2
T = 1 J-lS for photoconductive HgCdTe, T = 10 ns without bias; T = 3 ns

with reverse bias .
• PbSnTe
Photovoltaic detector, slightly poorer performance than HgCdTe, but
easier to make (T > 50 ns).
9.12 CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES

The operation of these new charge coupled devices (CCD) is based on the
following principle. Radiation (or any other form of energy) induces electric
charges in the semiconducting detector material. These charges are stored
on an insulating element that acts as capacitor and are then transferred to
another identical neighbouring element under the influence of an electric
field.
The information stored in the form of electric charges on an array of such
capacitive elements is collected at the end of the chain after a succession
of transfers . The simultaneous transfer of the contents of each capacitance
to neighbouring capacitances is controlled by a set of external voltages
applied to the capacitances. The charges contained in the circuit are finally
collected by a single output electrode. This device therefore behaves as a
multielement detector working with a reader and information multiplexing
system handling a video signal.
9.12.1 Three-phase CCD

This is a CCD controlled by voltages supplied by three clocks differing
in phase by a third of the period . It consists of a semiconductor (n-type
germanium, for example) coated with an insulating oxide onto which are
deposited aluminium electrodes (MOS structure = metal + oxide + semi-
conductor). These electrodes are connected in groups of three by three
phases <PI, <P2, <P3 which supply the control voltages.
Charge transfer takes place between two of the corresponding voltages
VI, V2 and the third Vo determines the direction of motion of the charges
by preventing their circulation in the reverse direction.
Incident radiation hll induces positive charges in the semiconductor.
These charges are held near the electrode at potential V2 which is more
negative than the potential Vo of the two neighbouring electrodes (time
td·
After a short time interval (time t2), the electrode towards which the
transfer is taking place is given the potential V2 whilst the potential of
the electrode holding the charges returns to VI such that Vo > VI > V2 .
The effect of this is to displace the charges towards the most negative
potential V2 . The charges are then blocked close to this new electrode by
the potential Vo applied to the neighbouring electrode (t3).
Potential
distribution
silicon
'- .j
~"+
hll t+........+,
i Vo
i
i
I
i
i
,
I
, .. -'
I
I
' .........,
Fig. 9.44 Three-phase CCD

Voltage
Phase
liT i TI
'PI
Vol
:: ---'-.... i-I I I \. . t~1
~:t
V2
I
- - - - -
trIIt I~ j\ 1I ~I L
Vo ~~II\I
I .I
+--_ _
I I I \ t (
-+---+!. . . . .~l--...-_.l----.~
1 . Time
1, 12 13 14 Is 16
Fig. 9.45 Command signals for the three-phase CCD
The cycle is then repeated step by step with the charges jumping from
one electrode to the next. They progress in this way until they reach the
last electrode, followed by an output diode from which the video signal is
collected and amplified.
9.12.2 Two-phase CCD

It is possible to create a preferential drift direction for the charges by
<P, I
I
<P2 _v°1--._1-_ur+l lLW

\ rh
:L
+1--------~'----~1~--~1_____.. Time
I, 12 13
Fig. 9.46 Command signals for the two-phase CCD
using an asymmetric configuration of the capacitive electrodes (for example,

a variable oxide thickness creates two voltage levels in the semiconductor
for a single potential at the corresponding electrode).
n-type Si
diffused region Oxide p-type diffused region Oxide
Fig. 9.47 Two-phase CCD
9.12.3 Transfer efficiency

In principle, the above scheme for CCD operation does not seem to present
any problems. Howevet, in practice, for various reasons (in particular be-
cause of existence of traps at the silicon-silicon oxide interface), part of the

charge is lost at each transfer.
The ratio of transmitted to total charge is called the transfer efficiency.
The CCDs just described have an efficiency of approximately 90% for 1000
transfers (this number is lower for transfer frequencies beyond 10 MHz).
New techniques facilitating the diffusion of charges in silicon result in
higher speed and transfer efficiency (buried-channel CCD and bulk CCD).
9.12.4 Reading a detector array with a CCD

A raster of CCDs enables the extraction and mul.tiplexing of the signals
from the elements of an infrared detector array.
l-IR detector
2-Transfer gates
3-CCD
4-0utput diode
5-Video signal
6-Gate command
7-CCD phase command
Fig. 9.48 Reading a detector array with CCDs
The operation is carried out in three steps:

• integration stage, during which the radiation creates an electrical signal
in the photosensitive elements
• parallel transfer of the signal from each element to the CCD
• transfer of the signal along the CCDs up to the output diode from which
the multiplexed video signal is taken.
9.12.5 Imaging with a CCD matrix

The problem of imaging on a 'retina' of CCD elements can be approached
in two different ways. In one, a matrix of CCD elements exposed to radia-
tion is read by the transfer of charges induced along each line to an output
register consisting of a column of CCD elements used as multiplexors. The

charges in each column are thus transferred simultaneously to the next col-
umn . At each step, a column fills the output register which is immediately
read by charge transfer to a video amplifier. The operating frequency of
the device is very high because the transfer is very fast.
In the other method, the contents of the CCD elements exposed to
radiation is transferred to a buffer memory, itself made up of CCD elements,
and is then multiplexed by the CCD output register. This method is used
to match the raster integration time, the very brief transfer time to the
buffer memory (a few per cent of the raster time) and the memory read
time for each new raster. This reduces the operating frequency.
l-Sensi::ive array
2-0utput register
3-Video preamp
4-Video signal
5-Line clock
(horizontal sweep)
6- Frame clock
(vertical sweep)
hv
Fig. 9.49 CCD matrix
9.12.6 Charge injection devices (CIDs)

These are devices that rely on a principle analogous to that of CCDs with
a difference in the generation of the video signal.
6 {"2-- 7
V-
I "'2
hv_......... ,
hv L'1 .... ;;z:
1-photosensitive surface
2-CCD memory TranSfer
3-0utput register
5-Video signal
4-Video preamp 6-Line transfer command
7-Column transfer command
Fig. 9.50 Line transfer CCD
Read
-v o
hv I"
Photons
p-type diffused
"U-1--..J region
1-transparent electrode (metal) 3-n-type semiconductor

2-oxide 4-Substrate current
Fig. 9.51 Principle of the cm
Transfer Read
Store
Fig. 9.52 Operation of a CID mosaic
In the case of the CIDs, it is the substrate current due to the injection
of charges which produces the video signal. This current is proportional to
the number of photons received.
Both cm and CCD imaging rely on the short readout time (injection
in cms and transfer in CCDs) as compared with the time of formation of
the electrical image (accumulation time). This means that the charges are
essentially unaffected by the readout process.
CID arrays consist of elements with two transparent electrodes deposited
on n-type substrate and separated by a p-diffused region. The video sig-
nal produced by the injection of charges into the substrate can only be
extracted by applying zero voltage to the two electrodes. This enables
I-Photosensitive surface
2-Line register
3-Frame register
4-Element being read
5-Video signal
Fig. 9.53 em mosaic configuration
two-dimensional addressing (xy) for reading anyone of the matrix ele-

ments.
9.12.7 Spectral response and characteristics of CCD and CID

imaging devices
The spectral response of a system depends, of course, on the semiconductor
material used: silicon for visible radiation, InS~ or PtSi for 3-5.5pm and
HgTeCd for 8-13 pm. The dimensions of the elements are in the region of
100 x 100 pm for a mosaic of 300 x 200 elements.
9.13 INFRARED CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES (IRCCD)
Modern infrared thermographic cameras employ single-element detectors or

a small number of direct-readout photodetectors. Each element has its own
preamplifier. Infrared cameras used in modern military applications require
multi-element detectors to achieve the sensitivity necessary to resolve very
small differences in temperature or emissivity in the scene being examined
whilst still maintaining high spatial resolution and high imaging rate. The
traditional technology for reading such detectors employs one preamplifier
per element, which limits the number of elements to about 100 because of
the space occupied by the associated electronics.
This limitation is overcome by infrared detector technology with inte-
grated readout that relies on charge transfer registers. These so-called
infrared charge coupled devices (IRCCD) are complex structures that in-
tegrate photosensitive elements and registers for readouts, delayed multi-
plexing and, sometimes, preamplification modules. The entire assembly is
placed in the focal plane of the optical system and is cooled by a cryogenic
device. This focal-plane technology performs two functions, namely, image
capture and video-signal multiplexing. The detector array produces the
electronic image, and the multiplexing registers extract the information
from each detector and convert the image into a video signal.
The IRCCDs are fabricated by two different methods. When the detec-
tor elements and the readout circuits have substrates of the same nature
(usually silicon) we speak of monolithic technology, e.g., in the case of
silicon CCD detectors used in the visible range. When the substrate mate-
rials are different, the technology is said to be hybrid, and the arrays have
to be connected element by element, photodetectors to readout circuits.
Current hybrid technologies use contacts consisting either of microsoldered
conducting wires or indium microspheres.
Detector
CCD
Fig. 9.54 Connection by wire
The former method is well suited to linear arrays (side by side sets of
components) whilst the latter is better suited to two-dimensional arrays
(superimposed sets of components). As in traditional infrared detectors,
the materials used in IRCCD detectors are matched to the working spectral
bands.
9.13.1 HgTeCd detectors

This material has high quantum efficiency and its working spectral band
can be adjusted by altering the relative composition of the ternary com-
pound Hg(l_x)Cd x Te. It is thus possible to make IRCCD detectors that
are sensitive in the 3-5 J.lm band, using monolithic (x = 0.3) or hybrid tech-
nologies, whereas hybrid technology is used for the 8-12J.'m band (x = 0.2) .
In their photovoltaic mode, these detectors have the advantage of not
drawing any current, thus avoiding the inconvenience of multielement pho-
toconductors whose polarisation current causes Joule heating that gives rise
Detector
CCD
Fig. 9.55 Connection by indium spheres
to detector cooling problems. The HgTeCd detector elements are produced

by different technologies (cutting of materials in bulk or different forms of
epitaxy).
9.13.2 Indium antimonide

This photodetector material can be used in the 3-5 pm band and has higher
uniformity than HgTeCd, but the connection to the CCD readout register
is more complicated. Monolithic technology (charge injection devices) is
limited in performance by higher noise levels as soon as the number of
detectors becomes large and hybrid technology becomes preferable despite
its complexity.
9.13.3 Silicon-platinum Schottky diode

These detectors use a diode with a Schottky barrier between silicon-
platinum and p-type silicon. This material is sensitive in the 1.1-51lm
band, but the response declines rapidly between 3 and 5 pm. These prop-
erties, and the very low quantum yield, might seem poorly suited to infrared
imaging applications. Actually, the long integration time constant of the
large array of elements (256 x 256 or 512 x 512) compensates in part for
this handicap. The low quantum yield then avoids the early saturation
of the CCD readout register, which occurs quite quickly with traditional
detectors. The detectors must be cooled to 77 K and work with a cold
filter to reduce the spectral band width. Indeed, the signal due to the 1.1
- 2.51lm band has the same characteristics as in the visible range (high
image contrast on a weak background), whilst beyond 2.5 pm the ambient
temperature produces noticeable emission, giving low image contrast on a
high background. This explains the need for preserving a wide dynamic
range of infrared detectors operating in the so-called thermal-wavelength
range (2.5-15 pm).
Silicon-platinum arrays are produced by condensation of platinum
vapour on a silicon integrated circuit. The fabrication equipment is very
S(A)
---- PtSi
2 3 4
Fig. 9.56 Spectral response of PtSi apd InSb
similar to that used in microprocessor manufacture, which keeps down pro-

duction costs. Moreover, this technology produces very little response vari-
ance among the pixels, so that the resulting images are remarkably uniform
and contain practically no spatial noise. Finally, infrared cameras incorpo-
rating components of this type (Mitsubishi in Japan and Fairchild in the
United States) have thermal sensitivities comparable to those employing
HgTeCd elements.
9.13.4 Performance of IRCCDs

The thermal sensitivity of infrared systems is given by the NETD (noise
equivalent temperature difference):
where N = 1/4>, I is the focal length and </1 the diameter of the optics,
~v is electrical pass band, A is the sensitive area of the detector, Top is
the transmittance of the optics, d2R/ dTd>" is the object emittance contrast
and D* (>..) is specific detectivity of the detector.
The NETD given by the above expression is proportional to N/VA.,
i.e., to N/4>dO where dO = -JA/I (the elementary field angle) . The best
thermal sensitivity is obtained for low NETD, which corresponds to
• small N, i.e., F/1(N = 1) is better than F/2(N = 2)
.large </1, i.e., large diameter of entrance optics (for a given numerical
aperture, the diameter of the optics must be as large as possible; this is
limited by the difficulty of controlling large-diameter optics)
.large field element angle dO
A
Fig. 9.57 Focal plane detector
.high specific detectivity D* of the radiation detector

.narrow electronic pass band ~v
The last parameter depends on the number of detectors used during the
scanning time. Thus, for multi-element detectors, the thermal sensitivity
is proportional to the square root of the number of elementary detectors.
When we are dealing with IRCCD detectors, the integration time con-
stant of each photosensitive element is limited by the CCD readout register.
These detectors do not therefore benefit fully from the optical integration
achieved by the multiplicity of elements, and the NETD of such detectors
has a slower dependence on the number of elements.
However, the number of elements is made larger in CCD technology by
avoiding the complexity of the electronics. Finally, the d2R/dTd)" term
that is a measure of the differential thermal sensitivity is higher in the 8
-12 J-lm band, where the abundance of photons tends to saturate rapidly
the CCD register, whilst in the 3-5 J-lm band, the lower photon flux allows
longer integration at the CCD stage, which has the effect of improving the
performance of IRCCD detectors in this band.
9.14 SPRlTE DETECTORS
Sprite (signal processing in the element) technology also relies on the prin-
ciple of serial scanning applied to IRCCDs, but uses very long detectors
(filaments) to replace a line of p elements (Fig. 9.58). The motion of charges
along the detector material is controlled by an electric field and takes place
at the same speed as the motion of the image produced on the detector by
scanning. The accumulated charges are thus read at the end of the detector
filament, which produces the in-phase addition of signals due to the same
pixel.
Sprite detectors are equivalent to multi-element detectors in series (ap-
proximately 10 to 16 elements per filament), with three connections being
Read zone
Preamp
Displacement current Sapphire substrate
~J
Conventional detector
Fig. 9.58 Principle of the sprite detector
sufficient. This means that the number of lines leaving the cryostat is
reduced (n outputs instead of n x p for an array of n lines with p points).
The number n of filaments corresponding to parallel scanning in the
case of an array is limited by the extra cooling required to counter the
Joule heating due to the currents associated with charge displacement.
Infrared imaging systems using sprite technology employ biaxial scanning
with detectors containing 8, 16, or 20 HgTeCd filaments cooled to 195 K
for the 3-5JLm band, and to 77K for the 8-13JLm band.
The specific detectivity of a sprite element is given for a nominal sensitive
Fig. 9 .5 9 Eight-filament sprite detector (700 x 70 p,m 2 )
area of 70 x 70 pm 2 •
D* (500K, 20kHz, 1) = 5 X 10 10 cm HZl/2 W- 1 (3 to 5 pm)

D* (500K, 20kHz, 1) = 11 X 10 10 cm Hzl/2 W- l (8 to pm)
Integration of the signal along the filament produces equivalent detec-
tivities that are higher than the theoretical limit of perfect conventional
DElLIP detectors (background limited infrared photodetection). The op-
timum electric field for the circulation of the charges is of the order of
30 Vern -1. The corresponding pixel rate is of the order of
7 X 10 5 pixels s-1 for 3 to 5/-lm
18 x 105 pixelss- 1 for8tol3pm

The thermal dissipation is 1.5 m W per filament for 3-5/-lm and 9 m W per
filament for 8-13 pm. Hence, in the 3-5/-lm band, a sprite detector with 20
thermoelectrically cooled filaments dissipates approximately 30 mW.
The detectivity integrated over a filament is
Dint = 4 x 1011 em Hzl/2 W- l (at 5 pm)
The corresponding figure at 11 pm is 2.2 x 1011.

Developed in 1980-1981 by Thomas Elliott at the Ministry of Defence in
Britain, the sprite detector is currently produced by the Mullard Company
in the UK and under licence by Honeywell in the USA. These detectors are
well-suited to infrared imaging because of their uniformity and the low noise
introduced by integration. This technology is used in particular in British
military infrared imagers (TICM = Thermal Image Common Module) and
in the United States by Honeywell in their minicameras. In thermography,
it seems that the dynamic range of sprite detectors is limited because of
element saturation due to the charge build-up.
9.15 DETECTOR COOLING
We saw earlier that all objects emit infrared radiation at temperatures

above the absolute zero. This radiation obeys Planck's law and imposes
a fundamental limitation on detector performance. Indeed, the intrinsic
emission of an infrared radiation detector in its sensitivity range (3-5 J1.m or
8-14 J1.m) is a serious impediment to the detection of low-intensity external
radiation.
To increase the detectivity, we have to 'turn off' intrinsic emission by
the sensitive element and its immediate environment (field-limiting stop).
This is done by cooling the detector to temperatures at which this intrinsic-
emission noise becomes negligible (Chapter 9.9.3). Moreover, cooling of the
very small sensitive areas, with their small heat capacity, prevents excessive
heating by sustained exposure to high-intensity radiation. Lastly, detector
cooling has the effect of reducing the internal thermal-vibration noise, i.e.,
of increasing the detectivity.
There are currently four types of cooling: cooling by liquified gas, cooling
by J oule-Thomson expansion, cooling by cryogenic machines and cooling
by the thermoelectric effect. The choice depends on the detector operating
temperature, the rate of refrigeration and environmental conditions. In
general, the use of liquified gases is convenient in research laboratories
and in industrial and medical applications, but is not compatible with
military applications. The other methods, developed largely for military
applications, are already being used in some civilian applications.
9.15.1 Cooling by liquified gas

The detector is placed in thermal contact with the liquified gas held in
a reservoir which must be well insulated from its surroundings in order to
keep the gas in the liquid state as long as possible. The container is usually
a glass or metal Dewar insulated by high vacuum.
The liquified gases most commonly used in infrared systems are: liquid
nitrogen (T = 77 K), liquid helium (T = 4.2 K) and liquid hydrogen (T =
20.3 K) . Liquid nitrogen is preferred for reasons of simplicity, safety of use
and good adaptability to detectors used in thermography. The Dewars will
work with detectors for 3-4 h between refills. Cooling is very fast (a few
seconds), but glass cryostats are mechanically fragile.
There are techniques for the transfer of liquified gas from large tanks to
detector Dewars (Leidenfrost process), which extend the autonomy of the
Dewars very considerably.
9.15.2 Cooling by Joule-Thomson expansion

This cryogenic method relies on the temperature drop caused by the rapid
expansion of a high-pressure gas (200-400 bar).
~( ~ j
"
Metal Dewar
I-Detector 4-High vacuum

2-Thermal contact with liquified gas 5-LiqUlfied gas
3-Glass container (Dewar) 6-Window transparent to IR
7-0utput electrodes
Fig. 9.60 Cooling detectors with a liquified gas
I-Gl1S cylinder
(nitrogen under pressure)
with valve and manometer
2-Filter
3-J oule-Thomson probe
4-Dewar
5-Tube for gas under pressure
6- Heat transfer fins
7- Release orifice
8-Cold gas
Fig. 9.61 Cooling by Joule-Thomson effect
The temperature difference produced in this way is small, i.e., it is nec-

essary to have an exchanger that uses the lower temperature to cool the
gas before expansions. The temperature of the system is thus progressively
reduced.
The exchanger, which has the form of a probe immersed in the Dewar
of the detector, consists of a fine tube for the flow of the high pressure gas,
coiled around a thermally insulating sleeve. This tube is itself surrounded

by a metal coil acting as cooling fins. The lower extremity of the tube
has a very small hole where the expansion takes place close to the detector
element.
The cold gas produced in this way travels back up towards the outside
of the Dewar, exchanging its calories with the fins of the high-pressure gas
inlet tube and hence cooling the latter. After a few minutes of operation,
a few drops of liquid nitrogen are formed on contact with the detector
element. Cooling (77 K) is thus operational.
The length of autonomous operation depends on the size of the bottle of
compressed gas. The most sophisticated devices include a flow regulating
system that reduces gas consumption when the working temperature is
reached.
9.15.3 Cooling by cryogenic cycles

These machines remove heat mechanically and continuously by expanding
a gas which is first compressed in a closed or open circuit.
The machines were developed for military applications and exploit ther-
modynamic cycles. These cycles use a regenerating element that creates
a heat store between two volumes at different temperatures. The element
consists of a porous metallic mass with a high heat capacity with which
the gas exchanges its calories depending on the flow direction.
• The Stirling cycle
This is a closed-circuit cycle based on a constant-volume regeneration
process with isothermal compression and expansion stages.
The pump consists of two pistons working in two chambers connected
by a regenerator. The cycle takes place in four stages: (a) compression
of the gas at the constant temperature Tl in chamber A; (b) transfer of
gas at constant volume to chamber B through the regenerator (where it
gives up its calories and returns to temperature T 2 ); (c) expansion at tem-
perature T2 in chamber B in which the gas absorbs calories from outside
B; and (d) return of the gas to chamber A when it is pushed back by the
piston of chamber B, the gas recovering its calories as it passes through
the regenerator.
The absorption of heat from the external medium (detector element) is
by thermal contact of a metal finger immersed in the Dewar vessel.
The Stirling cycle has the advantages of a low consumption and srriall
dimensions.
• The Gifford-MacMahon (or Solvay) cycle
This cycle employs a compressor and a system of external valves that
can be relatively distant from the cooler whose dimensions and weight are
reduced accordingly.
The cycle stages are based on the same principle of compression and
expansion as the Stirling cycle: (a) the piston starts at the bottom of the
Heat absorbed
Fig. 9.62 The Stirling cycle
cylinder, the inlet valve VI is open and the pressure in the regenerator
rises quickly; (b) the inlet valve VI is closed and the piston moves towards
the upper part of the cylinder (cold-generating expansion); (c) the exhaust
valve V2 is open, the piston drops in the cylinder, the expelled gas absorbs
heat from the regenerator and lowers its temperature.
The cycle that follows is identical, except that the gas has been cooled
by passing through the regenerator.
• The Vuilleumier cycle
This cycle uses a regenerator similarly to that of the Stirling cycle. The
compression of the gas is replaced by electrical heating.
• Open cycles
The gas (usually air) is taken in at atmospheric pressure, compressed to
high pressure (150 to 200 bar) after drying and filtering and then released
in a J oule-Thomson cryogenic probe.
These cryogenic pumps are small and have the advantage of reaching the
temperature of 77 K and maintaining it for long periods of time. However,
the compressors are noisy and the reliability of the system needs improving.
Compressor
Fig. 9.63 The Gifford-MacMahon cycle
Fig.9.64 deVuilleumier cycle

Air (1 bar) 150-200 bar Cryogenic probe
Dryer
Compressor
Fig. 9.65 Open cycle
9.15.4 Thermoelectric cooling

The Peltier thermoelectric effect involves the absorption or release of heat
at the junction between two different metals when an electric current I
flows across it.
If PI and P2 are the respective thermoelectric powers of the two metals,
the quantity of heat released in one of the junctions at absolute temperature
T is given by
When the current I is positive the difference PI - P2 is also positive, and

we have the release of heat (Q > 0) in the junction.
When the current I passes through the metals in the reverse direction,
PI - P2 is negative and heat is absorbed (Q < 0). The temperature of the
junction C increases, whilst that of junction F decreases. The heat taken
from F is transferred to C. The phenomenon is reversed when the current
changes direction (I < 0) .
It is thus possible to change from cooling to heating by simple reversal
of the current (the other junction being subjected to the opposite effect).
Conductor 1
-
Q
Fig. 9.66 The Peltier effect
The system is, however, subject to a thermal balance between the Peltier
effect (PI and P2), thermal conduction by the metals (ki and k 2 ) and Joule
heating of the conductors, which is proportional to the resistivity of the

metals (PI and P2).
Cold
Copper
Bi2Te3 (n) ..::,.:~; ....:-!.:,.:r."p.o,.
>:;00: ..:;
."'p":' "n' ,
\ ~
B i 2Te 3 (p)
fl/ ~~'i;~~~ i~:~::~
Copper Copper
~ ) ~ )
Fig. 9.67 The thermocouple
The maximum temperature difference obtained between the two junc-

tions is then of the form
The quantity
is called the factor of merit.

The thermoelectric materials must be chosen so that t::..T is as large as
possible.
In practice, the most commonly used material is n-type bismuth telluride
(Bi2Te3), with negative thermoelectric power and used with the p-type
version of this material (which has a positive thermoelectric power). The
junction is a copper bridge. The refrigerating power of such a unit is quite
small, so that several units have to be used in tandem.
~'p'::;. i "',:
.,.......
/.' .'m:
..: .....
Fig. 9.68 Two-stage Peltier device

Fig. 9.69 Three-stage Peltier device
These temperatures are not low enough for detectors designed for 77K,
but are perfectly acceptable for detectors operating at intermediate tem-
peratures
Example: PbSe has maximum detectivity at T =195 K, produced by a
three-stage Peltier device. .
The following temperatures can be reached in practice (with zero cooling

load):
-30°C (243 K) single stage I = 8 A, V = 0.8 V

1 x 1 cm2 element
-60OC (213 K) two stages I = 5.5 A, V = 1 V
1 x 1 cm2 and 0.5 x 0.5 cm2 elements
-75OC (198 K) three stages I = 1.5 A, V = 4 V
1 x 1 cm2, 0.7 x 0.7 cm2, and 0.5 x 0.5 cm2
elements
-85OC (188 K) four stages
-lOOOC 073 K) six stal!es
These temperatures are not low enough for detectors designed for 17K,
but are perfectly acceptable for detectors operating at intermediate tem-
peratures
Example: PbSe has maximum detectivity at T = 195 K, produced by a
three-stage Peltier device .
10
Signal Processing
O~OO
10.1 THE ANALOGUE SIGNAL
Thermography is a technique of recording phenomena associated with the

spatial distribution of heat on objects of interest, and the variation of this
distribution with time.
As we have seen, thermographic equipment can transform an infrared
image into a visible image that can be transmitted by a video signal. The
signal can then be processed by analogue or digital methods whose function
is to facilitate analysis and interpretation.
The object under investigation is analysed by optomechanical or elec-

tronic scanning of the optical field by the thermographic system. The
radiometric variation in space is thus converted by the infrared detector
into a video signal, which is a function of time.
At a given time, the amplitude of the video signal is, theoretically, pro-
portional to the infrared energy radiated by the object within the band-
width of the system and the instantaneous optical-field element. This pre-
supposes, of course, that we are within the linear portion of the system
characteristic, i. e., the signal is clear of the intrinsic noise of the system
and is below its saturation level.
Vertical scan (frame)
Possible
Video signal
~~--------~~--------~/
- T
1li'V"AI
Possible multiplexing
Multiplmd 'lgnM on ,tandwd TV
Fig. 10.1 Schematic of an infrared camera
The video signal arrives in the form of an analogue voltage or current

and must be processed to yield the thermal distribution over the scene on
which we need to know, as accurately as possible, the temperature at each
point or the corresponding emissivity.
The deflection of the optical-field element is recorded by position sen-
sors in the scanning device. These sensors deliver signals that mark the
Signal Processing 321
beginning of lines and of the frame, and are used for synchronisation with
the scanning beam of the visual display unit.
The horizontal and vertical synchronisation signals can be transmitted
separately or multiplexed on the same channel. Lastly, it is possible to
transmit the video signal and the various synchronising signals on a sin-
gle multiplexed line. The signal obtained in this way has characteristics
analogous to the television signal.
The relation between the amplitude of the video signal voltage and the
temperature of the observed black body must be established experimen-
tally. This produces calibration graphs that depend on the state of the
system, i.e., the objective, aperture, spectral filter, etc.
It is thus possible to associate a black-body temperature with each video
voltage due to each optical-field element received by the system. This is
the so-called apparent temperature, i.e. the' temperature of a black body
placed in vacuum and giving the same video signal voltage as the object. If
the true temperature of the object is required, corrections have to be made
for the emissivity of the object and for atmospheric transmission along the
propagation path.
There is one other very important point concerning the system. If it is
to operate as an absolute instrument in the way we· have just described, it
must be free of drift and must respond to all the spatial frequencies of the
object , including the continuous background (zero frequency).
Under these conditions, the amplitude of the video signal will, clearly,
be a unique and absolute measure of the infrared energy received. In
other cases (systems that do not respond to the continuous background
or are subject to drift), only relative measurements are possible and rely
on comparisons with a reference source of known temperature and emissiv-
ity, placed in the optical field under investigation.
Video voltage
Black-body temperature T
To
Fig. 10.2 Video voltage as a function of temperature
The analogue signal is amplified in the processing chain, using a gain

that is generally chosen so that the amplitude of the detector output signal
corresponds dynamically to the maximum usable voltage output of the
system. It is often useful to add to the video signal a continuously varying
Fig. 10.3 Voltage sensitivity as a function of temperature
component that secures a match between the signal voltage applied to the
VDU and the brightness scale available on the screen. .
These electrical signals are functions of time and can be recorded by
analogue magnetic recorders with a preference for frequency modulation
that allows the retention of the continuous component of the signal.
Signal V
S
:
.5
Tl
Dynamic range of Signal amplified to
Signal shifted
match it to the
raw image signal up by v C to bring dynamic range of
it to the medium grey the imaging tube
.,fthe imaging tube
Fig. 10.4 Read dynamics
The pass band and noise level of the magnetic recorder must be con-
sistent with the signals to be recorded. A good recorder must reproduce
these signals with minimum degradation and a signal-to-noise ratio that
is as high as possible. For example, a thermographic system delivers on
average 25 frames per second, each of a hundred lines with 128 pixels per
line and a signal-to-noise ratio of 48 dB. This requires a recorder with a
pass band covering 0 - 320 kHz and a signal-to-noise ratio of the order of
48 dB.
Analogue video tape recorders may allow a high pass band, but they
suffer from the disadvantage that they reject the continuous component
and have a lower signal-to-noise ratio, which prevents absolute quantita-
tive measurement. Moreover, video tape recorders must be used with care
because most of them employ automatic gain control. The gain then de-
pends on the input signal strength, so that even qualitative evaluation is
out of the question.
10.2 PROCESSING OF·ANALOGUE SIGNALS

The output of a thermographic system or the reproduction signal from a
magnetic tape recorder can be subjected to a number of simple analogue
processing procedures, the most common of which is the temperature cali-
bration of the image. For each video voltage and, hence, for each temper-
ature in the viewed scene, the system establishes a corresponding radiance
on the screen of a monochrome VDU monitor.
The signal can be arranged in steps corresponding to different energy or
temperature values represented by the unprocessed signal. The size of each
step is a measure of the corresponding black-body energy or temperature.
The steps defined in this way are then identified either by a marker that,
say, highlights areas of the image that correspond to a chosen level of the
video signal, or they can be shown on the screen of a colour monitor by
assigning a particular hue to each signal step.
Video signal, line n
6 .......- - - - - - - - 1
5~--~-~-~-1
4~-~~--~--1 ~~~ Line n

.3 +-~~-------:~__1 Colour
monitor
2 .......~-----~~
Colour scale,
OP----------------- showing
.......~;;;;.._______.....;;;;;;....J signal level
Fig. 10.5 Presentation of signal levels on the VDU screen
The division into steps can be made to correspond to equal energy or

temperature differences.
10.3 PROCESSING OF DIGITAL SIGNALS

If we consider the large number of data points in an image (a thermo-
graphic image contains approximately 104 points with more than 2000
Video signal
/
I eo t - - - - - - - - 1 f
/ ~
/ &l
----
.-------::;0".
/
Temperature T Isotherms T
Fig. 10.6 Equal energy and equal temperature curves
possible value levels), and the large number of relatively complex oper-
ations that need to be performed in order to obtain the temperature of
objects under examination, we must conclude that digital processing of-
fers much more flexibility; moreover, it allows the storage of images and,
therefore, comparative image processing by computer.
The first stage is to digitise the video signal, which can be done in real
time at the output of the infrared system. This requires a very fast analogue
to digital converter (ADC), which must be able to cope with the acquisition
rate, i.e., approximately 3 p.s per point with a resolution of 1000 to 4000
levels or 10 to 12 bits.
This method has the advantage of not limiting the dynamic range of
the system at the recording stage, but the converter and, especially, the
digital recorder are rather expensive. The recorder can be chosen to be
much slower as long as the user does not wish to keep all the images and
accepts a sampling rate compatible with the digital tape drive.
On the other hand, when all the images have to be recorded, a cheaper
solution is to use real-time analogue acquisition, followed by low digitisation
rate and slow recorder readout at a later time. The problems associated
with dynamic measurement can then be resolved either by manual setting
of the gain of the linear amplifier at the recording stage, or by using a
logarithmic amplifier.
The scope of digital processing of infrared images is so extensive that
it is impossible to give a full overview here. We shall therefore examine
a special case of application that illustrates most of the more important
concepts .
lOA EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
In this example, we assume analogue acquisition. Signal processing and

analysis of the results are carried out later by digital methods.
Our example involves a microcomputer and its peripherals, chosen to
be relatively complex in order to illustrate the difficulties that arise in the
course of signal processing. The problems encountered in practice may well

be less severe.
10.4.1 Analogue acquisition

The optical field is scanned by two thermographic cameras, one operating
in the spectral band 3-51lm and the other in the band 8 - 131lm. This con-
figuration allows a two-band (bispectral) analysis of the same thermal phe-
nomenon. The analogue signals (video and synchronisation signals avail-
able on separate lines) are sent to the analogue image display unit after
amplification and adjustment to required levels.
These signals are simultaneously recorded on an analogue magnetic tape
recorder to IRIG group I standard. Here again an adjustment of the input
levels is necessary. The amplitude of the video signal, which is within
±12 V at camera outputs is reduced to ±1 V for the input dynamic range
of the recorder.
Data acquisition is performed at magnetic tape speed of 120 in/s, Le .,
. 304 cm/s, which gives a frequency-modulated pass band of 0 - 80 kHz for
a signal-tc:rnoise ratio of 48 dB.
The pass band of the recorder is slightly smaller than that of the infrared
cameras that employ a frame of 100 lines with 100 points per line and a
scan rate of 16 frames per second. In this example, the size of the image
point is that of the optical-field element, i.e., the resolution corresponds to
100% modulation.
Scan resets cause a loss of 30% of the line and column scanning time. An
image element consisting of a single frame is thus displayed on the VDU as
70 lines of 70 points at 100% modulation or 140 points at 50% modulation.
The degradation due to the recorder pass band is hardly noticeable in the
reproduced image.
It is desirable to have a six-track recorder for the signals from the two
thermographic instruments. One extra track can be used to record real-
time information gathered during the measurement, i.e, the coded clock
output, camera operation parameters, temperature of reference sources,
meterological conditions likely to affect the propagation of infrared radia-
tion and nature and distance of the object under examination. The rate of
this information is relatively slow, so that it can be multiplexed on a single
recording track . Finally, it is also possible to multiplex the vertical and
horizontal synchronisation signals on the same track. This multiplexing
facility is available at the output of some infrared cameras.
10.4.2 Digitisation of the signal

Signal digitisation is performed by reading the magnetic recorder at a rate
slower by a factor of 32 than the tape speed, i.e., 3.75 in/so This speed
Camera output
J - - - - - - - - - - I > +12 V
Video
signal
r-......%....-----~'-12 V
I n625 JLmn .n.. 6 JLm

Line
syncWDLJC..
~: In- 62.2 pm if nu
Recorder input
VDUs
Analogue tape J-~----------I>-lV
recorder IRIG I +
(0-80 kHz- Sync signals

FM-120 in/s
signal/noise = 48 dB)
Fig. 10.7 Analogue signal acquisition
reduction ratio is chosen to accomodate the tape recorder characteristics

and the rate at which the data can be stored and then analysed .
This process results in a reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio by only
1 dB and allows the use of a relatively slow analogue-to-digital converter
('" 20 kHz) with a 12-bit binning. The analogue input levels of the con-
vertor are in the range ±10V. The most important advantage of this slow
digitisation method lies in the transfer of the digitised images, which can
be done for all the images in succession, or selectively, using a tape-drive
performance obtained at modest cost.
Some signal processing is necessary during the slow reading of the tape
(the amplifiers being chosen accordingly) . First, the dynamic range of the
video signal amplitude must be altered from the above ±1 V to ±10V in
order to make full use of the range of the converter . Second, multiplication
of the time scale by 32 requires a reshaping of the synchronisation signals
and, finally, a sampling clock is required for the converter. It is useful
to synchronise this clock with the scanning signals, so that the latter can
Analogue .. _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - +1v
recorder ~
---------------Iv
output Line
Jl---1L
192ps
. CD sync
Tape speed 3.75 in/s signal
signal/noise = 47 dB) r:J\ Frame 150,4 ms
--n-''''
~ s~c ~~-----
signal
Interface to
<D video
Modified
signal
_______ --- ---- -IOv
CD Shaped line Jt 20ms ~8ms 15¥
signal
r
s~c
to digital
r.\ Shaped frame j!8.4m 1.99s Ov
converter
20 KHz o s~c signal
12 bits
nnnnn nnnT5V'
"--....- .... <D (triggered
!10 volts Clock signal
line
by ,..J U U U U U UU U
signal) Frequency 15 kHz
s~c
errI] III I 1I1111 II

12-bit digitisation
of a point
Tenninal with keyboard,
printer and
disc drive
Digital tape recorder

(800 bpi = 37.5 mis)
Fig. 10.8 Schematic of signal digitisation
be simply restored later by straightforward digitisation-pulse counting. A

single conversion line is thus needed per spectral band.
The 625 J.lS duration of a line at the output of the camera becomes
20 ms at the output of the slow tape recorder. Analysis of the optical
field employs 30% of the line duration for scanning resets, which gives an
effective image line time of 14 ms. In order to have 210-point sampling per
line, the digitisation must be performed at 15 kHz.
Each video point is digitised at 12 bits, i.e., 4096 levels in steps of
20V /4096 = 4.9mV.
The digitised signal is stored in the memory of a microprocessor (64 kB,
16 bits) and then transfered as successive blocks to a nine-track 800 Bpi
(bytes per inch) digital tape drive running at 37.5 in/so
The microprocessor receives and stores in its memory the succession of
digitised image points as blocks, each block representing five video lines.
The first words of each block contain the identification parameters, i.e.,
the date, the sequence number and the frame number. Standard words are
used to indicate the end of the lines and frames.
At the beginning of the digital tape, the first block or header, contains
information characterising the running sequence. This block contains 64
words of 16 bits each. The information it contains can be supplied man-
ually by introducing the parameters via the keyboard, disc, or casette,
or automatically in which case the data are recorded in real·time during
measurement .
• Structure of the sequence header
This is indicated in the following table.
Identification band number

sequence number
date
run designation
time
Camera wavelength
objective
aperture
fIlter
sensitivity
reference temperature
Meteorological parameters air temperature
relative humidity
visibility
Object being measured name
distance
emissivity
• Structure of a block
Each block consists of three words (date, sequence and frame number),
followed by 1050 words corresponding to five video lines of 210 points, i.e.,
one word per point. An end-of-line word is added at the end of each of the
five video lines and, eventually, an end-of-frame word is introduced as well.
The memory of the computer is divided into two zones. A block stored
in zone 1 is transferred to the digital tape recorder as zone 2 is being filled

with the next block; zone 1 is then filled as the contents of zone 2 are
transferred, and so on. Transfer is initiated in the interval separating the
end of a line and the beginning of the next.
We note that it is possible to use, and look at, the signals immediately
after digitisation, without going through the digital recording.
DD
n video blocks Header block
Header block
Sequence .,
End-of-file marker
Fig. 10.9 Data sequence stored on digital tape
10.4.3 Visualisation
The first task in visualisation is to transform the camera scanning law into
the usual matrix of lines and columns on a standard 625-line colour TV
monitor.
The geometrical analysis of the optical field viewed by the infrared cam-
era relies on the deflection produced by two rotating octagonal germanium
prisms. Each pair of parallel facets behaves as a parallel-sided plate whose
rotation translates the optical beam and .produces an angular deflection in
the optics.
The speed of the two motor drives is controlled and synchronised by a
200 - Hz driving signal.
The horizontal scan motor operates at 12000 rpm. The eight-sided
prism is directly coupled to the axis of the motor, which produces a
scan of 200 rps x 8 = 1 600 lines per second. The vertical scan motor
operates at 4000 rpm with two 7:29 and 1:8 reduction gearboxes pro-
ducing prism speed of approximately 2 rps or, for an eight-sided prism,
2 rps x 8 ~ 16 frames per second The number of lines per frame is given by
the ratio of the angular velocities of the two prisms:
12000 3
00 7 1 = 99 + -7 lines per frame
40 X 29 X S
The scan resets use approximately 30% of the frame time, which gives a
useful number of
(99+~) x 0.7 = 70linesperframe

Modulator Horizontal scan motor (12 000 rpm )

Vertical scan motor
(4000 rpm )
Lenses
Fig. 10.10 The AGA 680 thermographic camera
Spatial resolution is improved by the interlacing of the lines by transla-

tion of each successive frame over seven possible positions in the following
chronological order:
-1- 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7-
which appear on the image in the following order:
-1 - 3 - 5 - 7 - 2 - 4 - 6-
starting at the top.
To achieve the best compromise between spatial and temporal resolution
in different applications, the visualisation programmes available generate
the screen display shown in Fig. 10.11. This offers the choice of:
-Any frame from the cycle, chosen amongst these seven. The image
then consists of 70 lines of 210 points. The square shape of the image
determines the resolved image point, called picture element, or pixel, with
a rectangular shape whose width to height ratio is 1/3
- Frames of type 1 only
- Frames 1-2-5 interlaced (image of 210 x 210 pixels squared).
In the last case, the interlacing produces a superposition of three frames
chosen amongst the seven (for example, 1-2-5) which is sufficient to give
an image of 210 lines without discontinuities, corresponding to the effective
resolution of the system. The three frames selected in this way are recorded
in the chronological order 1-2-5. The display on the TV monitor is in the
order 1-5-2, consistent with the spatial distribution of the lines.
Frame no.
7 ~~~~~~~~~__~~~
2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'
4 ~~~~~~-=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-=~
[Q-=~~~~~~~=--4~~~~~~~~
3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
5""",==-';;::"~o::-";;"":~,........,......-'::
7~=-~-+~~~~~~~-=
2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Fig. 10.11 Scanning an optical field with an infrared camera (AGA 680)
For simpler types of scans (for example, standard TV scanning), the lines
are displayed in the order of acquisition, which causes fewer problems. This
is the case in infrared equipment producing a TV-compatible image.
i4--
I+--.
<:"I
I
lC ~
I
~ (\)
~
rn
(\)
S ..:::
ro 44 100 points
..::: .S
I rn
rn (\)
~
(\)
I=l
;,:::: 0
0 t-
~
'<:"I
I+--
\... ~
./
210 points per line
Fig. 10.12 Image presentation on the screen of a TV monitor
10.4.4 Architecture of image reconstruction

The computer reads the successive blocks on the digital tape and performs
an amplitude compression of 12 to 8 bits in order to make the image mes-

sages compatible with the display and image processing peripherals called
pericolor (numelec).
Pericolor system
Digital recorder
Fig. 10.13 Reading and processing system
The pericolor device is a system of memorisation and colour display

of information contained in digital images. The image memory' contains
256 x 256 points with 8-bit coded levels and one extra bit for marking
the outline of a region. It also provides for a number of general image
processing operations. The device is equipped with its own alpha-numeric
keyboard and can function on its own or, as in our example, as a computer
terminal.
Standard processing is by an Intel 8080 processor with 2 kB of RAM
and 7 kB of PROM (expandable to 32 kB of PROM and 24 kB of RAM),
performing the following operations:
• Colour display. The image can be displayed in 256 colours (true colour
mode) or else in only 16 colours chosen from 4096 (false colour mode);
these colours can be modified at will. The 16-colour scale allows a scaling
of 16 video levels. The operator, or the computer, can modify the position
of the limiting level as well as the amplitude difference between levels in
order to match the whole of the colour scale to the useful dynamic range
of the image .
• Integration. The system can compute the integral of the video signal,
the number of image points and the average video signal, either for the
total image or for a zone within a chosen contour.
• Histograms. This treatment generates for the total image, or for a

chosen zone, the number of image points as a function of the sixteen levels
(associated with the 16 false colours), as well as the relative percentage of
these levels. The histogram can be presented numerically (as a table of
values) or graphically.
• Section profiling. It is possible to take a section of the image and
obtain the curve representing the video profile along a vertical or horizontal
section.
• Smoothing. The level of each point can be replaced by the weighted
mean of its own level and that of its neighbours. The result is 'the filtering
out of high spatial frequencies, and a reduCtion in statisticaI.fluctuations;
this can be repeated successively as many times as necessary.
• Zoom. This produces a change in size that facilitates the analysis of
zones of interest. The result is an enlargement of the spatial scale.
• Character and symbol generator. This is used to label images with
alphanumeric characters.
The microprocessor also runs the display, i.e., it periodically reads the
graphics memory (64 kB) at the scan rate of the TV monitor. Finally, a
communication interface allows data exchange with the majority of com-
puters.
Of course, a large number of other processing operations and functions
such as statistical calculations can be carried out by programs at the com-
puter level or by PROMs at the microprocessor level; specifically, these are
multi-image operations that assume the previous acquisition of images, on
which a number of point by point operations can be performed, for exam-
ple, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, linear combination and
so on. The output is fed to the three guns of a colour monitor operating
on the 625-line standard.
10.4.5 Image processing

The infrared image processing procedures that can be considered depend, of
course, on the final goal of the operation. Apart from the processing already
described, carried out using the pericolor unit, a calibration programme for
the temperature calibration of the images must be provided for the rapid
solution of problems that arise in thermal measurements. The introduction
of this function is possible at the level of the microprocessor.
The following types of processing may be considered :
- correction for atmospheric transmission and emissivity
- image addition, aimed at noise reduction
- image subtraction, aimed at spotting mobile objects in a scene or at
suppressing a continuous phenomenon
- manipulation of image contrast or correlation, so that objects in the
scene can be tracked
- two-band processing with the view to determining the distribution of

temperature and emissivity in the image, and so on.
10.4.6 Temperature calibration of images

The amplitude of the signal produced by an infrared camera is a function
of the temperature of the imaged black body, and is described by the
following exponential expression that is the result of a least squares fit
to experimental data:
1= a/{exp[b/{ten + 273)]- I}
where ten is the centigrade temperature of the imaged black body and a, b
are constants that depend on the objective, the aperture and the camera
filtering employed. A camera calibration curve I = !(ten) is therefore
necessary for each objective, stop and spectral filter.
Video signal
amplitude
~ ____________________-..tcn
Black-body temperature
Fig. 10.14 Calibration curve
The device for analogue pre-processing, which is included in the analogue

visualisation unit, incorporates an adjustable isothermal marker on a grey
scale graduated from 0 to 1 and located under the image. It can used to
label some of the signal levels on the display. When a point in the displayed
image produces a signal whose amplitude corresponds to a level preselected
by the isothermal marker, its brilliance is increased to a maximum.
To determine the temperature to of an object by comparison with a
reference black body at temperature tn, the isothermal marker has to be
brought successively to the following positions (Fig. 10.15):
- Xn with sensitivity (or attenuation of the video signal) Sl, matching
the intensity of the reference soUrce in the image
- Xo with sensitivity S2, matching the intensity of the object under
examination.
The dynamic range of the tube displaying the images is adjusted by
expanding the scalar sensitivity (corresponding to the variation in the gain
Reference source Reference isotherm Object isotherm
Isotherm marker
IR camera Image obtained

with sensitivity S2
Fig. 10.15 Principle of temperature measurement
tvc
I
10 ---r------------- ,---------- ------~-- --
I
I, -~~- ---- ---------L---------

I
:. At .. !
• I
I •
'--------j~---..---I~I C1
IR to
The sensitivity is the
slope S of the curve
Fig. 10.16 Determination of temperature
of the preamplifier) around the mean greyness in the scene observed, i.e.,
around 0.5 on the isothermal scale.
The difference between the signal due to the object and that due to the
reference source is then expressed in arbitrary units (called isotherm units) :
If the sensitivity is the same in these two measurements, we have

The calibration curve I = f{t cn ) then gives the temperature difference

I:1t from tR corresponding to 1:11 and, hence, indicates the temperature to of
the black body emitting the same radiation as the object under inspection
would have. There is also a continuous (dark) component Vc that adds to
the signal; its magnitude is used to place the mean greyness (0.5) at the
centre w of the isothermal scale of measurement.
In practice there are, in addition, thermal drifts that simulate the slow
variatIon of the dark component and distort measurements unless suitable
precautions are taken. For example, when the calibration curves are es-
tablished, the thermal drift effects must be reduced as much as possible by
taking readings step by step, starting from a fixed value (one has to return
to the initial value before each such step in order to compensate for the
drift by operating directly on the dark component).
This method requires a reference black body with a very fast temper-
ature adjustment and stabilisation (Peltier thermoelectric effect), so that
the measurement at each step is performed with the minimum of drift. If
this is not possible, several black bodies have to be available, each heated
to a different temperature - a preferred but expensive solution .
• Description of experimental procedure.
If we know the temperature tR of the standard, we can read off the
calibration curve 1 = f(t cn ) (Fig. 10.17) the corresponding ordinate 1R
and, hence, the position X R of the marker on the isothermal scale, as
indicated in the diagram.
I
Fig. 10.17 Experimental procedure: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7 is the sequence of operations
The gain line of the video preamplifier passes through the point MR, its
slope being equal to the sensitivity S (in some cases, the sensitivity of the
camera can be corrected for the gain of the recorder). It is then sufficient
to draw for each point in the image represented by Xo the vertical line that
locates the point Mo with ordinate 10, whose temperature to, given by the
calibration curve, is that of the point under consideration.
All this gives the apparent infrared temperature which takes the emis-
sivity of the measured point into account, and everything happens as if the
camera were looking at a black body at temperature to.
The emissivity of the observed surfaces is always:::; 1, so that the ap-
parent temperature is less than or equal to the true temperature at least
for an isolated object protected from reflection effects.
For a drift-corrected camera, the standard of temperature is no longer
needed, and the system can be calibrated absolutely in temperature by
noting the signal level and the level Vc of the dark component to determine
the temperature.
1004.7 Description of program

(aJ Recording of calibration curves on magnetic tapes or discs. The cali-
bration curves of the cameras, determined by point by point measurement,
are stored on tapes or discs. These values can be input either manually
point per point, or by introducing the equation of the curve if it is simple
to obtain. The parameters associated with these curves are: camera type
and objective, aperture and filter employed.
(b) Construction of temperature scale. The digitised video signal is rep-
resented by 12-bit numbers that are linearly related to the analogue video
voltage from the recorder. For a given image, these numbers are then 8-
bit coded and transferred to the memory of the pericolor unit, taking into
account the line interlacing in the reconstructed image. The raw image
obtained in this way is displayed on the visual display unit and a marker
indicates the infrared radiation source chosen as temperature standard in
the image field (known temperature and emittance). In this way the pro-
gram acquires the number nR representing the signal level due to this
source. The computer then knows how to associate this number with the
reference temperature tR in the header of the sequence. Finally, the pro-
gram contains the numbers nm and nM representing the extreme values of
the linear voltage generating the greyness scale of the camera.
The recording conditions (camera, objective, aperture, filter) are also
included in the program data (header on the digital tape) and the computer
=
chooses the calibration curve I f(t cn ) to be used. This curve is read from
the auxiliary memory (casette or disc) and then transferred to the main
memory (unless it has been already transfered for the visualisation of a
previous sequence).
Let IR = f(tR) represent the radiance of the black body in isothermal
units. The limits of the grey scale in isothermal units are then given by
'M - - - - - - - - - - +-----
'R~--------~~--~--------~
o
Fig. 10.18 Presentation of the isothermal curve
and
where
and
1- XR = nM - nR
nM-n m
respectively, and S is the slope of the sensitivity line.
By using once more the calibration curve, the program calculates the
limits of the grey scale as temperatures
tm =r 1 (Im)
tM = r 1 (IM)
and divides this interval (tM - t m ) into sixteen equal intervals with limits
For each ti( i = 1 to 15) it computes the eight bit numbers corresponding to
the raw image from the expressions
(i= 1 and 15)

Wavelength 1O~
Objective, 20
Aperture f/2.5
Filter o
TEMPERATURES
16 22,2-C
1~
21,6
1~
20,9
13 20,3
12 19,7
11 19,0
10 18,"
9 17,8
8 17,2
7 16,5
6 1~,8
~ lit, ..
~
13,8
--=-=--
: : -:;;c-: - - 3 12,~
2 11,3
Sequence Gain = 13
Frame no. Sensitivity 5.0
Date T. ref. = 12.10
Fig. 10.19 The displayed image, showing apparent temperatures
The values of intensity in pericolor units are attached to these fifteen

values ni and the corresponding temperatures ti are displayed for each
intensity, represented by a different colour. The limits tm and tM, as well
as the measurement interval t::..T = (tM - t m ) /16 are also displayed. The
displayed image is thus calibrated in apparent temperatures on the VDU,
and all the processing mentioned earlier (10.4.4 and 10.4.5) can then be
carried out.
11
Characterisation of Infrared Systems
rf_-
) )
)
)
11.1 GENERALITIES
Infrared receiver systems are generally used for the remote detection of
thermal phenomena. They usually produce one- or two-dimensional images
and have to satisfy a number of more or less stringent functional criteria.
Some equipments are intended for the purely qualitative analysis of ther-
mal phenomena, e.g., simple visualisation of the temperature distribution
Characterisation of Infrared Systems 341
on objects that is not directly discernible by the eye, in which case the sys-
tem produces an image with visible radiance proportional to the thermal
contrast of the object observed. It is evident that the result is more inter-
esting when the receiver system is able to distinguish small temperature
differences, which leads directly to the concept of thermal resolution.
Two other very important criteria must be added to this, namely, spatial
resolution, defined as the size of details on the object that are at the limit
of detection, and the noise equivalent irradiance, defined as the minimum
energy that has to be given to the system so that it produces a signal that
is at least equal to its own noise.
If the angular size of the object is greater than the size corresponding to
the spatial resolution of the system, and if it produces infrared irradiance
on the entrance pupil that is greater than the noise equivalent irradiance
of the system, it will be correctly reproduced provided the apparent tem-
perature difference between the object and its environment is greater than
the thermal resolution (the apparent temperature is the temperature of a
black body in vacuum, in the object's position, that produces the same ef-
fect on the radiation detector). For quantitative measurements, the system
must also satisfy the usual functional criteria such as linearity, accuracy,
reliability and so on, so that a one-to-one correspondence is established
between the electrical signal produced and the apparent temperature of
the object (the system noise causes a departure from linearity because it
adds a random voltage to the signal, so that the same cause can produce
different effects).
There are also other criteria that can be used for the radiometric charac-
terisation of infrared systems, e.g., the spectral response which determines
the operating wavelength, but it soon becomes apparent that there is a
close connection between each new criterion and those mentioned earlier.
For example, the optical transfer function is directly related to spatial res-
olution, and thermal resolution depends on the optical transfer function.
The following is a summary of useful criteria for the characterisation of
measuring-system performance.
11.1.1 Noise equivalent irradiance (NEI)
This is the irradiance (usually in watts per square metre) on the entrance
pupil, which produces an electrical signal equivalent to the noise in the
system, i.e., it is the minimum detectable irradiance.
11.1.2 Thermal resolution

This is the minimum detectable difference between the apparent tempera-
tures of the object and its environment. The definition of thermal resolution
takes different forms, depending on the nature of the object.
Noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD). This is the apparent-

temperature difference between an extended object and its environment
that produces r.m.s. signal equal to the peak to peak noise voltage of the
system.
Minimum resolvable temperature difference (MRTD). This is the mini-
mum apparent-temperature difference between the elements of a standard
periodic test pattern (Foucault pattern) that can be distinguished visually.
It depends on the spatial frequency of the pattern.
Minimum detectable temperature difference (MDTD). This is the mini-
mum apparent-temperature difference between an extended object and its
environment for which the object is just visible.
All these apparent temperatures are estimated by comparison with black
bodies; the relevant differences may be due to real temperature differences
between objects, or differences between emissivity, or to a combination of
the two.
11.1.3 Spatial resolution

This is defined as the smallest separation between details on the object,
expressed as a solid angle, for which the details are still seen as separate. It
is usually the elementary solid angle of analysis by the system that results
from a combination of factors such as the transfer functions of the optics,
detector, electronics, visualisation system and the eye of the observer.
The transfer function of a system is determined by the contrast in the
image of a test pattern with a periodic structure of unit contrast, and
depends on the spatial frequency of the pattern.' The problem of spatial
resolution can thus be discussed in terms of the ability of the system to
separate two small objects or in terms of its modulation transfer function.
These two approaches are linked by the Fourier transform. Moreover, this
concept is directly related to the temporal response of the system through
the spatial scanning rate.
11.1.4 Spectral response

This is the optical pass band of the system, usually specified as the wave-
length interval ~A = Ab - Aa approximately centered on the mean wave-
length AO lying between Aa and Ab. The limits of the spectral interval ~A
are determined by the combined response of the optics, filter and detector.
11.1.5 The signal-temperature relation

The calibration curves of the receiver system give the output signal voltage
V6as a function of the absolute temperature T of a black body
Observations of an object yield an electrical signal Vsc that is related to the

black-body temperature to by
vsc = f (To)
where To is the apparent temperature of the object and is generally different

from its true temperature .
11.1.6 Temporal stability and drift

Identical causes must produce the same effect in time. When identical
optical signals produce slow kmporal variations in the difference between
corresponding electrical signals, the system is said to drift. It is important
to know the drift of a measuring system.
We shall now examine these characterisation criteria and specify ways
of evaluating them for a given infrared system, and then define the system
according to these criteria.
11.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF INFRARED DETECTORS
11.2.1 Sensitivity
A radiant flux dF intercepted by a detector causes the following changes
in the electrical voltage or current at the output of the receiver:
dv = %; dF + ~ ~ di = S" dF + Z di
. f)i f)i
d~ = 0 F dF + 0 v dv = Sj dF + A dv
The quantity Sv = f)v / of is called the voltage sensitivity or responsivity
and is a measure of the transformation of the optical signal dF into an
electrical signal dv. It is expressed in volts per watt (V W-l); Z is the
impedance of the detector and A its admittance.
di
Fig. 11.1 Principle of radiation detector

By writing the above expression for the flux dF in terms of the irradiance
dE on the detector area A, we obtain
dF = AdE
The sensitivity can be calculated from the relationship
dv
Sv = AdE (11.1 )
where dv is the effective output voltage of the detector.
11.2.2 Time constant

The response time r of a detector is defined as the time for the output
electrical signal to reach 63% of its final value when it is exposed to an
abrupt change in irradiance.
Fig. 11.2 Response of a detector
The sensitivity at the modulation frequency II of an optical signal is

related to the sensitivity at zero frequency, i.e., sensitivity at constant flux,
by the expression
s _ Sv(O)
v(v) - .../1 + 471"2112r2
For low modulation frequencies II ~ 1/271"r, the sensitivity is independent
of frequency. This means that the modulation frequency need not then be
taken into account in the measurement of sensitivity.
11.2.3 Noise equivalent power (NEP)

The sensitivity is a measure of the way the detector converts an optical
flux into an electric signal, but does not give any information about the
minimum quantity of radiation that has to be supplied to the detector in
order to obtain a signal exceeding the intrinsic noise of the detector. This is
conveniently described in terms of the radiant power (or flux) that produces
the noise equivalent power (NEP) of the detector.
Since measurements become difficult as the signal to noise ratio tends

to unity, it is better to use a large signal F and to write the expression for
the sensitivity in the form
where V, is the effective output voltage due to the flux F and Vb the effective
voltage due to the intrinsic noise of the detector, which could equally be
due to the flux corresponding to the NEP. Hence
NEP = F Vb = EA Vb (11.2)
V, V,
where NEP is in watts.

This assumes that the detector output signal is a linear function of the
optical input signal, which is generally the case for a large dynamic working
range. The measurements must be performed within the working pass band
of the detector.
11.2.4 Noise equivalent irradiance (NEI)

The NEI is equivalent to the NEP, except that it can refer to a complete
infrared system. The NEI is the irradiance Ep at the entrance pupil of the
system that produces a signal equivalent to the detector noise (within the
electrical pass band of the system):
(11.3)
11.2.5 Detectivity
The performance of a radiation detector usually improves with decreasing
NEP. The quality of the detector can be represented by the inverse of the
NEP, which is referred to as the detectivity. It is given by
1
D= NEP (in W- 1 )
The NEP depends on the conditions of measurement, i.e., the wavelength,

the detector temperature, the modulation frequency of the optical flux, the
electrical bias applied to the detector , the sensitive area of the detector and
the electrical pass band of the measuring circuit. The measurements must
therefore be carried out under more or less standardised conditions if good
reproducibility is to be achieved. These are as follows .
• Standardised temperature, e.g., the temperature of liquid nitrogen,
namely 17K.
• Sufficiently low modulation frequency, so that measurementa are not

limited by the detector time constant .
• Optimum bias voltage, which is easily established experimentally be-
cause this is a function with a single maximum.
It is found that the detectivity of most detectors is inversely proportional
to the square root of the detector area A and the square root of the electrical
pass band All (modulation frequencies II should be high enough to avoid
1/11 noise, since the noise spectral density then no longer depends on the
frequency; see Section 9.3.1.).
This leads to the concept of specific detectivity D*, i.e., detectivity per
unit detector area (1 cm 2 ) and unit pass band (1 Hz):
D* = DJA All = v'ffKV (in W- 1 cmHz1) (11.4)

NEP
The specific detectivity D* is a function of the experimental conditions:
D* = D* (Ten, II, All)
where Ten is the absolute temperature of the black body used, II is the flux
modulation frequency and All is the electrical pass band.
When the detector response is a rapidly-varying function of wavelength,
the specific detectivity is measured for a given wavelength >., since it is
a function of >., II and All. In general>. is chosen so that the detector
produces the maximum response (>. = >'peak).
Example: D* (500 K, 900,1) means that the specific detectivity is mea-
sured over a wide spectral band for the radiation of a black body at
T = 500 K, modulated at the frequency of 900 Hz, within an electrical
pass band of 1 Hz . On the other hand, D* (41-',900,1) refers to the same
operating conditions, but at the single wavelength of 4 I-'m.
Detector
Fig. 11.3 Geometry of detection
When the intrinsic noise of the detector is very low, detection is limited
by the noise of the incident photon flux, i.e., by the random spottiness of
the stream of photons that reach the detector. The device is then said to
rely on background-limited infrared photodetection.
The specific detectivity D* of a system of this kind can be increased by
using cold stops to reduce the stray flux to a minimum. It is then inversely
proportional to the square root of the detector irradiance, the latter being
proportional to the solid angle
S
-.2..
w
-p
and
D* ~ _1_ ~ _1_
..JE Vw
where Sp is the pupil area. This case is limited by photon noise, and the
specific detectivity is evaluated for a solid angle of 1r steradians (equivalent
to a half-space):
D** = vgD*
For a circular pupil, w = 1r sin 2 0 and D** = D* sin o.
11.3 CALCULATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

INFRARED SYSTEMS
System parameters such as the noise equivalent power and the noise equiva-
lent temperature difference can be used as the starting point of calculations
of the system characteristics.
11.3.1 Calculation of noise equivalent irradiance (NEI)

The spectral irradiance at the entrance pupil of the system, produced by a
source with spectral intensity dI fd)" and lying at a distance d within the
instantaneous field of view (IFOV) is given by Bouguer's law corrected for
the spectral transmission of the atmosphere over the path Tat(A)=
The spectral flux collected by the entrance optics on an area Sp is then

given by
dF dE _ dI Sp
d)" = d)" Sp - d)" d2 Tat(A)
The detector receives this flux after attenuation Top(A) by the optical sys-
tem, so that
dF dI Sp
d)" = d)" d2 Tat(A)Top(A)
The electrical signal delivered by the detector with spectral sensitivity
Sv ()..) is
The signal due to radiation in the spectral band ~,\ = '\b -'\a is then given
by
and the signal to noise ratio is
This equation is difficult to solve because quantities such as Tat (.\), 'L,p(.\)
and S,,(.\) are not simple mathematical functions. They can be replaced
by their mean values within the interval ~'\, i.e., by rectangular functions
between '\a and '\b, such that
and so on. These functions can be taken outside the summation sign.
Fig. 11.4 Spectral band
The term dI / d'\ (the spectral intensity) is calculated from the black-
body relationship:
dI dL
d'\ =
d'\ Sen
where dL/d,\ is the spectral radiance of a black body with an area Sen and
dL 1 dR
d'\ 7r d'\
in which dR/d,\ is the spectral emittance of the black body. For a black
body at temperature T, the spectral radiance dR/d,\ is given by Planck's
law:
(11.5)
where E is the detector irradiance, A is the detector area,
NEP = EA vb
V,
D*=~=V'~,
NEP Vb EA
so that
EA= V,~
Vb D*
and
D*
SIJ=Vb ~ (11.6)
v A tlv
If n is the solid angle of the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of the
system, n = AlP where / is the focal length of the optics.
The aperture angle a of the optics is defined in terms of the diameter of
the entrance pupil ¢p and the focal distance / as follows:
_ ¢p _ 1
tan a - 2/ - 2N
7r¢2
Sp --p
- 4
Black-body source
Pupil
Detector
Fig. 11.5 Optical and radiometric conjugation
The signal to noise ratio is then given by

where
Hence, using the previous results obtained for A and Sp, we have
V. Sen Rl/JpD· tan a Tat Top

(11.7)
Vb - 2d 2 .jrU::.v
The irradiance at the entrance pupil of the system is obtained from the
following relationships:
- flux from the source:
- irradiance at the pupil due to this source
E _ Tat F _ Tat R Sen

p - S - 7rd 2
P
This expression can be evaluated with the help of tbe relationship giving
the signal to noise ratio:
E _ Tat RSen _ 2~ v.
p - 11' d 2 - 1I'1/JpD* Tap tan a Vb
When the signal to noise ratio v./vp is unity, this irradiance is, by definition,
the NEI that can be calculated from
NEI = 2~ v'XKV (11.8)

1I'1/JpD* Tap tan a Sp D* Top
Hence, for given V./Vb, we can determine the detection distance d, as fol-
lows:
d2 =Sen R . Tat . I/J p tan a Tap . D* . 1 (11.9)
2v'n VZ;:VV,/Vb
where the four factors separated by dots on the right represent the source,
the atmosphere, the optics, the detector and signal processing, respectively.
In practice, the design of the system relies on the following factors in
the detector optimisation process .
• The aperture angle a must be as large as possible. It is, however,
rarely larger than about 30 0 , i.e., tan a ~ 0.5 .
• The diameter of the entrance pupili/Jp must be large, but is limited by
weight, volume and optical aberrations.
Fig. 11.6 Solid angle subtended by the detector
• The optical transmission Top of the system must, of course, be as good

as possible which, on the one hand, limits the number of components and,
on the other, requires surface coating designed to improve transmission.
• The solid angle corresponding to the optical-field element n must be
small, which often implies a detector with a small area A; it is desirable to
have a a high-sensitivity detector.
• Finally, the electrical pass band of the system must be as narrow as
possible. This is not generally compatible with the use of scanning imagers
that require a very wide pass band, since both the continuous background
(low spatial frequency) and small details (high spatial frequencies) have to
be reproduced. The various optical spatial frequencies are converted into
temporal electrical frequencies by the scanning process. In order to keep
the signal to noise ratio as high as possible, some infrared imaging systems
remove the low spatial frequencies with high-pass filter (a.c. coupled to the
detector). The continuous component of the signal that is lost in this way
is then reproduced artificially at the signal processing stage.
11.3.2 Calculation of noise equivalent temperature difference

(NETD)
The NETD is the apparent-temperature difference between an extended
object and its surroundings, which produces a peak electrical signal Vc
equal to the effective signal Vb due the noise in the system:
NETD = To -T,
If the object is a black body at temperature To, its spectral radiance is

dL 1 dR
d>' 'If' d>'
where dR/d>. is given by Planck's law. The spectral irradiance on the area
Sp of the entrance pupil of the system is
dE _ dL Sp A' 1 _ dL A' _ 1 dR
d>' - d>' --;p- Sp - d>' d2 - ;: d>'
n (Wm- 2 1-'-1)
where A' is the area of the optical-field element in the plane of the object, d
is the distance between the object and the entrance pupil and n = A' /d 2 =
A/ P is the solid angle of the optical-field element of the system.
The spectral flux due to the pupil irradiance collected by the detector
after attenuation Tap by the optics is
dF _ nsp dR Tr
d>' - -;- d>' op
and the temperature variation of the spectral flux is found by differentia-
tion:
d(dF/d>.) _ nsp Tr d(dR/d>.)
dT - 7r op dT
The corresponding variation of the electrical signal is obtained by multi-
plying this expression by the sensitivity S" = dvc/dF of the detector:
dvc _ n Sp Tr d(dR/d>.) S
dT-7r op dT "
As we saw earlier,
D*(>') Vb
S"=Vb~= NEP
dV e _ nSPTr VbD*(>') d(dR/d>.)
dT - 7r op y A I::1v dT
Integrating over the spectral range 1::1>' = >'b - >'0 of the infrared system,
we obtain
and the signal to noise ratio becomes
dV e = nsp dT1Ab d(dR/d>.) D*(>') Top(>') d>'

Vb 7rYA I::1v A. dT
The NETD is defined as the temperature difference dT for which the signal
to noise ratio is equal to unity:
If we assume that Top(A) = Tap is practically constant within the spectral

band ~A, we obtain
(11.10)
For optics with N = f / ¢p
and
(11.11)
If the specific detectivity D* (A) can be considered as constant over the

spectral interval ~A = Ab - Aa , i.e., if, for example, we use its mean value
D*, then this value can be taken outside the summation sign.
Detectivity
I-..._ _~_ _ _ _ _---<~_'" Wavelength
Fig. 11.7 Spectral response
We now have to evaluate the integral of the temperature derivative of the

radiant exitance of the black body within the interval ~A. This problem
is covered in Chapter 3.1 and the main results are summarised in a table.
11.4 MEASUREMENT OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

AN INFRARED SYSTEM
The characteristics of an infrared system can be determined directly from
the electrical signal (video signal) by determining its amplitude, its time
constant and its noise. This is a precise measurement, performed with

laboratory instruments (oscilloscope, minicomputer for analysis and so on),
whilst the system is exposed to a well-defined illumination (calibrated test
patterns).
This type of evaluation applies mostly to infrared systems dedicated to
accurate measurement. For systems relying mostly on visual observation,
the characteristics are measured on the final image shown on the display,
i.e., usually a monochrome or colour cathode-ray tube monitor. The results
depend on the contrast and brightness of the image. Such measurements
can be performed in one of two ways.
(a) The subjective method. Here the observer makes a visual assessment
of the image on the screen and the method relies on the sensory physi-
ology and the psychology of the subject. The results must be carefully
interpreted and, if possible, a statistical average must be evaluated over
several observers. Some observers prefer images with low contrast but high
radiance, others demand the reverse. This process has the advantage of
testing all the characteristics of the infrared chain up to and including the
observer, which seems logical whenever the screen image is oberved. More-
over, the eye performs a temporal integration (typically, '" 0.15s), which
tends to reduce the noise seen in the image.
(b) The objective method. Here the observer's eye is replaced by an
optical photometer that analyses the screen display point by point. To
simulate visual analysis as best as possible, an integration time comparable
to that of the human eye is incorporated in the image analysing device.
11.4.1 Measurement of the noise equivalent irradiance (NEI)

This relies on the defining relation
(11.12)
where Ep is the instantaneous irradiance at the entrance pupil due to an

optical-field element (projection of detector in object space), V3 is the peak
signal voltage due to the pupil irradiance Ep , assumed much higher than
the NEI, and Vb is the effective noise voltage of the detector and its pream-
plifiers, i.e., the dark noise produced, for example, by looking at liquid
nitrogen (T = 77 K) with the system .
• Experimental arrangement and measurement
The system to be examined is placed in front of a collimator of focal
length fc. This is often an off-axis parabolic mirror (Fig. 11.9), used to
avoid central occultation of pupils whilst maintaining very good spectral
transmission. The size of the mirror must be at least equal to the largest
pupil of the system under investigation.
Close to the focus of the collimator there is a retractable plane mirror
that directs the beam from either a black body or a Dewar containing liquid
Infrared system
Test pattern
Video
signal
4' ".: .........

, "
Visual inspection of image

(subjective method)
Photometric scan of the image

(objective method) Direct signal processing
(objective method)
Fig. 11.8 Measurement of resolution
nitrogen. The distance between the collimating mirror and the system is
equal to the focal length Ie of the collimator.
The irradiance Ep is calculated from the emittance of the black body
and the geometrical parameters of the measuring system:
where
and
E _ R (.6.A) Sen
p- 1rf';
in which R(.6.A) is the emittance of the black body in the spectral range
of the system, Sp is area of the entrance pupil of the system, Sen is the
useful area of the black body seen by an optical-field element dB and Ie is
the focal length of the collimator .
Collimator
.,
Beam splitting mirror
·r
( .'
\...
Black body
Liquid nitrogen (Dewar)
u= ~ Mu= Nil W}.)

r~----"~~"----~'
I Image of
liquid nitrogen
Line N Image of
black body
Line N
v. m~asured
with oscilloscope
Vb measured with voltmeter or noise analyser
Fig. 11.9 Experimental determination of NEI
The equivalent optical diagram of the arrangement shows that
so that, finally,
(11.13)
Collimator Objective
Black body . . . . . . .... ---------------s; . . . Detector area A
..-••••••
--
~-----~--~~~~~~---11-----
sen
".
---------- ------------
~---f~e---·'~·--~~---·~l·---f~.I
Fig. 11.10 Equivalent opti<;al scheme
Effective Vb
Spectral emissivity Video line N

of black body
Fig. 11.11 Measurement of NEDT
11.4.2 Measurement of the noise equivalent temperature

difference (NETD)
The NETD is measured using the arrangement shown in Fig. 11.11 .
The black body at temperature To whose spatial dimensions are much
larger than the optical-field element, but smaller than the total field, is
superimposed on an homogeneous cold background at temperature Tj. The
tell)perature difference between the source and the background is assumed
to be much higher than the NETD.
The voltage measurements are carried out on the video signal in the
same way as in the case of NEI and the final result is given by
NETD = (To - Tj )V./Vb (11.14)
This measurement does not take into account the visual display unit .
11.4.3 Measurement of minimum resolvable temperature

difference (MRTD)
The MRTD links the thermal resolution to the spatial discrimination of
the system. It describes the effect of noise on angular resolution. This
measurement takes into account the visual display unit.
The definition of this criterion of thermal resolution relies on visual
separation of lines in the image of a pattern with a periodical structure
(Foucault pattern) whose temperature contrast is as low as possible. Nor-

malization is taken care of by using a series of patterns consisting of four
regularly spaced parallel lines, each pattern having a spatial frequency twice
that of the previous one, the height of a line being equal to seven times its
thickness.
7a~1I11 I1II
1
1111
;1
u •
Fig. 11.12 Four-bar pattern used in the measurement of MRTD
The temperature difference between the lines, regarded as black bodies,

is made as small as possible in order to make the system operate at its
highest sensitivity. Observations of the image take into account visual
physiology and interpretation by the human brain. The integration time of
the eye allows a kind of smoothing of the information that tends to reduce
its noise.
The procedure begins by setting to zero the temperature difference be-
tween the lines in the pattern, which is equivalent to observing a uniform
area, and the gain of the system is adjusted to its maximum value. The
noise is then visible in the image in the form of graininess and random
scintillation.
The temperature difference is then gradually increased until the thresh-
old of perception ~Tl corresponding to the visual separation of the lines
in the image is reached. The temperature difference is increased further
until a good image is obtained. The procedure is then repeated in reverse
order, i.e., the temperature difference between the pattern lines is reduced
until the periodic structure in the image disappears at ~T2' The latter is
generally lower than ~Tl' It is indeed easier to follow an image that is
disappearing because it is initially well localized. In the other case, the at-
tention of the observer is not fixed on any particular point until the image
appears.
By definition, the MRTD for a given spatial frequency is the arithmetical
mean of these two values:
(11.15)
L
0.5
0.4
/
/
Q 0.3
~
::E 0.2
/
/
0.1
-
o
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Spatial frequency, m rad- I
Fig. 11.13 The MRTD graph
Experience shows that this function increases very rapidly with the spa-
tial frequency of the pattern . The measurement can be made by the objec-
tive method. If the integration time of the photometer is well chosen, the
values found are little different from those given by the subjective method
(there is however a residual difference because the eye is not very sensitive
to low spatial frequency noise, whereas high frequencies are limited by its
cut-off frequency) .
11.4.4 Measurement of minimum detectable temperature

difference (MDTD)
The MDTD is the minimum temperature difference in an extended pattern
(usually circular) on a uniform background that can be detected by visual
observation. The measurement procedure is identical to that of the MRTD.
The MDTD is quoted for an angular size 28 of the pattern as seen by the
infrared system. It is the MRTD for zero spatial frequency :
(11.16)
11.4.5 Measurement of relative spectral response

This is the relative response of the system to monochromatic radiation
of wavelength >.. The response r(>.) is normalised to its maximum value
r(>.o) obtained at wavelength >'0 corresponding to the maximum spectral
sensitivity of the system. The relative response is therefore r(>.)/r(>.o).
A monochromator has to be available and the response of the system
is measured at each wavelength. The monochromator can be a collimator
with a black body placed at its focus, and equipped with a set of pass band
Fig. 11.14 Measurement of MDTD
filters. The spectral interval then depends on the choice of the pass band
~.A of these filters.
The signal observed through each filter must be corrected for filter ab-
sorption and the spectral radiance distribution of the black body. This
solution has the advantage of much higher spectral power than the tradi-
tion·al prism or grating monochromators.
. To obtain better accuracy, it is sometimes useful to employ a filter with
continuous spectral transmission: This takes the form of a circular ring
whose local spectral transmission can be varied by rotating the ring. The
spectral width of the transmitted radiation then depends on the width of
the part of the beam that is intercepted by the filter.
The relative spectral response of an infrared system can also be obtained
by comparison with the response of a thermal detector (bolometer or py-
roelectric detector) whose spectral sensitivity is supposedly independent of
wavelength. It is then sufficient to take the ratio of the response of the
system and that of the detector, preferably for each chosen flux from the
monochromator.
11.4.6 Measurement of spatial resolution - the modulation

transfer function
Here we are concerned with the resolution of an infrared imaging system.
In practice, the resolution is determined by placing a slit in front of a black
body and adjusting the temperature difference between edges of the slit
and the black body so that the infrared system gives an unsaturated image
at these two temperatures. This is in order to check that the system is
really working in its linear range.
If the slit width is large (I), the video signal due to a line has a flat
top whose height can be raised by increasing the temperature of the black
body if the system is not saturated.
The slit width is then gradually reduced until we obtain a signal without
the flat top (2). The corresponding angular width of the slit gives the
resolution of the system for 100% modulation (Fig. 11.17).
Infrared system
Collimator
Filters
Relative
r("\) spectral
r(>.o)
AI>' 2 >'3 \ >'5 -\ >-r >-1 ~ >'3 ).. >'5 >-e

Spectral transmittance of filters
>'2~--------~'---------~
~¥----
& -__ ~~ ____ ~ __________ ~a
~a 180 3110
-P Spectral transmittance Rotation of filter disc, deg

-1~
0,8
a __ 90
~ ...... 30 60 120
0,0 5 175
0,4
0,2
o
2,5 3 3,5 4,5 5 5,5 6
Fig. 11.15 Measurement of relative spectral response using discrete and contin-
uously variable filters
Black body
Image
IRimag,,~
Video line N
Fig. 11.16 Measurement of spatial resolution
0,5 .........- - - i - - - - l f - - . l - - - - - j
Fig. 11.17 Temperature profile of a slit
When the slit width is reduced further, so that the height of the signal
drops to half its initial value, the corresponding angular slit width of the
slit gives the resolution for 50% modulation (3).
In practice, any arbitrarily set rate of modulation can be chosen to define
the angular resolution. A comparison between different systems can, of
course, be performed only under the same working conditions.
Finally, when the angular slit width becomes smaller than that of the
optical-field element, the profile of the corresponding signal is the linear
impulse response of the system, also called its line spread function (LSF).
These measurements must be performed for two perpendicular slit ori-
entations because the infrared imaging system is not symmetrical, the lines
being usually horizontal. The slits are therefore arranged to be in turn per-
pendicular and parallel to the line scanning direction. The modulus of the
Fourier transform of the LSF is the modulation transfer function (MTF)
that is a measure of the image contrast as a function of the object spatial
frequencies, assumed to have unit contrast.
The MTF can also be determined by measuring the contrast on test
patterns with increasing spatial frequency. This function is normalized at
the origin to zero spatial frequency, i.e., a continuous background. It gen-
LSF (Video line signal)
mrad
Fig. 11.18 The line spread function
erally decreases up to the spatial frequency for which the contrast becomes
zero ( cut-off frequency) beyond which the system no longer transmits any
modulation. The MTF can be determined either by direct measurement
on periodic patterns, or by evaluation of the Fourier transform of the LSF.
Modulation transfer function (image transfer)
o fa
Spatial frequency, mrad- 1
Fig. 11.19 Modulation transfer function
11.4.7 Determination of the signal-temperature relation

Remote temperature measurement relies on the availability of a known re-
lation between the temperature of the object and the electrical signal pro-
duced by the receiver. This relation can be established either by calculation
from the different parameters of the measurement chain or, experimentally,
by comparison with calibrated reference sources. The response of the sys-
tem to an object of unknown temperature is then compared to that given
by the reference source at a known temperature. The concepts involved
are summarised below.
(aJ Emittance of the object. We assume that the object with emissivity
co is heated to a temperature To and· its energy radiance within the
detector spectral band il'\ is La . The radiance La is given by Planck's
Test pattern
with spatial frequencies h, 12, /3, ...
Video line signal
,t~J~~GJ h 12 /3 14
MTF
c,
C2
C. t--+--+-~
~ ~t===jt==t==t~_
®vecy
Fig. 11.20 Direct measurement of MTF
Black body
narrow ,Ii,
......... ......... .........
'~ Computer
(Fourier
o mrad-l transform)
Video line signal
Fig. 11.21 MTF measured by taking the Fourier transform of the LSF
law and is the source of the flux Fo, considered as the useful flux for the
system.
(b) Flux entering in the system. The flux F; incident on the entrance
pupil of the system consists of the flux Fo emitted by the object and atten-
uated by the atmosphere (transmission Tat) and the stray flux Fp due to
atmospheric emission and reflections by the ambient medium around the
object:
F; = TatFO + Fp
(c) Flux emerging from the entrance optics. The incident flux F; IS
attenuated by the optics ( Top), so that the transmitted flux is
However, the emissivity of the optical surfaces f:op = 1 - Top gives rise to
a further stray flux Fe that depends on the mean temperature Te of the
infrared camera. This perturbation term can also be due to the radiation
emitted by stops and mechanical components of the system, sent towards
the detector after stray reflections (this term can, of course, be minimized
at the design stage by using optics with high transmission and 'cold' stops) .
(d) Detected flux . This is the flux received by the sensitive area of the
detector
Fd = Ft + Fe
(e) Electrical signal. The detected flux Fd, or optical signal, is converted
into an electrical signal Vd by the detector. The conversion ratio is defined
as the voltage sensitivity of the detector:
dv
Sv = dF (in V jW)
and
In some systems, the signal must reach a certain voltage level in order to
be compatible with the visual display device.
The first pre-amplification state adds in this case to the signal Vd a dc
voltage Vo that allows the level of the mean video signal contained in the
image to be matched to the various levels of greyness (or colour) of the
visual display unit:
Vpa = Vd + Vo
The signal is then amplified with a variable gain that determines the sensi-
tivity of the system and its dynamic measurement range. The final signal
has the following form:
Detector
Vd
Preamp
Fig. 11.22 Schematic of a radiometer
or
(11.17)
Suppose now that the object is replaced by a black body at temperature
Ten that radiates the flux Fen. This produces the electrical signal
(11.18)
By taking the difference between these two signals we eliminate the stray
terms, so that
V$ - v~ = 9Sv Tat Top (Fo - Fen)
The flux Fo depends on the object temperature To and on the emissivity

co of the object . The flux Fen depends only on the temperature Ten of the
black body.
To simplify measurement and to eliminate problems associated with
emissivity, the object is often defined in terms of its apparent tempera-
ture Tap which is the temperature of a black body producing the same
effect on the radiation detector as the object with emissivity co at its true
temperature To.
We note that the true temperature To of the surface of the object is
generally higher than its apparent temperature Tap because of the influence
of its emissivity co. The relation between the apparent temperature Tap
and tile true temperature To is
J dR(>', Tap) d>' =

d>'
J co
(>.) dR(>.,To) d>'
d>'
~A ~A
We note finally that, in some cases, the apparent temperature can be higher
than the true temperature. This happens when the measurements are made
on objects that have appreciable reflectance 1 - co and are placed placed
in a high-temperature environment (a typical case is mentioned in Section
3.6).
Finally,
where
For measurements at short distances, atmospheric transmission Tat can be

ignored and the function
~v& = /{ ~f (T)
is determined experimentally (the coefficient /{ may not be easy to calcu-

late) . The graph of this function is obtained by using one or more black
bodies whose temperature is varied to produce a variation of the electrical
signal.
We note that ~V8 is a function of Tap and of Ten, but not of Tap - Ten,
except for small temperature differences for which the curve can be replaced
by its tangent. The calibration curve obtained in this way depends on the
characteristics of the system, i.e., new graphs have to be used for each
change of optics, spectral filtering or aperture.
Signal
I Black-body temperature
Fig. 11.23 Calibration curve
It is also possible to construct a calibration curve for the electrical signal

as a function of emitted energy (radiance, flux, emittance and so on) within
the spectral band of the detector. This is generally a linear function apart
from the very low signal levels, at which noise predominates, and the very
high signal levels at which saturation occurs. The slope of the straight
segment gives the sensitivity of the system:
dv
S" = dF
To establish this relation we have to know the geometrical characteristics

of the measuring equipment and its spectral response in order to calculate
the useful energies radiated by the source.
Signal V3 (Volts) Saturation
dv
~N_o_is_e_ _~_ _O--_ _ _" " Flux (Watts)

o dF
Fig. 11.24 Calibration graph of signal against optical flux
11.4.8 Measurement of drift
Here we are concerned with the measurement of the slow (in principle) tem-
poral variations of the electrical signal when the system is used to observe
an object at constant temperature under steady operating conditions. This
variation of the signal is called drift and is generally due to the variation
of the stray term Fe described earlier.
The stray flux derives from the intrinsic emission of the system whose
internal temperature may vary with time (due to the heating of motors,
electrical circuits, changes in ambient temperature and so on).
Drift can also originate from poor stabilization of the electronics used
for signal processing. In all cases, it is a weakness of system design.
It is possible to correct the drift, since it is equivalent to a variable
continuous component added to the video signal. The correction can be
performed automatically by sampling the intrinsic temperature of the sys-
tem.
The drift of an infrared measuring system is very inconvenient in de-
terminations of calibration curves when a variable continuous voltage is
present in the signal between measurement points.
The drift can be measured by recording the signal voltage as a function
of time for an object at constant temperature. It is useful in this case to
record in parallel the ambient temperature, or better still the temperature
of the system. The calibration curves can then be used to determine the
apparent thermal difference ~tap as a function of time.
The presence of a standard infrared source (black body) at a known
temperature in the optical field facilitates the elimination of drift for a
given image (or a group of successive images) because it is then possible to
evaluate the corresponding temperature differences.
2
o .-.,-=-./_"'_.1--__"'--__"--___________ Time (hours)
1 2 345
System temperature, °c
40 ,- " .... ----0

/
/
30 /
//
20
10
--
-----?7~/-/----------------~f7\
...." V
o _---.1----.1----"----.1--__-. Time (hours)
2 345
1: steady system temperature 2: varying system temperature
Fig. 11.25 Correction of thermal drift
11.5 EXAMPLE: CHARACTERISATION OF A SYSTEM

We shall now apply the above characterisation procedures to two models
of the AGA THV 680 thermographic equipment: the SW (short wave)
model, sensitive in the spectral band of 3.5 - 5.5 J.Lm and the LW (long
wave) model, sensitive in the 8 - 12J.Lm band. The parameters common to
both models are as follows.
• Optics: focal length f = 16.6 cm, relative aperture f /1.8, total field
80 x 80
• Analysis using crossed refracting prisms: 16 frames per second (inter-
laced randomly in groups of seven), 70 lines per frame.
The number of points per line is defined by the elementary field angle in
accordance with the chosen modulation level (for a level of 50%, the camera
gives 135 points per line, so that the elementary field angle is dO ~ 1mrad) .
• The THV 680 SW camera: photovoltaic InSb detector cooled with liq-
uid nitrogen (77 K), dimensions 350 J.Lm x 350 J.Lm, maximum specific detec-
tivity D" = 1011 W- 1 cm Hz 1/2, D"(3.5- 5.5 J.Lm) ~ 8 x 10 18 w- 1 cm Hz 1 / 2
Relative spectral response Detectivity
"=4 ,7 ..
'-i'-'-'-'
0,5
I
I
3,5 4 4 ,5 5 5,5 3,5 4 4 .5 5 5,5
J.Lm J.Lm
Fig. 11.26 Spectral response of the AGA THV 680 SW
• The THV 680 L W camera: photoconductive HgTeCd detector cooled

with liquid nitrogen (77 K); dimensions: 350 J.Lm x 350 J.Lm, maximum
specific detectivity D* =
1.5 X 10 10 W- 1 cm HZ 1/ 2 , D* (8 - 12 J.Lm) ~
1.2 x 10 10 W- 1 cmHz 1 / 2
Relative spectral response Detectivity
,0
1,5 .10 .- ' -'-:..' ---~.---,
1,2 .10'0 •.•.. ..: . .-~----..

8 x 10'o _ .
a 9 10 11 12 9 . 10 11 12
J.Lm J.Lm
Fig. 11.27 Spectral response of the AGA THV 680 LW
11.5.1 Evaluation of NEI

The relationship given in Section 11.3.1 is
NEI = -IAXV
SpD*Top
in which A is the area of the detector, VA = 0.035 cm is its linear size

and Llv is the electrical pass band of the system, roughly estimated in the
following manner. The camera produces 16 frames per second, seventy
lines per frame and 135 points per line, which gives 135 x 70 x 16 = 151200
points per second and a useful pass band of the order of Llv 150 kHz = =
1.5 x 105 Hz.
The other symbols are as follows. The area of the entrance pupil is
1r¢i2
S --p
P - 4
and ¢ip = 1/1.8 for optics opened to f /1.8, so that
S = 1r F = 1r X {16.6)2 = 66.8cm2
p 4 x (1.8)2 4 X (1.8)2
D" is the specific detectivity (we use here the mean specific detectivity D"
within the band LlA) and Top is the optical transmission of the system. The
8° objective consists of three lenses, i.e. , six refracting surfaces; the deflect-
ing prisms take the form of two parallel-sided blocks, i.e., four refracting
surfaces; finally there are two transport lenses, bringing the total number
of refracting surfaces to 14.
Lenses
Incident flux
Scanning prisms
Fig. 11.28 Schematic of infrared camera optics
If an antireflective coating is applied to the surfaces, a transmittance of

95% per face is possible and we have
Top = (0.95)14 ~ 0.5

from which we finally obtain
NEI = 3.5 x 10- 2 x V1.5 X 10 5 x 1 ~ 0.4

66.8 x 0.5 D" D"
and
0.4 -12-2
NEI(680LW) = 8 x 1010 ~ 5 x 10 W cm
(11.19)
0.40 -11-2
NEI(680SW) = 2 010 ~ 3.3 x 10 W cm
1. x 1
11.5.2 Evaluation of NETD

Here we use the relation given by (11.11) of Section 11.3.2:
NETD = 4N2...;-s:v [JAb d(dR/d)..) D*()")d()..)]-l

JATop dT
4
where N = 1.8 (optics opened to fiN), 8// = 1.5 X lOs Hz, VA = 3.5 X
10- 2 cm, Top ~ 0.5 and D(A) ~ D* ( the specific detectivity defined by
its mean within ~).. can be regarded as constant and taken outside the
summation sign)
(s.s d(d:f,d)") d)" = 3.52 x lO- sW cm- 2 K- 1

J3.S
forT = 300 0 K
112 d(d::f,d)") d)" = 1.94 x 1O- W cm- 4 2 K- 1
The values of these integrals are given in Chapter 3.1, from which
NETD = 4 x (1.8)2 x \1'1.5 X 10 5 / D* fAb d (dR/d)") d)"

3.5 x 10- 2 x 0.5 JA4 dT
= 2.87 x lOs/D* (Ab d(dR/d)..) d)"

JA4 dT
2.87 x 10 5 °
NETD(680SW) = 8 X 1010 x 3.52 X 10- 5 ~ 0.10 C
(11.20)
2.87 X 105 0
NETD(680LW) = 1.2 x 1010 x 1.94 X 10- 4 ~ 0.12 C
We note that the NETD depends on the electrical pass band and, there-
fore , on spatial resolution. It is possible to improve the thermal resolution
(lower the NETD) by reducing ~// which corresponds to a reduction in the
number of points per line. Thus for an elementary resolution corresponding

to the angular size dO of the detector (resolution for 100% modulation), we
have
dO = VA = 3.5 X 10- 2 :::::: 2 x 10- 3 rad
f 16.6
The number of points per line for an 80 =0.14 rad field falls to
o 0.14
n = dO = 2 X 10- 3 =70
The useful electrical pass band is then D.v :::::: 80 kHz and the NETD is
reduced by the factor J150/80:::::: 1.37.
Conversely, the spatial resolution can be increased by extending the
electrical pass hand D.v towards higher frequencies, hut this is not sufficient
as the modulation level falls too rapidly. Moreover, it is then necessary to
reduce the detector size VA.
In fact, the NETD is proportional to J D.v / A since D.v is itself propor-
tional to the number of points per line n, i.e., inversely proportional to
J
dO = ~. Hence J D.v / A is a function of f / AVA. The reduction in the
size of the detector, which increases the spatial resolution, will increase the
NETD and lower the thermal resolution.
We thus conclude that this calculation shows that, for a given system, a
compromise can be reached between thermal and spatial resolution. Prac-
tical criteria determine which of them will predominate. At the same time,
it is possible to increase both by using a multi-element detector (linear
array of x 4etector elements). If we use the detectors in parallel, D.v is
reduced by the factor x, which gives an improvement in thermal resolution
by the factor ft. On the other hand, if we use them in series, we increase
the signal to noise ratio by the factor ft, which leads to an improvement
of the same order in thermal resolution (D:otal = ftD;lem)'
11.5.3 Measurement of NEI

From (11.12)
where
R)..bd0 2
E - >.a
p - 4
The illumination of the pupil is described in Section 11.4.1.
For a black body at T = 300 K,
~'~ = {5,5 dR('x, 300 K) d)" = 1.09 x 10- 3 W cm-2

'J3,5 d)"
Ri2 = t2 dR(A,300K) dA = 1.22 x 1O- 2 Wcm- 2

Js dA
dB =
VA = 2 x 1O- 3 rad
T
from which
1.09 X 10- 3 x (2 x 10- 3 ) 2 -9-2

Ep(SW) = 4 = 1.09 x 10 W cm
1.22 X 10-2 x (2 X 10- 3 )2 -S-2

Ep(LW) = 4 = 1.22 x 10 W cm
Measurements of the signal and noise voltages give the following values:
THV680SW: V. = 0.35 V, Vb = 1.4mV effective

THV 680 LW : V. = 0.7V,Vb = 2.6 mV effective
from which we obtain the following expressions for the measured NEI:
-9 1.4 X 10- 3 -12-2

NEI(6s0 SW) = 1.09 x 10 x 0.35 = 4.3 x 10 W cm
(11.21)
-s 2.6 x 10- 3 -11-2

NEI(6s0LW) = 1.22 x 10 x = 4.5 x 10 W cm
0.7
These results are close to the theoretical values of Section 11.5.1. It is
sometimes convenient to use a higher black-body temperature; the signal
voltages are then higher and the accuracy of measurement is also higher.
11.5.4 Measurement of NETD

We use the expression and method developed in Section 11.4.2
NETD = To -Tj
V./Vb
with temperature ofthe object To = 3000 K, temperature of the background

= =
Tj 2730 K, signal voltage v. 0.35 V, effective noise voltage Vb 1.9 mV =
=
(SW); signal voltage v. O.7V, effective noise voltage Vb 5.2mV (LW). =
Hence
300 - 273
=
0
NETD(6S0 SW) 0.35/1.9 X 10- 3 ~ 0.15 C
(11.22)
300 - 273 °
NETD(680 LW) = 0.35/5.2 X 10- 3 ~ 0.2 C
These values are measured for objects whose temperature is close to the
room temperature (T = 300 K). At higher temperatures, the NETD is
generally lower.
For test patterns with spatial frequencies of 0.25 mrad- 1 and 0.5 mrad- 1
we have for the THV 680 SW camera:
MRTD = 0.12°C
and
MRTD = 0.20°C
MRTD (OC, THV 680 SW
Measured MRTD
0,20
,,~ Measured NETD
~ ~ ~Calculated NETD
0,12
0,10 -.:=.-=:- ,---/1/ /
0,073 --:::--1- . . . . . . . I
I Spatial frequency, mrad- 1
Fig. 11.29 MRTD and NETD for the THV 680 SW camera
The MRTD is higher than the NETD because the latter is measured
directly on the video signal, whilst the MRTD takes into account the extra
degradation of the information by the visual display unit and by human
factors associated with the operator of the equipment.
11.5.5 Measurement of spatial resolution
If we apply the measurement procedure of Section 11.4.6 to the THV 680

SW camera with its 8° x 8° objective, we obtain:
• relative aperture f /1.8 : dB = 1.3 mrad for 50% modulation and dB =
4.2 mrad for 95% modulation .
• relative aperture f /2.5: dB = 1.05 mrad for 50% modulation and dB =
2.8 mrad for 95% modulation . .
Elem. resol. angle dB Spatial frequency Image contrast

13 mrad 0.38 I/mrad 0.50
F/1.8
4.2 mrad 0.12I1mrad 0.95
1.05 mrad 0.481/mrad 0.50
F/2.S
2.S0mrad O.1S mrad 0.95
MTF
1
o,95 t----""~
- ....... . . . .
' -fl2,5
"'-
O,50.,..----+-~-----e.-
"'" "-,,,
I '",
Spatial frequency
~~~.......L.""""'-~-'--~-U---L..J......JL---...l..--L.. . (x 2), mrad- 1
° 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 Oil 0,9 1 1,1 1,2
It is then possible to draw the modulation transfer function, by assuming

that the slit width represents half the spatial period.
In this measurement, the temperature difference between a black body
and the slit is chosen to be large to give the object the maximum contrast
without saturating the detector,
11.5.6 Determination of the signal-temperature rel;tion

• Experimental arrangement
Here the thermographic camera looks directly (if the focussing of the
objective allows it) or with the help of a collimator at a blackbody whose
temperature can be adjusted and is known. For a given temperature, we
note the amplitude v of the video signal due to a line covering the source.
We then draw the calibration curve
v = J(T)
At low temperatures, and in order to avoid the effects of drift (if present),
it is useful to employ radiation sources with a rapid temperature variation
Collimator
Black body
Temperature control
and measurement
Fig. 11.31 Calibration arrangement
(varied by means of the Peltier effect) or to have several black bodies at

different temperatures which are looked at in turn. In the case of a single
black body, small temperature steps ensure that the drift is not significant
on each step and the drift effect can be monitored by returning each time
to the initial conditions.
If the time between successive temperature steps is relatively long, a
correction has to be applied to the video signal voltage at each point . For
example, if a signal VI corresponds to temperature T I , we measure the
signal v2 at temperature T 2 , and deduce from this signal the small drift
voltage dv corresponding to the time spent between Tl and T 2 . This gives
Vz = v2 ± dv, i.e., the signal corresponding to the temperature Tz under the
same conditions as for the first point in the measurement sequence. The
operation is then repeated for the other temperatures.
Signal
Signal ~
/? } dv
y
Vi
T,
.. Temperature
Fig. 11.32 Drift correction
The drift dv is measured as a function of time for a source at a fixed

temperature . When the latter is linear and stabilised, it is possible to
obtain dv for each time interval between the successive points. The signal-
temperature curve obtained in this way represents the instantaneous cali-
bration of the system.
Video signal (arb . isotherm units)

900 THY G80 SW
800
700
600
500
400
-
300
---
.., . . . . .THY G80 LW
-- --
200 ..,
100
Temperature,oC
0~0~~~50~--~1~00-----1~50-----2~O-O----~25~O----~30~O~
Fig. 11.33 Calibration curves: THV 680 SW - 8 0 x 8 0 objective, opened to

f /2.5; THV 680 LW - 8 0 x 8 0 objective, opened to f /2 .5
Measurement then involves a comparison with a standard source placed

in the field of view of the thermographic camera. This source, held at a
known temperature, defines the operating point on the curve, which then
allows apparent temperatures to be assigned to all the video voltages ob-
tained for the image. We note that recent techniques allow the elimination
of all drifts whatever the temperature of the camera (Chapter 14) .
12
Imaging and Measurement
80dB
In its radiometric function, an infrared imaging system is, of course,

concerned with the instantaneous optical field of view (IFOV) of a system.
This field is the source of the instantaneous power received within the
solid angle of the infrared detector. In addition, the spatial resolution of
the system depends on other factors such as the quality of the optics, the
speed of spatial analysis, which involves the electrical pass band, and the
various filters used in signal processing.
12.1 SPATIAL RESOLUTION

The spatial resolution of a system is a measure of the number of points
that can be resolved in an image for a given resolution criterion, whilst
the instantaneous optical-field element defines a measurement zone for an
infinitesimal time interval. Actually, the resultant signal is the convolution
I(a) a,
1m
T
Fig. 12.2 Slit response function 0
of the impulse response of the system and the temperature distribution of

the object.
The impulse response D( x), where x defines the direction of scanning,
depends on the size of the detector, its local sensitivity as a function of the
direction x, the optical spread (aberration and diffraction) and the pass
band of the associated amplifying electronics. Experience shows that the
combined result of all these parameters is the Gaussian line spread function
D (x) = exp (_x 2/(j2)
where (j is the value of x for which the function D(x) is equal to the fraction
=
l/e 0.368 of its value at x o. =
The spatial resolution of the system can then be determined by consid-
ering an object in the form of a slit with a high thermal contrast and an
angular width a , defined by the function rect (x/a). The response to this
object, i.e., the image of the slit formed by the system, is then given by
the convolution
l(a) = (rectx/a) * D(x) =

+a/2
j
D(x - xo)dx
-a/2
o(x)
o a
Fig. 12.1 Impulse response function
We note that for a very thin slit, i.e., for very small values of a, this
function is called the line spread function (LSF), which tends to D(x) as
a tends to zero.
The maximum response of the system is obtained for Xo = 0:
r~:g exp( _x 2/(j2)dx !t+a/2 exp( _x 2/(j2)dx
1m ax ( a) = 1-00
+ 00
exp(-x 2/(j2)dx
= =-o~oo"----"-"":""--:--'--:--"':"'--
Jo exp(-x 2/(j2)dx
Imaging and Measurement 381
This gives the maximum relative signal due to a slit, and will be referred
to as the slit response function (SRF). Numerical integration shows that
the values of this function for o:/u = 0.96,1.8,2.32 and 3.64 are 0.5, 0.8,
0.9 and 0.99, respectively.
rect ~
0.5
~~
-- -.. . . . . . a
o o
-----,...-------- ---------~
lea) = D(x)*rec(x / a) LSF =D(x)*o(X) =D(x)
Fig. 12.3 Determination of the SRF
Spatial resolution can also be defined in terms of the optical transfer

function (OTF), i.e., the normalised Fourier transform of the impulse re-
sponse D( x):
where 1/ is the spatial frequency. The modulus of the OTF, i.e., modulation
transfer function (MTF), describes the image contrast produced by the
system for each spatial frequency 1/ of the object . It is also possible to
express OTF in terms of temporal frequencies f.
Maximum relative signal level (modulation rate)

1__ __ . _ SRF
Imax = SRF
0,5
Angular size of object (slit size)

o ¥--l--1---~----- 0:, mrad
Fig. 12.4 The slit response function

The scanning rate allows us to establish the relation between the space
and time coordinates. This is done with the aid of a further coefficient, (Tt,
that characterises the time-domain impulse response of the system. Thus,
the effective duration of a line in an image field () is
Tl = (1/ h) P
where h is the line frequency and p is the fraction of the line used in the
image. The number of spatial periods contained in the field () is, of course,
equal to the number of signal time periods per used line, i.e.,
()lJ = Td
The optical transfer function, expressed as a function of the temporal fre-

quencies is given by
where (Tt = (TTl/(). Finally, we note that the one-dimensional OTF of a

sys.tem is the Fourier transform of the LSF.
MTF
o ~_____"'--___ V, mrad- 1
- - _-po
Fig. 12.6 Evaluation of NETD

12.2 THERMAL RESOLUTION

Thermal resolution is also determined by several factors. The noise equiv-
alent temperature difference (NETD), i.e., the temperature difference be-
tween two black bodies that produces a peak signal Vc equal to the effective
noise Vb of the system is
where R is the object emittance, N is the numerical aperture, D..f is the

-3 dB pass band, A is the sensitive area of the detector, S is its spectral
response and n is the number of detectors (in series).
The minimum resolvable temperature difference (MRTD) is obtained by
observing the four-bar test pattern on a uniform background at room tem-
perature. These measurements must be made at the centre and at the edge
of the field for vertical, horizontal and slanting orientations of the pattern.
The system is adjusted until the four bars are just resolved on the visual
display unit. The MRTD is then the temperature difference between the
bars and the background that satisfies, for a given spatial frequency v, a
given visual resolution criterion (near-zero visual contrast). The MRTD
provides the link between thermal and spatial resolution. In other words,
it is the apparent temperature contrast necessary to resolve image details.
Since these details are observed with practically zero contrast, they cannot,
of course, be used for radiometric measurements.
MRTD,OC
L-_ _ _ _ _ _ _..-. V, mrad- 1

l/IFOV
Fig. 12.7 Minimum resolvable temperature difference
12.3 IMAGING AND MEASUREMENT

There are two totally different concepts in thermographic interpretation,
depending on whether one is dealing with imaging for surveillance, local-
isation and recognition of shapes, or with radiometric measurements that
result in the assignment of a temperature to a given surface.
Image
Object
Fig. 12.8 Measurement of the MRTD
12.3.1 Thermal imaging

The aim of thermal imaging is to produce visible images by the transfor-
mation of thermal contrasts, i.e., of infrared radiance into visible radiance.
The eye is the final arbiter of thermal imaging. It is satisfied in this
context by the same quality criteria that are commonly employed for tra-
ditional images (i.e., in optics, photography, television and so on). These
criteria relate to
- spatial resolution (MTF)
- dynamic working range
- image contrast
- thermal sensitivity (MRTD)
- degree of distortion
- uniformity of response.
A thermal imaging system must satisfy these criteria as much as possible,
the MTF and MRTD being the most important.
In summary, if we start with a given system configuration that incor-
porates, for example, a single-element detector, and if we demand high
definition, we need a detector with small dimensions (as close as possible
to the diffraction limit of the optics), a large number of lines and a large
number of points per line. The image frequency must be well beyond the
cut-off frequency of the eye for reasons of comfort of observation. All this
implies a very wide pass band.
12.3.2 Thermal measurements

As in all measuring instruments, the performance of the system must be
such that a given cause always produces the same effect, which excludes
drifts and requires a high measure of temporal stability.
In this context, spatial resolution is defined differently: it is no longer
the ability to resolve an image point visually, but the ability to quantify
its content. The sample being analysed is assigned an angular size ll:' that
corresponds to the SRF equal to I-f, where f is the level of error acceptable
MTF ac MRTD
o
Field uniformity
0
V Distortion
,.
,
(I
1
o (I
t-
1
(I
o +Q.
1
1
Fig. 12.9 Typical characteristics of a thermal imager: solid curves - good, dashed
curves - poor
in the measurement, i.e., the thermal precision of the system. For example,
in the AGA 780 infrared imaging system, the spatial resolution is given by
the manufacturer in terms of the signal due to a slit with high thermal
contrast. When the slit width is reduced until the amplitude of the signal
is half that obtained with the full width, we obtain the resolution at 50%
modulation, and the corresponding angular slit width is denoted by 0:0:
SRFao = 0.5
where (see Section 12.1) (T = 0:0/0.96 and the values ofSRF a corresponding
to 0:/0:0 = 1,1.9,2.4,2.4 and 3.8 are 0.5, 0.8, 0.9 and 0.99, respectively.
Thus, the maximum signal produced by the slit to within (; = 1% (SRF =
0.99) is obtained for a slit width 3.8 times larger than the resolution at 50%
modulation. An error (; of 1% in a system with relative aperture of f /1.8
corresponds to 0.2 isothermal units at around 20°C, i.e., 0.25°C, which
represents approximately the thermal precision of the system under these
conditions. We note that in order to reach a maximum precision of 0.13°C,
we need ( = 0.5% and SRF = 0.995.
We thus see that the resolution of 128 points per line that is gener-
ally used in this field cannot be maintained in such measurements, be-
cause a theoretical precision of O.25°C corresponds to a spatial resolution
=
of 128/3.8 32 points per line.
To summarise, the conditions required for thermal measurement are as
follows:
-a definition of the measurement field element allowing the signal to
reach its peak value to within the accuracy of measurement (SRF)
- good signal to noise ratio (NETD)

- total temporal stability in absolute measurements and medium stabil-
ity in relative measurements (drift)
- continuous signal level in absolute measurements
- good linearity
- good uniformity of response to the field.
SRF Drift. !:J.T

---- /' "
,, "
,, "
0
a
Time
Field uniformity Signal

-
f
,-
I
k,,
//1
--
'
,
", ,,/ ...
IR energy
/I 0 .. !!..
-2 2
Fig. 12.10 Characteristics of thermal measurement systems: solid curves - good,

dashed curves - poor
Thermography
Infrared imagers Measurement
MTF SRF
MRTD NETD
Drift
Uniformity Uniformity
Distortion Steady component
12.3.3 Conclusion
We now summarise in the following table, the basic useful criteria for the
characterisation of thermal images on the one hand and of measurement
~ystems on the other.
Apart from the uniformity of response to the field, none of the criteria
in one category is significant in the other. It would therefore be absurd to
apply the imaging criteria to measuring systems, and vice versa with the
aim of comparing the corresponding equipments.
12.4 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS
To examine the above concepts in greater detail, let us apply the above
two sets of criteria to two infrared imaging systems in order to show that
a comparison can only be made in the context of specific use (imaging or
measurement), and that this can lead to complementarity when optimisa-
tion is performed from the two points of view.
The two systems are as follows:
Equipment A:Infrared thermographic camera with a single detector and
scanning by rotating prisms:
- 20 0 X 20 0 field
- spectral response 8 - 14 J.Lm
- relative aperture f /1.8
- frame frequency 25 Hz
- line frequency 2500 Hz
- number of useful lines per frame 70
- number of points per line'" 100 (50% modulation)
- fourth order interlacing (two useful).
Equipment B: Infrared thermographic camera with a single detector and
scanning by vibrating mirrors:
- 14 0 x 18 0 field
- spectral response 8 - 12 J.Lm
- relative aperture f /1
- frame frequency 60 Hz
- line frequency 7866 Hz
- number of useful lines per frame 170
- number of points per line'" 220 (50% modulation)
- second order interlacing
- video output or standard TV by doubling the infrared lines of two
interlaced frames.
12.4.1 Spatial resolution

Whilst for 50% modulation the horizontal resolution of system B (220
points per line) is twice that of system A (100 points per line), this is
not the case at 95% modulation for which the two systems produce only
'" 30 points per line. At 99% modulation, camera A still has 27 points per
line, whilst camera B has only 17.
1.0
I
I ...
, ,
0.9 I
I I
I
I I
0.8 I
I
I
I
I I
0.7 A ! I
0.6 -1 I
,,
I
I
~ I
~ 0.5 B I
,
I
0.4 I I
I ,,
I
0.3" I
LJ
I \
I
0.2 I
\
\
\
0.1 \
o-JOmrd oI 2 3 4 5 6 7 10mrd
Fig. 12.11 One-dimensional impulse response
At 50% modulation, the vertical resolution of camera B is greater by

a factor of 1.7 than that of camera A. The resolutions are equal at 90%
modulation, whilst at 99% modulation, system A has a resolution that is
higher by a factor of 2. From the standpoint of imaging alone, and if the
modulation rate is not an important criterion, camera B gives an image
with a better definition (33000 image points) as compared with camera
A (9000 image points). This is confirmed by examining the modulation
transfer function (MTF).
From the standpoint of measurement alone, system A is better because
at 99% modulation, i.e., for an error of 1%, the number of measured field
elements per image is 27 x 24 = 648. Under the same conditions, system
B produces only 17 x 11 = 187 field-element measurements.
The cut-off spatial frequencies of cameras A and Bare 0.25 and
0.55 mrad- 1 , respectively.
Note 1. The slow rise in the SRF of camera B is due to the considerable
tailing of its impulse response function D( x) that is related to significant
geometrical-optics aberrations (Fll objective, dynamic deformation of the
analysing mirror, which has a very fast vibrational motion at 3933 Hz and
so on) .
The best performance is achieved when the system is said to be diffrac-
tion limited, i.e., when
Neither of the two systems achieves this condition:

Camera A: <I> < a but a~d
CameraB: d"""'a but <I> > d"""'a
Nevertheless, it is the condition <I> > d that is particularly bothersome
in measurement because it causes the tailing of the SRF.
Note 2. Observations of MRTD as a function of spatial frequency (the
number of cycles per field, or the number of cycles per milliradian), show
1.0
0.9
-- ....
0.8 ""
"
0.7
" " "System B, 14' x 18'
0.6
"" \
~ 0.5 \
0.4
\
\
0.3
\
\
0.2 \
\
0.1 \
"
• •• ••
0
•
S
•
o • o• • 00008
oC'1 • •••• ~ o
8~8~888
0 8 o C'S 0 ~ b~g
I£l
NNMM-.:;tV"l\O
0 o o o 0 00000 o 0000000
Spatial frequency, mrad- I
1.0 r----.,--------=o----=................
i _-
0.9 )~-- --------------
I
0.8
I
0.7
0.6
~ 0.5
Vl
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Slit size, <x, mrad
Fig. 12.12 MTF and SRF compared for systems A and B

1,0
0.99 : ~"SJtF:
0,98
0,97
0,96
0,95
0,94
0,93
0. 92
0,91
Fig. 12.13 Detail of Fig. 12.12
Pass band Detector Diffraction Aberrations
tl
AI.I IIOlle .nb"p~
~f- I:J~
:::
Value of a
'.. a
I-~
Optical
aperture FIN
d = 2.44>'N
d
M,.' 7:.0
". " ""
., CIl
CIl-N 3 .N 20 . .. ,
(85% of energy)
Camera A 250 pm N:l,B ",,50 pm ",,150 pm

(8-12 J.lm)
Camera B 25 J.lm N =1 ",,25 J.lm > 50J.lm
(8-12 p~)
Fig. 12.14 Restrictions on spatial resolution
that horizontal resolution is generally higher than vertical resolution.

The above observation follows from the process of imaging by scanning.
A periodic test pattern with a vertical period equal to the width of two
consecutive lines is reproduced with a good contrast if the periods of the
pattern are in phase with the scanned lines. However, if the pattern is out
0.8 .-- ~ .-. -.. ---, ~ .~

_ - --+ -.-. ~ - - . t_ - . - - .. .__ __ _ ~
0,7 ---:-- --- - ~
0.5
0,4
0.3
00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I I I I ! Cycles per mrad
o 0,06 0,12 0,18 0,24 0,3 18° x 20° field
Fig. 12.15 Vertical and horizontal MRTD for cameras A and B
of phase by a quarter of a period, the blurred image no longer contains a

periodic modulation .
_ i_~~"iOd
5\in~)~ ~ .
Image Test pattern Image
Fig. 12.16 Response to test patterns with vertical period equal to the width of
two scanned lines
Only a lower vertical spatial frequency (approximately a quarter of the

vertical line frequency) can be reproduced in all positions relative to the
scanning pattern (by beats or resonance). In practice, this phenomenon is
reduced by interlacing, i.e ., partial overlapping of neighbouring lines. ·
In the horizontal direction, imaging is the result of the convolution of
the test pattern and the impulse response. There is then no limitation
due to frequency beating against the lines, which explains the asymmetry
between the horizontal and vertical resolutions.
Taking the resolution criterion as 50% modulation of the signal due to a
slit object, system A gives an image of 100 points horizontally by 90 points
vertically ( 1.5 scanned lines per vertical point) . System B gives an image'
of 220 points horizontally by 150 points vertically (1.7 lines per point).
For system B there is a greater difference between the horizontal and
vertical MRTDs, essentially because of the size of the field (14° x 18°)
which is Dot square and hence gives a ratio of 0.8 between the vertical and
horizontal fields. Part of this difference is probably associated with the
image display system of the monitor after conversion of standards, with
each infrared line occupying two TV lines.
Note 3. The MRTD obtained for visual contrast close to zero represents
only the image.
The spatial resolution (imaging and measurement) of the two systems is
summarised in Figs. 12.17-12.18.
12.4.2 Thermal resolution

The measured values of the noise equivalent temperature difference give:
NETD(systemA) = O.lO o e
NETD (system B) = 0.17°e

i.e., system A has a higher sensitivity. However, because of the integration
of noise by the visualisation process, the thermal resolution of these systems
can be improved.
The main cause of noise is the large electrical pass band of the two
systems which are single-detector devices. This pass band is given by the
product of the line frequency 11 and the total number n of points per line,
~F = II x n, so that:
System A ~I = 2500 x 100/0.70 = 360 kHz
System B ~I = 7866 x 220/0.7 = 2.5 MHz
(for 70% of the useful time in the whole line) .
In the case of measurements, it is at this stage (and not at the visu-
alisation stage!) that the signal processing is performed and the thermal
resolution of the measurement is given by the NETD (and not the MRTD!).
In the case of imaging, the aim is to bring out the smallest possible
temperature contrasts in the the image details, and it is then that the
MRTD needs to be taken into account.
We may summarise by saying that, from the standpoint of measurement,
system A exhibits better thermal resolution. From the standpoint of imag-
ing, extended objects with low thermal contrast are better differentiated by
SYSTEM B
Image
SRF =0.50 U.-W -UU+ ++t+t +t+t- tt---t1 ,
III _L~Lf~~++++++++++~~~~
10 X 10
W-+-+ .-++1f -+-H++ t-t-H-r tT150 image points
image points
250 image points
o
20 0 x 20 0 field SYSTEM A
Image
SRF =0.50 1---+- --+--1 -+--+ --+--- 1-+--- -+--1
• -
90 image points
.-- f--
. 10 x 10. ,~~ u
Image pomts ____........:_+-__+_.__. -1-_ ... . _ ..
__
r---~.-~-4_~-~-r_-+-+-_+-~
100 image points

Fig. 12.17 Spatial resolution in thermal imaging
ced
system A, whereas small objects (high spatial frequency) are reprodu
with better visual contras t by system B.
12.4.3 Tempo ral stabili ty

ambi-
If we compare the drift variations in the two systems at a steady
in externa l temper ature
ent temper ature of 24°C, and also for a sharp rise
e for absolut e measur e-
(O°C -+ 40°C), we find that only system A is suitabl
t couplin g
ments (Lltabs "" 1°C). Because of its large drift and its differen
SYSTEM B
Meas. SRF =0. 991---1.--+--+-1--J.--+-+-I1--+-+--H-+-+-+-+-i
1 meas. point ".....L-,..W---l--I---l---+--+-+---1H-++++-+-. 11 meas. points

fi~f
17 points mum
20° X 20° field SYSTEM A

r
I
I I I
Measured SRF =0.99
1 meas. point
24 meas. points
27 points
Fig. 12.18 Spatial resolution in radiometric measurement
(rejection of the steady component of the signal by the blocking capaci-

tor), system B can operate only as a relative instrument, and requires a
calibrated reference source in the image field. System A employs direct
coupling.
12.4.4 Other characteristics

The field uniformity and the optical transmission of system B are both
excellent because it employs a mirror-based scanning device. System A
has high optical absorption (30-35% of transmission); its response is not
uniform because of the variable absorption of its scanning prisms. The
_I 1 I -L I
_ Drift 6.T 1 V
'I !
,
30 I
,
I I
1/'1
J/ -!-
I
1 1 i1 v(-'-i-'
~ '~i
....
Yte:.'Z,
I . ..../ '
20
J ' I,
1 I
1 0< T°, <: 40°C
10 , I Y i I I I I I
i/ 1
1 I
/' I I
SYSTEM At
1/., ........ .... . ... ..
o '.' "
, ",".
'.
.,
'.
....
"N"'~ ~
..,.:.•.;..... .... . . ...

" "T"'"
_
:O:" ~'-"'"
'"
I
1
~ 1
10 20 30 40 50 60 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time, min Time, min
Fig. 12.19 Comparison of drifts
nonuniformity has a regular and stable distribution in the field, so that

local correction may be possible .
12.4.5 Recording of signals
Thermographic infrared systems can handle analogue signals with a dy-

namic range of 80 - 85 dB (i.e., 10000-18000 discernible levels). Currently
available magnetic recording systems include the above .
• Analogue recorders
Video recorders (VTR) have a poor signal to noise ratio and do not
preserve the d.c. component of the signal. Their dynamic range is of the
order of 30 dB and allows the separation of a few dozen levels (6.f = 1 -
2M Hz ). This type of recording is not well suited to measurement and must
be confined to its primary purpose, i.e., imaging.
Instrument tape recorders (ITR) preserve the d.c. component of the

signal in their frequency modulated mode. In the IRIG group I standard
(6.f = 0 - 80 kHz), the dynamic range is of 50 dB, i.e., approximately 300
levels. Such instruments can only be used after compression and slicing of
the signal produced by the cameras.
.Digital recorders
Instrument tape recorders with pulse code modulation (PCM tracks)

produce maximum data flow (at tape speed of 120 inches per second) of
a few megabits per second. Depending on the code used, it is possible to
record the total dynamic range (approximately 13 bits~ with a pass band
of 80 - 150 kHz per track.
Absolute measurement Relative measurement
ignal A T
_-....c_
1 '1 ~111
.-. -.
~o.------f>--! ~tH ~
[j"~~
Fig. 12.20 Absolute versus relative measurement
No. of levels No. of bits dB

2 1 6
4 2 12
8 3 18 (VTR)
16 4 24 (VTR)
32 5 30 (VTR)
64 6 36 (VTR)
128 7 42 (VTR)
256 8 48 (lTR)
512 9 54
1024 10 60
2048 11 66
4096 12 72 (1 PCM chan.)
8192 13 78
16364 14 84 (IR camera)
13
Choosing the Spectral Band
V ).
8 -12.
Differential sensitivity and thermal contrast both depend on the choice

of the spectral band used for each application. We now turn to the factors
that affect this choice, and their relative importance in each case. They
are:
- spectral emissivity
- radiated power
- thermal contrast,
- atmospheric transmittance
- radiation detectors
- stray radiation.
13.1 SPECTRAL EMISSIVITY
It is clear that the infrared energy emitted by an object heated to a

given temperature plays an increasingly important role as its emissivity
approaches unity (i.e., the properties of a black body). The emissivity of
some materials varies across the spectrum, i.e., there are wavelength ranges
in which the emissivity is more amenable to thermal measurement. Fig-
ure 13.1 shows the spectral emissivity of a few materials encountered in
thermographic applications as a function of wavelength. These data can
be used to identify the most favourable spectral regions. Of course,. atmo-
spheric transparency must be taken into account. The following is a list of
wavelength ranges chosen in this way.
Crown glass 3.8-5.5 p,m
Concrete 3-5.5 p,m
Red tiles 2.5-3.5 p,m
Asphalt 3-4 p,m and 8-12 p,m
Foliage 3-5.5 p,m and 8-12 p,m
Black rubber 2.5-4.2 p,m
Water 3.5-5.5 p,m and 8-10.5 p,m
Thermographic surface measurements are not possible for emissivities
below 0.2 (polished metals) because of the very unfavourable ratio of in-
trinsic emission to reflection and transmission of ambient radiance. When
such measurements are nevertheless necessary, high emissivity paint has to
be used (for example, the 3M Velvet Coating). Radiative thermal trans-
fer to and the surrounding medium is then altered, and only the operator
making the measurement can judge the relative importance of these per-
turbations. For example, a thermographic examination of a printed circuit
may reveal this problem when the circuit components are powered up. In-
deed, measurements of the temperature of transistors or integrated circuits
held in metal shields rely on black-paint treatment. The paint helps to cool
the components and at the same time shifts its state of equilibrium.
13.2 RADIATED POWER
The power radiated per unit area of an object with emissivity analogous
to that of a black body can be calculated by integrating Planck's law over
the wavelength range DoA under consideration:
The table reproduced below gives the values of R A ). in W cm- 2 for different
temperatures T (DoA = 3 - 5 p,m and DoA = 8 - 12 p,m) .
Choosing the Spectral Band 399
Polished glass .. . Concrete

1.0
e 0.5
2 3 4 5 6 8 IO 12 2 3 4 5 6 8 IO 12
A,l1m A,l1m
Red tile Asphalt

1.0 ~.
e 0.5
o i i i I I i i iii
2 3 4 5 6 8 IO 12
2 3 4 5 6 8 IO 12
A,l1m A, /lm
Tree foliage Black rubber

1.0 • _; .~ . ....... . ..,i.
0.: ..
.. ~ ;
J:
.,
e 0.5
· .... - .. , ... ..........
:
· . . ···r·
· .;: r :;j~=~::
2 3 4 5 6 8 1012 2 3 4 5 6 8 1012
A,l1m A, l1m
Water Metals
1.0
Unoxidised iron .
. / Polished
. copper
e 0.5 . Aluminium
i ", i
2 3 4 5 6 8 IO 12 2 3 4 5
A, l1m A, /lm
Fig. 13.1 Spectral emissivities of a few materials
Figure 13.2 shows that the ratio RS-12/ R3-S as a function of the object
temperature To. The ratio decreases smoothly with temperature, falling
from from 20 at room temperature to 10 at 70°C and 5 at 120°C.
20
15
10
A,pm
5 3/1 5/1 BI' 12 1/
300 400 500
Fig. 13.2 Power radiated in two spectral bands
These results are based solely on the emission of energy by the black
body and illustrate the advantages of using the 8 -12 pm band at low
temperatures.
13.3 THERMAL CONTRAST

Thermal contrast is a measure of the ability to distinguish between two
segments of an object with different temperatures or different emissivities.
In a wavelength range ~A, the thermal contrast between two objects at
temperatures Tl and T 2, assumed to be comparable to black bodies, can
be represented by the function
c= Rt.>. (T2 ) - Rt.>. (Td

Rt.>. (T2) + Rt.>. (Rt)
This function, calculated for the two spectral bands boA = 3 to 5 pm and
boA = 8 to 12 pm, is represented by the curves shown Fig. 13.3 for different
values of Tl and T2 - Tl
The absolute temperature is calculated from the radiation emitted by
the object in accordance with Planck's law. The corresponding differential
sensitivity is obtained by differentiation:
~ [dR(A,T)] = heexp(heJAkT) dR(A,T)

oT dA AkT2 [exp( heJ AkT) - I] dA
O.S O.S
TI = 260K
d
0.4 0.4
TI =300K
OJ 0.3
TI = 373K
0.2 0.2 TI =260K
TI =SOOK TI =300K
0.1 0.1 TI =373K
o ~§@j§::S:::J~:J T I = SOOK
OSlO IS 20
(T2-T I)
Fig. 13.3 Thermal contrasts
10-3 t--f----f'.~+-t--+-_r___I
':1
10-8 __000I.lI00101.......1.0_'''"-_100........._ _- - '

2 4 6 8 10 12
A,l1 m
Fig. 13.4 Differentiation of Planck's law with respect to temperature
where R = 7rL
At given temperature, the maximum sensitivity of thermal discrimina-
tion occurs at a wavelength lower than that corresponding to maximum
emlSSlOn _
The concept of differential thermal contrast can also be defined by dif-
ferentiating Planck's law with respect to temperature after integration over
the wavelength range ~A, which gives the relative emittance contrast:
c= [dR]
dT t;.)..
j Rt;.).. = [fJ
t;.)..
~ dR(A , T) dA] j
dT dA
[fJ t;.)..
dR(A, T) dA]
dA
where C = 2C for T2 - Tl = 1 K
The table below lists the values of C for ~Al = 3 - 5/lm and ~A2 = 8
- 12/lm. The values of (8RjdT)t;.).. are given in W cm- 2 K- 1 ana those of
Rt;.).. in W cm- 2 . •
T(O
K) 260 300 373 500 573 1000
fdRr
dT 3 5,40' 10- 6 2,16'10- 5 1,25'10- 4 7,45'10- 4 1,42'10- 3 7,92.10- 3
Rg 1,14'10- 4 5,97'10- 4 5,19'10- 3 5,32,10- 2 1,31'10- 1 2,05

cg 4,74'10- 2 3,60'10- 2 2,40'10- 2 1,40.10- 2 1,09.10- 2 0,39,10- 2
fdRr
dT 8 1,24'10- 4 1,98'10- 4 3,48'10- 4 5,75'10- 4 6,79' 10- 4 9,8 .10- 4
R~2 5,76'10- 3 1,22'10- 2 3,21 '10- 2 9,14,10- 2 1,37.10- 1 0,50

CA 2 2,14'10- 2 1,62'10- 2 1,08'10- 2 0,63.10- 2 0,50.10- 2 0,20'10- 2
Cg/CA2 2,21 2,22 2,22 2,22 2,19 1,97
These results show that, for small differences of temperature or emissiv-

ity, the differential sensitivity in the spectral band 3-5/lm is approximately
2.2 times higher than that in the 8-12 /lm band (the latter being taken over
a larger temperature range).
13.4 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION

The transmission of the atmosphere depends, of course, on the propagation
distance and on meterological conditions. Measurements and calculations
of spectral absorptance enable us to predict the most suitable spectral
band for measurements . The atmosphere has little effect over very short
distances. However, over a few hundred meters, the atmosphere not only
absorbs some of the radiation, but it also superimposes its own emission.
In general, a very humid atmosphere has a greater effect on the 8-12/lm
band, whereas aerosols and fog affect mostly the 3-5/lm band . We also
note the very important absorption due to CO 2 between 4.2 and 4.4 /lm
13.5 RADIATION DETECTORS

Theory shows that the output of a perfect detector is limited by the noise
of the incident radiation, i.e., fluctuations in the photon flux, and not by
5 r-----o--r----.-----,---~--------~
""'~I ~
~ti ~ 3
II
\C!
2
OL-__ ~ __ ~ __ ~ ____ ~~ __ ~~~~
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 1000

Temperature (K)
Fig. 13.5 Comparison of thermal contrasts
the performance of the detector-preamplifier combination. The detectivity,

which is directly related to this noise, decreases with increasing wavelength.
This favours the 3-5/Jm band.
Modern photon detectors, provided they are suitably cooled, are rea-
sonably close to the perfect detector, especially at longer wavelengths. For
the same cooling, detectors are closer to the theoretical limit in the 3-5/Jm
band.
The combined effect of these two factors favours the indium antimonide
(InSb) detector, cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature (77 J{), which is
sensitive in the 3-5 /Jm band. Indeed, its detectivity is higher by a factor of
seven as compared with the cadmium-mercury telluride (HgTeCd) detector
cooled to the same temperature and sensitive in the 8-12/Jm band.
13.6 STRAY RADIATION DUE TO THE MEASURING

SYSTEM ITSELF
The system itself generates noise because its different components natu-
rally emit radiation . The flux emitted by the system components (lenses,
(a)
Range: 57 M
Date: 9-23-72
Time: 00:42 Est
Air temperature: 54 ' F
Relative humidity: 63%
l'l~l'
4
1.0 .....,.-=",.1JT"-'""'I"77'lII::iIl~ .....",....""..,.,..,,=-=----."""'~~
'~i 80~)
I: I
Range:
J .________~:
0.5
~ ~i~~: ~ni~st
Air temperature: 54'F
OL---~------~~---
2 3 4 6 8 10 12
1.0 r-:"l='""---...,....,....-.;----r--
iij"NV ...;'~! 1
I~n .:'i ~
J!'
(c)
II \-
Range: 600 M j
I~ ;' Date: 9-23-72
: i~ 1 Time: 01:25 Est
~ Air temperature: 53'F
Ii : ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _j Relative humidity: 63%
2 6 8 10 12
1.0 r--:J;;;:;;---"";vlllf"'l:----;---: _ _-=__ ~riir\fi~M~~-i (d)

~l" I
:; ''\ ; Range: 1000 M
05 f 1 i i Date: 9-23-72
. "~ Time: 01 :46 Est
~ Air temperature: 53'F
L_ '
" I

2 6 8 10 12
1.0 :-----~-TTO"..,...-- _ ___.
I~ :""10...• ·llB. .,,
~
. (e)
05~~
\'i~ :~':
. : II ,1 ~ R~""9-23-72
:1 Date: 1300 M
:! : Time: 02:18 Est
Air temperature: 52'F
. Relative humidity: 64%
0 2 6
8 10
----
12
Fig. 13.6 Atmospheric transmission Wavelength, ~m
prisms, holders, stops, mirrors and so on) is a function of the internal tem-
perature of the system, and adds to the useful signal, thus limiting the
system performance. Planck's law shows that, at room temperature, a
substantial amount of radiation is emitted into the 8-12 J1.m band, and the
stray flux due to the system itself is much more of a problem in this band.
Deteetivity D*. em Hz 112 w i
1012 '
-
""",'\0
~ --
Theoretieallimit
~ -- -. Photovoltaie detector
10 11 =t-.=
/: ~
.- c
I't .- Photoconductive detector
-
InSb-PV (17K) . f- -+. !"l:'
. - ... -
... ~
InSb-PC (77K) / .. --
0
I I i
! I ..-.,
..
HgTeCd (17K) - -t =~" f - - --

- r==
~l=
I
' +~W
I i ; - c-
I
::1(1- + -f-
Illili l
I
I
I
\ I
1234510 20 30
A.~m
Fig. 13.7 Spectral detectivity
13.7 CONCLUSIONS
Of the different factors mentioned above, the spectral emissivity of the

object is the one that dictates the choice of the spectral band in which
measurements are best performed. For grey bodies, which have a flat spec-
tral emissivity distribution, the choice of the working band is based on
- the power radiated by the object, RA)"
- the thermal contrast, CA )..
- the detectivity, D*
- the atmospheric transmission, TA )..
In applications involving measurements over short distances, the last
factor is of minor importance (atmospheric transmission is very good in
both the 3- 5 and 8-12J.lm bands), but the relative importance of each of
the other factors is difficult to evaluate.
Thus, firstly, the power radiated by the object and reaching the detector
after crossing the atmosphere, the optics and the filters must be greater
than the detector NEP. If the teqIperature is not too high (or the emis-
sivity is low), we have R 3 - 5 < RS-12 and, for a given detection level, the
signal due the 3-5 J.lm channel is closer to the noise level. Indeed, the
signal to noise ratio in this band is not as good as in the 8-12 J.lm band.
This is partly compensated by the fact that the detectivity D;_5 is better
than DS-12' which means that, for equal sensitive areas and electrical pass
bands, the NEP of the 3-5 J.lm detectors is lower than that of the 8-12 J.lm
detectors. The 3-5 J.lm detectors are therefore more sensitive to weaker sig-
nals than the 8-12 J.lm detectors. A useful procedure is thus to introduce a
measurement quality criterion based on the product of these two functions,
i.e., RA)..Dt,)... Thermal contrast is an altogether more subtle concept and
expresses the differential sensitivity of measurement, with the two criteria

above characterising absolute measurements.
For equal temperature differences, the 3-5 I'm spectral band provides a
difference in emittance that is greater by a factor of 2.2 as compared with
the 8-12 I'm band; the amplification of the 3-5 I'm signals requires less gain
and the noise level is lower for the same pass band. A measure of all this
is provided by the product of the thermal contrast Ca.>.. and the product
RA'>" D~.>.. defined above.
This approach provides a uniform weighting of each of the above factors
and allows us to introduce the quality factor
Q = Ra.>..Ca.>..D~.>..
Of course, other types of weighting are also possible, but the factor Q
defined above emerges naturally from the general theoretical examination
of the phenomenon.
The table reproduced below and Fig. 13.8 give the values and variations
of QS-12/Q3-5 for different object temperatures.
TOK 260 300 373 500 573 1000

t °c - 13 27 1 DO 227 300 727
RS_~2
50,S 2C,5 6,2 1,7 1,05 0,24
R:;_5
C B- 12 0,51
0,45 0,45 0,45 0,45 0,46
C 3- 5
0* 8-12
0,14 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,14
0* 3-5
QE-12
3,2 1,3 0,4 0,1 0,07 0,02
Q3-5
= =
The ratio QS-12/Q3-5 passes through the point T 313K 40°C, i.e.,
at this temperature the thermographic measurement can be made equally
well in the 3-5 I'm and the 8-12 I'm bands. We note that the ratio re-
mains in the range 3-0.3, i.e., it does not change by more than an order
of magnitude in the temperature range 260-400 K, i.e., -13°C to +127°C.
This is the thermal region that is most commonly encountered in classical
thermographic practice; measurements can be made equally well in either
of the two bands, with a slight preference for the 8-12 I'm band at low
temperatures.
10 --
-- _.
- . .-
-- I-
\.
:\ 1-1-
:" 313K
.. -- --
~I '1 8:~ J\.

00 0.3
0.2 i II\.
T I
""
1
I
0.1
1- . rT -=-F f -. -- F=J!' --
0.05 "-
0_04 I-f-
0.03
0.02
I I I I r--..
I 1"
0.01 : I I I
8N
Temperature (K)
Fig. 13.8 Temperature dependence of the ratio of quality factors
In some cases, it is useful to maintain optimum conditions over a wide
temperature range. It is then useful to work in bispectral (two-band) or
multispectral mode. Moreover, as we saw earlier, the provision of a second
wavelength band allows the determination of temperature-emissivity pairs.
13.8 TWO-BAND THERMAL IMAGING
Thermal imaging based on the local detection of infrared radiation emitted

by a scene, allows the representation of its objects by their thermal gra-
dients. Indeed, the infrared energy radiated by an object is proportional
to its absolute temperature To and its emissivity Eo. On the other hand,
we saw earlier that sources of stray radiation (background, sky, Sun, other
objects and so on ) having temperature Tp and emissivity {p can add, after
reflection, a disturbing radiative contribution to the intrinsic emission and
reflectance Ro of the object.
Fig. 13.9 Measurement of the infrared signature of a rocket

An infrared imager is sensitive to the sum of these energies, which is

thus a function of To, co, Ro, Tp and Cpo The influence of these different
parameters can, of course, vary between wide limits. In any case, all these
quantities are inter-related and the number of data points is greater than
the number of relationships between them determined from measurements
in a single spectral band.
In the most favourable case, and if there are no stray reflections, the
energy emitted by the object itself, which is assumed to have constant
emissivity within the spectral intervals ~Al and ~A2 (grey body), depends
on the two quantities co and To, and a measurement in a single spectral
band gives only one relationship. On the other hand, a thermal measure-
ment system operating in two wavelength bands allows the setting up of
two relationships which then determine the temperature To and emissivity
co of the object. This bispectra/ measurement gives faster access to the
thermal characteristics of an object if the latter radiates as a grey body
(which is the case for most solid objects).
When co is a function of wavelength, bispectral thermal imaging can

provide information on the relative effects of emissivity and temperature.
It is also possible to display two thermally different zones that would be
indistinguishable in single-band observation. Thus, if the two zones pro-
duce the same radiance in a spectral band ~Al' the higher temperature of
one of them being compensated by its lower emissivity, this will certainly
not be the case in another spectral band LlA2.
The thermal contrast between the two zones in the band LlA2 will not,
therefore, reveal itself in the band ~'\1'
tJ.11 d~(I,T~)
•. 1
Fig. 13.10 Bispectral (two-band) measurement

It is possible to express all this in a more concrete form in terms of a

simple example. Consider two grey bodies producing two thermal images
with a common boundary. They are chosen so that
co = 0.95 To = 300K
c~ = 0.62 T~ = 330K
In the spectral band ~~1 between 8 and 131-'m, the two objects have the
same emittance:
J
13
dR(~, To)
. co d~ d~ = 0.95 x 1.49 = 1.42 W cm -2
8
Jc~
13
dR (A, Tb) d~ = 0.62 x 2.29 = 1.42 W cm- 2

d~
8
The image contains two zones that are not distinguished by a thermal
analyser operating in this band.
In the spectral band ~~2 between 3 and 51-'m , the emittances of these
objects are very different :
J dR~~
5
co To) d~ = 0.95 x 5.95 x 10- 4 = 5.67 X 1O-4W cm- 2

3
Jc~
5
dR (~, T~) d~ = 0.62 x 1.61 x 10- 3 = 1.00 X 10- 3 W cm- 2
d~
3
There are therefore two well separated regions in this image .

This example illustrates the importance of bispectral characterisation
of targets in the field of defence, especially in infrared countermeasures.
Indeed, such targets can be designed to have the same radiance between
8 and 131-'m as their surroundings. Their thermal contrast as seen by the
detection system operating in this spectral region is then zero. A bispectral
system enables the target to be taken out of its nonzero thermal contrast
in the wavelength range between 3 and 5 JLm.
Bispectral analysis of targets helps us to achieve a more precise char-
acterisation of their infrared signature, and this extra information is often
useful in establishing the difference between a target and its decoy.
The digitisation of images and digital signal processing have led to a
considerable improvement in the extraction of information from bispectral
infrared data. Indeed, it is possible to perform mathematical or statistical
processing of pairs of image points in the two wavelengths bands. Statistical
examination of the correlation between the images in these bands then
gives very different results, depending on the content of the scene under
inspection.
For example, a marine background examined in the 3-5 JLm band pro-
duces a reflection that is very close to the spectral distribution of solar
radiation at an apparent temperature T. [Fig. 13.11 (1)] .
Fig. 13.11 Spectral correlation as a means of removing the background
The brightest image points are then produced at spots where the surface
wave reflects in accordance with Snell's law, whilst in the spectral band
between 8 and 13 JLm it is the thermal emission of water at temperature
Tm that provides the dominant contribution; this emission is a maximum
when the surface wave is seen close to the normal to the surface element
[Fig. 13.11 (1,2)].
The distributions of these bright points at the two wavelengths are thus
seen to have very different origins, so that there is a very little spectral
correlation between the two images.
A land background, or a nonreflecting object, gives a much greater spec-

tral correlation, because the emission in the two bands is then thermal in
origin and corresponds to the temperature Tt of this background [Fig. 13.11
(3,4)].
It is therefore possible to discriminate between several backgrounds,
based on the correlation between the corresponding lines of constant field,
analysed at two different wavelengths.
The different properties recorded in the two wavelength bands can also
be exploited in thermal measurements at different levels of temperature.
Thus, the 8-13 J.lm band is better suited to discrimination between rel-
atively low temperatures, whilst the 3-5 J.lm band gives good results at
higher temperatures.
On the other hand, for a given temperature gradient, the 3-5 J.lm band
gives a higher gradient of measured energy and hence a higher contrast.
Bispectral analysis of a given field offers an accurate thermal evaluation
over wide temperature ranges.
Presentation on a colour TV monitor can be used to display the image
produced as a result of a linear combination of the two images of a given
field analysed by a bispectral system. This display introduces an extra
dimension and thus provides a more accurate visualisation of the thermal
phenomenon (in the form of a temperature or emissivity map).
Finally, certain objects present spectral distributions of radiant energy
that are spatially uncorrelated. For example, in the case of a jet (Fig.
13.12), the radiation emitted by the gases in the jet propulsion nozzle dom-
inates the 3-5.5 J.lm band, whilst the intrinsic thermal emission associated
with the dynamicheating of the jet body dominates the 8-12 J.lm band.
Energy
"
'I
I,
'I
: I
I I
, I
, I
, I
, ,I
I
,/
,/
18
Fig. 13.12 Infrared energy radiated by a jet
Depending on the direction of observation, the infrared signature of the

jet will therefore be different in the two wavelength bands.
Moreover, the influence of atmospheric transmission over a given tra-
jectory is indicated in Figs. 13.13 and 13.14 for four sets of temperature
and humidity values. It should be noted that, for these harsh meterolog-
ical conditions, the relatively good transmission in the 8 to 12 p.m band
deteriorates very quickly with increasing absolute humidity.
Distance, km
0%
o 5,0 10,0
Fig. 13.13 Atmospheric transmission in the 8-12J.1m band as a function of dis-

tance and relative humidity
However, in the 3-5.5 p.m band, the close spacing of the transmission
curves indicates a lower sensitivity to water content.
The advantages of bispectral operation are now evident and can be ex-
ploited in the optimisation of atmospheric transmission in case 1 (T
5°C, RH = 80%) by using the 8-12 JIm band, and in case 4 (T =
30°C, RH = 90%) by using the 3-5.5 JIm band.
These examples of two-wavelength measurements demonstrate the prac-
tical utility of the bispectral method as a means of obtaining the infrared
signature of military and industrial targets.
100% Transmission
3 - 5.5Jlm
1 : T- 5·c HRaRO%
2 : T-IO·C HR-90%
3 : T-20·c HR-90%
4 : T=30·c HR-90%
50%
Distance. km
0%
o 5,0 10,0
Fig. 13.14 Atmospheric transmission in the 3-5.5 jl.m band as a function of dis-
tance and relative humidity
14
Industrial and Military Applications
~(
I(
14.1 INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY IN

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Thermography allows us not only to see the invisible, but also to detect
and to evaluate it. It extends the power of the eye beyond the limits of its
sensitivity. The invisible radiation emitted by different objects, which can-
not be directly perceived by the eye, is thus transformed into recognisable
messages that are conveyed to us by an optoelectronic detection system.
14.1.1 Recapitulation
Infrared imaging, or thermography, is the acquisition of infrared radiation
Industrial and Military Applications 415
due to the distribution of heat in object space and the variation of this
distribution in time.
The imaging system must transform the infrared image into a visible
image. In other words, its function is to produce an image in which the ra-
diance distribution of visible radiation is proportional to the distribution of
infrared radiance in the object, i.e., to its spatial temperature distribution
T(y,z) or emissivity c(y,z). This transformation is generally obtained by
sequential analysis of the different points in the object in terms of a small
radiometric field element that is scanned rapidly over the entire object area.
The infrared radiance distribution L(y, z), obtained by scanning the ob-
ject surface area S, gives rise to a detector signal s(t) whose amplitude
varies with time in step with the radiance variations (video signal). This
signal is amplified and fed to a visual display unit whose scan is synchro-
nised with the scanning of the object. The radiance in the reconstructed
local image is then proportional to the infrared radiance of the object. The
method relies on the assumption that the object temperature distribution
varies slowly during the observation of the object.
In other words, the infrared imaging system scans the object and pro-
duces a coded video signal whose amplitude varies in time in accordance
with the temperature variation in space, encountered in the course of scan-
ing. This signal must be recorded or visualised by a decoding process.
Thermal object Thermal
Fig. 14.1 Infrared imaging system
A particularly simple application of thermography is the monitoring

of a moving object . The corresponding two-dimensional image analysis
is performed simply by equipping the system with a single line scanning
system that examines the target in the direction orthogonal to that of its
relative motion. Such systems, are therefore commonly referred to as line
scanners.
14.1.2 The method

Infrared imaging by line scanners is a rapid method of generating the ther-
mal map of a scene that exploits the close correlation between thermal
exchanges and the morphology of an object.
The method is very effective in nondestructive testing, since it reveals

inhomogeneities in the propagation or scattering of a thermal impulse that
are due to discontinuities in the structure of the component under examina-
tion. Nondestructive testing of composite materials such as carbon fibres,
honeycomb structures for the aircraft industry and certain monolithic ma-
terials such as aluminium, rubber and certain resins, is often difficult to
perform by conventional methods. Infrared technology, on the other hand,
offers a basis for testing methods that are based solely on the detection of
thermal radiation from the tested object and, in principle, do not interfere
with the object.
In practice, observations of surface effects due to the propagation of
heat in the material can be used to obtain information about the internal
structure of the medium. An essential part of the success of the method
is the way in which this heat is transferred to the material. Generally,
observations must be made during the transient regime because they rely
on the relative heat transfer rates within the material. Radiation contrasts
become undetectable as soon as the temperature equilibrium is reached.
Impulse heating of the monitored component is thus an essential part of
the technique. It is sometimes difficult to heat a large area uniformly;
heat can then be supplied locally at a rate that is coupled to that of the
detection system.
To summarise, the method involves a large numb~r of parameters that
have to be optimised for each application. They are:
- emissivity of the monitored material (which must be uniform and
high)
- type of infrared detector (in general, a line scanner)
- field of view and resolution of the detector
- relative heat transfer
- nature and strength of heat sources (traditional sources or lasers)
- focusing of thermal flux (for example, it is interesting to use a linear
focusing with a line scanner)
- separation between the heat source and the object
- separation between the source and the infrared detector.
All these parameters depend on the nature of the monitored medium,
its shape and its thickness, and it is clear that the testing of a composite
material of variable shape and thickness will require a dynamic adjustment
of these parameters during the testing process. Indeed, the parameters dic-
tate the specification of the testing system which then becomes a dedicated
instrument whose technology relies both on the infrared and on the provi-
sion of servo control and robotics. Finally, signal processing is an essential
functional part of the system because it is the basis of the interpretation
of the observed phenomena and is often concerned with comparing a given
scene with a model configuration established previously.
Digital processing of thermal images after the successive lines are saved
10
"
1 and 11: IR analyser
2: Line scanner 12
3: Focussed strip heater
4: Heated line 13
5: Motor producing a displacement
6-7 -8-9: Distance adjustment
10: Piece under test
12: Thermal profile of the line
13: ADC and memory
14: Digital recorder
Fig. 14.2 Nondestructive testing
in computer memory is thus seen to offer a very good approach to this

problem. Moreover, saving of the lines is an essential way of 'freezing' the
phenomenon under investigation in the case of materials with high thermal
conductivity.
. These techniques have been developed for use in the manufacture of
composite structures in the aircraft industry, for online testing of the man-
ufacture of pipes for off-shore transport of oil products and for the quality
control of products such as windows (the Airbus cockpit windows are rou-
tinely tested in this way for heating uniformity).
14.2 THERMOGRAPHY IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
14.2.1 Why use thermography for process control?

The great majority of industrial products that are now part of our daily life
are the result of processes that rely on precise thermal cycles. Thus, the
plastics industry, metallurgy, the glass industry and the process industry
devote very considerable effort to establishing the optimum temperature
for their particular processes.
Heat source
Thermal image
Fig. 14.3 Infrared thermography
Infrared thermography is a real-time temperature mapping method that

allows us to monitor surface thermal phenomena as functions of time
(Fig. 14.3). It is the ideal tool for observation, testing and control of indus-
trial processes.
The quality of a product is often very dependent on the precision of
thermal-parameter control in the manufacturing process. For example,
careful control of the uniformity of cooling of float glass at the end of the
manufacturing process prevents the creation of the residual internal strains
that make the final product too brittle. Thermal mapping is invaluable in
such cases (Fig. 14.4).
Moreover, infrared thermography is the only method of thermal test-
ing of rapidly moving objects. For example, in the nuclear industry, the
temperature of encapsulation of radioactive waste in molten bitumen is
monitored by infrared imaging of the flow of bitumen (Fig. 14.5). The
temperature is saved in computer memory and is compared with the ideal
temperature for the process.
To summarise, infrared thermography is particularly well suited to the
control of an industrial process because of its ability to perform spatial and
temporal thermal analysis. The information obtained in this way is used
to control the process so as to maintain maximum efficiency.
IR scanner
Fig. 14.4 Controlling the cooling of float glass
Line scanner ~
riF~'~====-:-- - - ---.... , ofStream
III bitumen -
Upper threshold
--~
Lower threshold
Storage container
Line profile
Fig. 14.5 Testing bitumen encapsulation
14.2.2 Thermographic methods in industrial processes

The testing of a process by infrared thermography, based on the emission
of surface radiation by the objects being manufactured, can be performed
either by a passive or an active method. The passive method relies on the
natural heat releaSed during the process, and is used to observe the spatial
and temporal temperature distribution with a passive infrared radiation
receiver, these temperature distributions being the result of heat transfer
in the interior of the material. Comparison with a model of perfect heat
transfer then yields a.ll the deviations and anomalies in the process (Fig.
14.6) .
For example, the quenching, annealing and cooling operations during
windscreen manufacture in car and aicraft industries rely on accurate in-
formation about thermal gradients on the glass surface in order to ensure
acceptable manufacturing quality control (Fig . 14 .7). This information is
obtained by analysing the thermal history of the windscreen during the dif-
ferent stages of manufacture. The observations must, of course, be made
within the spectral region corresponding to maximum emission by glass
(3 .9 - 5.5 pm) .
The active method is usually employed after cooling. It uses a heat
source (hot air, local heating strip, laser beam and so on) to apply a ther-
mal pulse to the material. The thermographic receiver then analyses the
IR scanner
passive method
Cooling
Fig. 14.6 The passive and active methods of process control
Fig. 14.7 Windscreen control (cooling)
resulting heat transfer, and any anomalies that are detected are an indica-
tion of a flaw in thermal conduction in the manufactured product and can
thus reveal the presence of imperfections (Fig 14.6). This method is similar
to the nondestructive testing by infrared thermography, but in this case it
also allows the control of an industrial process. For example, the extrusion
of plastics can in some circumstances produce inclusions in the form of air
bubbles that give rise to a deterioration in mechanical properties. The pas-
sive method is ineffective with such products during cooling, because the
internal temperature distribution is then uniform. On the other hand, the
active method applies a sharp thermal pulse to the material after cooling,
and thus reveals all the internal imperfections (Fig. 14.8). The sensitivity
of the method then depends on the amount of heat supplied, the duration
of its application, the heat transfer time and the thermal sensitivity and
spatial resolution of the infrared detector.
Line scanner
Threshold
~I~I
Signal showing a fault
Fig. 14.8 Controlling the extrusion of plastics
14.2.3 Thermographic systems for process control

The thermographic detector in systems for industrial process control must
operate continuously. Commercially available thermographic cameras are
not really suitable for these purposes because of their low capacity for
the liquid nitrogen used to cool the infrared detector, or the relatively
unreliable high-pressure gas expansion system. The only solution is to use
a thermoelectrically cooled detector (Fig. 14.9).
Particular care must also be taken with the reliability of motors for
mechanical scanning and other devices. Finally, a receiver operating in
the industrial environment must be protected from possible high temper-
ature variations, the presence of dust or polluting agents, the presence of
industrial electromagnetic interference and, occasionally, even nuclear con-
tamination. Very few commercially available systems are designed for this
type of application. The solutions adopted consist in adapting existing
facilities in order to increase autonomy and reliability, or in constructing
specialised receivers.
There are two kinds of thermographic equipment for process control,
namely, image analysers (Fig. 14.10), used when the entire object has to be
visualised or when thermal information has to be obtained from a surface
in a time of the order of a few dozen milliseconds (e.g., in the case of a fast
object or short optical access time), and line scanners (Fig. 14.12) that are
particularly useful for a moving product.
Fig. 14.9 Line scanning module incorporating a thermoelectrically cooled detec-

tor
Two-dimensional thermal image
Fig. 14.10 Two-dimensional image analyser (infrared imager)
The two-dimensional image reconstructed in this way can be useful for

the inspection of products at the end of a production line (laminates, plas-
tics, sheet glass, paper and so on). The line scanning technique is also
used to monitor the refractory coating of rotating kilns in the cement in-
dustry, by analysing and comparing thermal images obtained during each
full revolution of the furnace (Fig. 14.12).
The electrochemical industry also uses mobile thermal line scanners
above electrolytic tanks to detect and prevent heating by short circuits
(Fig. 14.13). Finally, line scanning is used to reconstruct thermal images
obtained through limited apertures (e.g., slits).
Whatever infrared detector is employed, particular attention must be
Thermai line profile
Image reconstructed from saved lines
Fig. 14.11 Line scanner
Reconstructed image
Fig.14.12 Testing a rotating kiln in the cement industry
Translation
~
Fig.14.13 Testing electrolytic tanks
given to signal processing. In contrast to traditional thermography, which

involves a considerable measure of human intervention, signal pocessing

must be entirely automatic in the case of industrial process control. In
general, the temperature signal is first amplified, calibrated and logged, and
then sent to a logic gate that generates the correction signal (Fig. 14.14).
Optics
Scanner
Reference temperature
. . . . . . . ---'Calibration
Amplifier Thermal image

(optional)
t---~--f Thresholds
Fault
Correction identification
Lower
Computer
Fig. 14.14 Schematic diagram of signal processing
14.2.4 Examples of applications
A survey of thermographic methods used in industrial process control yields

the following examples:
- cooling of float glass (Fig. 14.4)
- metal sheets in rolling mills
- quenching and annealing of windscreens (Fig. 14.7)
- bitumen encapsulation of radioactive waste (Fig. 14.5)
- extrusion of plastics (Fig. 14.8)
- rotating kilns in cement industry (Fig. 14.12)
- electrolytic process (Fig. 14.13)
- welding in metallurgy (the sum and difference indicated in Fig. 14.15
is used to control the position of the welding tool by means of a servo)
- paper processing in a calender as illustrated in Fig. 14.16 (the ex-
trusion operation involved in lamination releases heat which tends to
expand the rollers, the pressure on the paper increases accordingly
and the process converges rapidly so that the final product can suffer
Industrial and Militar'y Applications 425
Weld seam
Depth adjustment
1
Lateral adjustment
Thermal profile
Zone 2
Difference
Fig. 14.15 Control of welding process
Line scanner
Thermal image
Fig. 14.16 Paper processing in a calender
from local differences in thickness; the thermal line scanner is used to

monitor the paper temperature).
14.2.5 Conclusions
These few examples of applications of infrared thermography demonstrate
that it is a powerful method in industrial process control. It is relatively
new and offers interesting possibilities for the future. Although it is cur-
rently underused, industrial thermography will really come into its own
with the development of new detectors and the associated data processors.
Indeed, its field of application can be as wide as industry itself.
14.3 ACQUISITION, DIGITISATION AND PROCESSING IN

TWO-BAND IMAGE PROCESSING
The numerical data acquisition and processing system described in this
chapter is built around a bispectral (two-band) field analyser. Although it
is a somewhat old solution , its configuration has the merit that its operation
is analytical in character ..
The system can be used to process thermograms generated directly by
the infrared field analyser or thermograms recorded on magnetic analogue
peripherals. The following paragraphs present the information necessary
for the processing of any recorded thermal image that includes clock data.
The principle of operation of the system is then explained .
14.3.1 The two-band (bispectral) infrared camera
General characteristics
The basic components and characteristics of this equipment, as listed by
the manufacturer, are recalled below.
- Real-time bispectral analyser with transmission prisms and single-
element detectors (AGA THV 780 DUAL).
- Variable optical field produced by interchangeable objectives:
Field Focal length Resolution
3.5°x 3.5° 191 mm 0.5 mrad

7° x 7° 99mm 1.1 mrad
12° X 12° 52mm 1.9 mrad
20° x 20° 33 mm 3.4 mrad
40~ x 40° 17mm 5.8 mrad
- Spectral response
- SW(3-5.6 pm) : InSb photovoltaic detector. D*(>'p = 5.3 pm, 9 kHz)
= 2.5 x 10 11 cm HZ 1/ 2 W- 1 Sj =
0.2 - 0.5 A/W; T < 1 ps, R =
10 n at77°K; surface area A = 250 x 250 pm 2 .
7
- LW(8-14p): HgTeCd photoconductive detector. D·p. p =

=
11.5pm, 9kHz) 4.5 x 1010cmHzl/2W-l; Sv = 3- 30 x 103 V/W;
T < Ips and R = =
500to77°K; surface area A 250 x 250pm2.
- Relative aperture F /1.8- F /20 in eight positions.
- Frame frequency 25 Hz .
- Line frequency 2500 Hz.
- Number of useful lines per frame 70.
- Complete image consists of four overlapping frames (280 lines).
- Number of points per line 120.
- Thermal sensitivity 0.1° at 30°C
- Temperature measurement range -20°C to 900°C (with possible
extension to 1600°C)
- Liquid nitrogen detector cooling
- Electronic bandwidth 300 kHz.
1 - Objective 2 - Vertical scanning prism

3 - Horizontal sca.nning prism
=--------:::--_ 4 - Collimat.or
5 - Detector
Fig. 14.17 The AGA TVH 780 camera
Description of the camera

- The front objective focusses the infrared energy from the object field
on the detector through a set of two scanning refra.cting prisms and a
collimating system containing the filter and the stops.
- The octagonal scanning prisms are driven by two separate motors (±12
V, phase locked) whose angular velocity ratio defines the number of lines
per frame .
- The position of these prisms is recorded by optical encoders.
- The detector is mounted in a Dewar vessel and the pre-amplifier circuit
lets through the continuous component of the signal.
- A drift-compensating system clamps the signal, i.e., it relates it to a

given reference level, which operates in the following manner. At the
end of each line, when the angle of the prism passes through the optical
axis, the detector 'sees' a reference area inside the camera which gives
information about its internal radiation.
Clamping (signal registration)

The detector receives the internal radiation UB, produced between the
reference and itself, and the radiation from the reference area UR to which
is added the contribution due to the electronic drift, UE, so that the result
IS:
Analysis
The detector now receives the radiation from the object, Uo, together
wi th the total internal radiation of the system UA + UB (U A is essentially
due to the front optics) to which is added the electronic drift component
UE:
U1 charges a storage capacitor during the clamping time (approximately

8 J-Is), whilst during the scanning time (approximately 400 J-Is) the difference
U2 - U1 , which eliminates the effect of internal temperature and electronic
drifts, is evaluated:
U2 - U 1 = Uo + UA - UR
The effect of the front optics (UA) and that of the reference (U R) are
removed by subtraction of the signal produced by two thermistors TA and
TR located close to these two components, respectively (the compensating
voltage must, of course, take into account the stops and filters, if any). At
the end of the analysis stage, the output signal contains only the term Uo
due to the object.
The visual display unit

The signal (video signal A) is then sent to the control and visual display
unit via a transmission link. An adjustable negative d.c. voltage (thermal
level) is added to the positive video signal. The signal is amplified with a
variable gain (thermal range or sensitivity; video signal B) before passing
through the different processing devices (selection of isotherms) and being
fed to the cathode ray tube in which it modulates its screen intensity.
Reference source
Ul=US+UR+UE
u2=uO+uA +uS+uE
Fig. 14.18 Measurement and compensation of drift
The image scanning signals are generated by the analyser-prism position

encoders.
The role of the thermal range or sensitivity is to define the size of the
thermal region of measurement and to expand this region dynamically
throughout the processing. The thermal level adjustment allows this region
to be centred in the middle of the processing range.
The system produces'" 40 ms frames consisting of approximately 100
lines of approximately 400 J.lS each. Only 70 lines are used to analyse the
field, each lin·e having a useful fraction of 70% of its duration. The complete
image is obtained through the overlapping of eight frames. It is obtained
in 160 IDS and includes 280 lines .
Calibration curves
The signal-temperature relation is given in the form of calibration curves
that plot the signal in arbitrary or isothermal units (IU) against the ob-
served temperature of a black body. These curves are described mathe-
matically by an equation of the form
Ul= P
exp (q/T) - 1
Isothenn units Voltage
1000
900
800 0.5
700···1-_ _ _ _ _-il1--_-+_ _,
~
600 c
500· e
400-- o .~
300-~--.....,.f__ __+
c
:>-.
o
-0.5
o Black-body temperature
Fig. 14.19 Screen presentation of signal calibration

I I I
~f~r-~r=1
----.---~.- - - v - - ' "----v--.1 "--y-J
Scanning prisms 1 1 1 1
8 4 4 4 8
Interlacing oflines
Fig. 14.20 Spatial scanning principle
where p and q are constants that depend on the particular equipment used,
its aperture and its filtering, and T is the absolute temperature of the black
body.
The overall dynamic range of the direct output signal from the pre-
amplifier (video signal A) lies between the zero of the signal scale in isother-
mal units, obtained by observin! liquid nitrogen (77°K), and the maximum
output level, i.e., 5 V, which is equivalent to 1000 UI. This means that
1 UI = 5mV.
The intrinsic noise of the system at room temperature is of the order of
0.5 m V, and the useful dynamic range is then 10 000 levels or 80 dB.
Drift compensation of the signal ensures stability of response that allows
absolute calibration. The absolute precision is of the order of 1°C, whilst
Indu strial and Military AppJications 431
fl l.& f12.5 f/3 .6 f/5 I fn 2 (110 ffl4 'no
Spectral transmittance of all1losphcrc

SpecLral emission of object
System
=
Fig. 14.22 Spectral response
the relative precision is of the order of lOoe.
Spectral response
The spectral response is governed by t he spectral selectivity of the detec·
tors and the transmission of the optics (Figs. 14.22 -14.24). Antireflection
coatings a pplied to the optics are very effective at 51lm and at 10 Ilm ;' each
of t hese transmission peaks gives a t ransmission harmonic at one third of
the principal wavelength of treatment , i.e., at 1.7 1lm and 3.3Ilm. In nor-
1,0
../.. \
0,8 '" '" .Li ,\
\
0 ,6 '" I ;\
'" I \
,
0,4 '" I '\
,t\ ~ \
,• I ./
0, 2
.; I
.,',
o /1 ~- _V '\".
3 & A, J-lm
Fig. 14.23 Spectral response of the AGA 780 SW camera
1,0 ,. "-
0,8
0,6
I
/
" --,
1\
_._-- -
I
-_._. - -- - I
0, 4
0,2
I, -- - -- -
- --- -- V
I
.....
1---
I' /
V ,~
0
2 3 4 5 & 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 A, J-lm
Fig. 14.24 Spectral response of the AGA 780 LW camera
mal operation, these extra peaks in the spectral response must be removed
by high-pass filters .
There is also a wideband SW version whose extension to 2 - 3 J-lm in-
creases the overall spectral range and makes the system more sensitive.
It is, of course, possible to reduce the relative range of spectral response
by filtering.
14.3.2 Measurement of the characteristics of a bispectral system
Spatial resolution
The one-dimensional impulse response function D( x) is identical to the
LSF when the object slit is very narrow. The profile of this function is
impressed on the video signal at the output of the pre-amplifier.
A mathematical approach can be developed by considering the Gaussian
function
D (x) = exp (_x 2 /( 2 )
where u = 0'0/0.96 is the angular slit width for 50% modulation .

The temporal impulse response can be calculated from the expression
where
is the duration of a line, II is the line frequency (2500 Hz), p = 0.70 is the
line utilization ratio and
6 1 1
O"t(/19) = O"(mrad) X 10 x 2500 x 0.70 x 00 x 17.45
so that
16
O"t (I-'s) = 00
The corresponding numerical values are listed in the table below.
Objective, Resolution at 50% cr=<lQ/O.96, crt= cr.1 6/90,

9 (deg) modulation, ao. mrad ~sec
mrad
3.5x3.5 0.5 0.52 2.38

7x7 1.1 1.15 2.63
12x12 1.9 1.98 2.64
20x20 3.4 3.54 2.83
40x40 5.8 6.04 2.42
The impulse response function D(x) of the system is determined by the

resolution criterion specified by the manufacturer: SRF(ao) = 0.5.
The maximum relative signal strength is obtained by evaluating
or is measured for a black body and an adjustable slit (the results obtained
are very similar) .
The modulation transfer function (MTF) is calculated by taking the
Fourier transform of the LSF, expressed as a function of the temporal and
spatial frequencies for each objective.
AGA 780 LW - Impulse response fun ction exp(.x2/cr2)
1.0
D (,,)
0.9
0.' . . ------- Angula r slit
0.7 width at
06
,/ 50% modulation
"
0' 0.5
0..
,/
-- 0. = 0.96 (J • mrad
0.3 i
/
,.
02
O. J / \
0
;/
·30 ·20 ·0 0 0
I rruad
20
'"
Objective I (JO.~
_3,5",3.5°
'.''. ' 2.38
...
0.52
_ 7· ~
.12", 12" " ,~

1,15
1,98 ,2.83
2.63
_20°. 20° _
'.- J,54
_4 0·' 40°
'.' 6.Q4 2.41
Fig. 14.25 Impulse response functi on
The relative loss of signal ( I - FTM ) is obtained as a fun ction of the

temporal frequ ency of the signal.
Thermal resolution
For a temperature diffe rence 6T = 6°C at 30·C, the calibration curve
gives a peak-signal difference Vc = 6IU. T he effective noise voltage at this
= =
temperature is Vb O.5mV 0.1 IU (for 6/ 300kHz) and =
NETD = tiT/(v,/v.) = /6 = O.l'C
6 0.1
Measurement of the MRTD

T he MRTD is measured by the usual normalising procedure. To facili-
tate comparisons between different objectives, t he MRTD is displayed as a
funct ion of the number ofspatial periods within the image field , IJlfJ, where
fJ is t he angu lar period of the test pattern (the shaded area illustrates the
dispersion of the measurements) .
1.0 "---~--.----r:=-,,--r---'
AGA 780
Image of slit 0.9
0.8 ~-- -t-
Ima~(a) = SRF 0.7
0.6 ~- ---+-I-
0.5~-..
0.4
0.3 _ ._ -- - - -
0.2
0,1
Relative slit width -
0
Objective 0 a 2a 3a 4a 5a a., mrad
3,5°.3, 5° 0 0, 52 1,04 1,56 2,08 2,60
7° • 7° 0 1,15 2,30 3,45 4 ,60 5,75
12° • 12° 0 1, 98 3,96 5,94 7,92 9 .90

20°. 20° 0 3,54 7,08 10,62 14,16 17,70
40° • 40° 0 6,04 12,08 18,12 24,16 30,20
Fig. 14.26 Slit response function
Camera temperature Drift, i.u

SW LW
Ambient temperature <±0.4 <±0.8
+20o C, +55 OC ±0.4 ± 1.0
+lOo C, +40o C ±0.5 ±2.0
OOC, +40o C ±0.8 ±'4.0
-15°C, +40oC ± 1.0 ± 4.0
Measurement of temporal stability (drift)
Drift is measured for each channel of the AGA 780 bispectral camera.
The object presents temperature fluctuations .6.Tab = Tab - 22.2°C (black
body and thermocouple) . The drift is generally given after 15 min operation
to ensure that thermal equilibrium can be reached: .6.Tdrift = .6.Tmeas -
.6. Tab , The values presented below refer to the maximum drift envelope.
They were obtained by continuous observation over several hours.
The maximum signal variations (in isothermal units) obtained for a sta-
ble temperature source depend on the ambient conditions (the values were
recorded with standard equipment),
T, -,
IJ 1._ z f . - ' - _ 0 7 0 ¥ _ _ __ f . _·J b_. 10
_
mrod II 2 5 00 • Ofl ... 17, 4S HI oQ
Temp. freq .• AGA 789

MTF Rel. signal loss Rel.loss of contrast v. frequency
Hz I-FfM
1999 1.0990 0.00~9
1259 1'.9999 9.9(101
158~ 9.9999 9.0091
19~5 1'.999P 11.0092
2512 e.?937 0.00(13
31£ 2 0.9995 Q . ('('95
39BI 0.?9~3
~012 O . ~9S $ Ug'i~ 0.1
£310 O.9ge1 .). £101 ~
7943 (' . 997£1 e.N-'"3Ct
le00~ 0.9953 0 . 0047
125e9 0 . (19 74
um
j:j.992~
IS84~ 0 . 9883 9. £1117
1::'951 fI . 9814 0.011------+-~-
25119 0.9707
316 2 3 O . 954~ 0 . 0460
39811 0.ne1 ~ . fl;-!3
50ll? e. esf.S 0.1115
6J£I% ~.e2n O . li~ :;
7~4J3 0.7431 ~ . 2Cj" .:'
loeooe £1.624, ~ : ~m O.OOII-- --+"- -t
125291 0.4744
1~ & 4e9 0.3'36 7 (t. 6 '~ 33
199526 0 . I~;'; (I. 84€ 4
~S1189 fJ.0514 ~1.94 86
31€2Ce 9 . 0099 O.9~1~
398107 0.0906 0. 9994
1. 9900 0.0001 '--'-_ _ _..l-_ _ _ _--'_ _ _ _- - . . J
5911e7 0 . 000~
1KHz 10KHz 100KHz IMHz
Fig. 14.27 Relative loss of contrast as a function of frequency
These measurements show that the absolute accuracy of the AGA 780
system at room temperature is ±0.4°. In practice, the calibration curves
exhibit a certain spread . At about 20°C, the slope of these curves can vary
depending on the equipment used.
Measurement accuracy
At room temperature, 1°C corresponds to 1 IU in the 780 system. At
25°C, an experimental error of 0.25°C corresponds to 0.25 IU in 25 IU, i.e.,
€ = 1%. This relative loss of signal corresponds to a signal pass band on
the 1 - FTM curve of 15 kHz which in turn corresponds to the following
spatial frequency for the 20 0 x 20° objective:
v = 15 X 103 x 1.6 ~;0-5 = 0.012 (mrad)-l
i.e., 4.2 periods in the image.

If now we are no longer interested in objects with periodic structure,
but in an extended object, the SRF test gives the following results for the
same objective :
AGA 700 Transfer function 20° objective

MTF 1.0 ..-----.......,.-=~~::-::-'----, , ~
-
~ 0.026 ~
0.9 ~ ~ 0.04 S
0.8 ~0.056 ......
0.7 - ~~ -~ - + ----- ~0.068 ~

>;
i
~_ r
.-- v
~
+-
0.61--- ·0.084
0.5 -- .0.096 <+-i
:.: -. ~ ----i===-. --.-.- :. : . :. .=-=-=- - --t~:: :~8l

Cil
-+-....
0.2 .0.148
0.1 - - - - - - - - -- ·0.176
250KHz ~O.2
0
Temporal freq. f 1000Hz 10 kHz 100 kH 1 MHz
Spatial frequency, l/mrad
Objectives
3,5~3.5° 0,0046
t j
0,046 0,46
j 4,57
j
7° • 7° 0,0023 0,023 0,23 2,29
12°. 12° 0,0013 0,013 0.13 1,33
20°" 20° 0,0008 0,008 0,08 0,8
40°. 40° 0,0004 0,004 0,04 0. 4
14.3,3 Data processing chain

The processing chain can be divided into three stages:
- analogue C;lcquisition
- digitisation and storage
- data processing.
Analogue acquisition system

This consists of the following:
- bispectral field analyser (AGA 780) with its objectives
- visual display unit with the associated electronics for each channel
- analogue recording interfaces
- analogue magnetic recorder
- IRIGB time code generator (the time is recorded with millisecond
accuracy on a track of the magnetic recorder and is used later to get
back to a chosen image).
MRTD (0) AGA780 20 0 objectlve
1,5
Inu 0;.
INn
I Ittl
f- -
I
I
1,0
JJ
I
- r- - r-
Vertical
:
,
I
0,5
Horizontal -j ,
o
o 10
-Lili
20
~ 30 40 50
I
60 70
Field of View Number of periods per image
Fig. 14.29 MRTD
Digitisation and storage

This part of the system is connected directly to the display electronics
of the analyser. It consists of the following:
- analogue channel selector
- analogue to digital converter, memory, Oscar digital to analogue con-
version system (computer interface with optional reader for the IRIG B
clock and time recorder)
- digital channel switching module that selects the digital storage drive
assigned to each infrared channel; it is run by the analogue channel
selector and includes the shaping circuit Jor pulses that start the saving
on Oscar and are produced by the associated search unit
- automatic image search unit which uses the time data recorded to-
gether with the thermal images to get back to any given image on the
analogue tape; during replay, the automatic image search unit starts the
digitisation of the thermogram identified by the given time; at the time
of the analysis, the system allows the remote control of the analogue
recorder, and the choice of sequences can be programed manually or by
the computer; this remote control can also be implemented from the
Pericolor system.
- two digital 25 ips, 800/1600 bpi tape drives.
The processing system (Pericolor)
The digitisation and saving of the data is followed by the processing
of the infrared images. This can be done by the Peri color digital image
processing system that includes a suite of basic programs and special soft-
ware for the temperature calibration of thermograms . The Pericolor system
23.0 Object temperature Tob in °c

22.8 (.lIt) : . Tomb = 21 0 C
22.6
22.4
22.2
22.0 ~.....J....J..."""""':"-~~...J..-'-""""""'I..-I.--I."",...i-.... J......4"""'--'-""""
o 2 3 4 5 6
1.0 .o~C-----~-----:-----------~
0.8 · ' ; Measured AT AGA 780 DUAL
O~ •
.~
0.4
0.2
0~~~~----~---1~----~~~~~-T----~
-0.2 ; , \
,* ;
,\ I
-0.4 \ I
-0.6 I ,
..
-0.8
-1.0 ...........-.l...........1.................-"'........................._-+............~......................
o 234 5 6
Power on ~ Liquid nitrogen filling
1.0 0..t
0.8
0.6
rinftf:.i AGA 780 DUAL
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6 - ,
-0.8 - ,,
-1.0
0 2 3 4 5 6
Time in hours
Fig. 14.30 Thermal drift of the signal
can be interfaced to most existing microcomputers by means of a special

connection card.
14.3.4 Operation of the system
The DUAL 780 camera

The field analyser system consists of a bispectral camera that operates
in the 2-5.5 Jlm and 8-12 Jlm bands simultaneously. The system performs
(x, y) scanning of the scene and produces an infrared image in each of the
bands at the rate of 25 per second. The instantaneous fields are presented
by projecting the detectors through the optics.
The electrical signals produced by the detectors are proportional to the

infrared energies and are processed by the basic electronics and displayed
simultaneously on two monitor screens.
The x, y sweep of the monitor is synchronised with the analyser scan-
ning. The intensity modulation (z) indicates the strength of the signal, i.e.,
the infrared power. An interface adjusts the signal level (video plus x, y
synchronisation signal), so that it can be stored by an analogue magnetic
recorder (wide-band group I FM-IRIG).
Recording the analogue signal
The analogue magnetic recording is necessary to store the information

obtained from each analyser channel and then to read and code it in digital
form . A 14-track recorder is usually employed. The magnetic recorder in-
terface produces for each infrared channel a video signal and a multiplexed
(x, y) composite synchronised signal.
At the time of acquisition, the gain and the d.c. component of the video
signal are labelled using the RANGE and LEVEL facilities on one of the
recorder interface outputs. When the thermograms are being recorded, a
timer supplies an IRIG B code which is sent to one of the analogue recorder
tracks.
When the analogue recorder is equipped with FM channels, it is possible
to choose between two recording modes, namely, (1) video signal A, i.e.,
recording of the signal from the camera amplifier, before processing in the
display unit (dynamic range 85 dB) and (2) video signal B, i.e., recording
of the signal after the signal 'level' and sensitivity 'range' have been chosen.
When video signal A is recorded, it is the signal from the detector and
pre-amplifier that is saved . The 'range' and 'level' are chosen at the replay
stage, so that possible saturation is avoided .
This method introduces noise into the signal, and the thermal resolution
at replay is 5 to 10 times lower than at replay of video signal B which
preserves the thermal resolution of the system.
Video signal B is recorded after the 'level' and 'range' positions have
been chosen, which causes the loss of the d.c. component (which can be
recorded separately with the sensitivity code).
Video signal A can be recorded without deterioration' in thermal reso-
lution by using high-density recording methods (PCM) which, because a
digital code is used, can cope with a dynamic range of the order of 80 dB
(the dynamic range of FM analogue recorders is 48 dB on average, i.e., it
is insufficient for video signals A, which explains why noise is introduced
in this mode).
Analogue to digital conversion and the storage of the thermograms
A digitisation and storage unit ensures the conversion of the analogue

system into digital data. The digital conversion is carried out by the Oscar
system which digitises the video signal.
The data arriving from the 2-5.5/Jm channel is digitised and stored by
the first digital tape drive and, after rewinding the analogue tape, the
process is repeated on the second tape drive for the data from the 8-12/Jm
channel.
The data digitisation and storage equipment consists of the following:
- analogue magnetic tape recorder/player
- AGA 780 bispectral electronics and recording interfaces
- time code reader that retrieves during replay the timing information
recorded during measurement; it also presents the time in a parallel
digital form, and dates each digitised and stored image
- automatic image search unit that looks for the recorded time and
uses logic circuits continuously to compare the time received from the
reader with the time indicated by the operator as a means of finding
and digitisi~g images recorded in analogue mode; the designation of
an image in time is performed in one of two ways, i.e., either manually
by the operator who notes the time corresponding to a selected image
and can increment the time counter as required, or the process is
carried out automatically by the search unit driven by the computer
or the Pericolor system, using dedicated programs; the digitisation
sequences are then generated by the computer or the Pericolor system
- digital image converter (Oscar) that performs analogue to digital
conversion of data and stores the result
- two digital recorder/players that receive the data from Oscar and
record each channel on one tape drive.
During the data processing sequence, the images corresponding to the
two spectral bands (2-5.5 and 8-12/Jm) are brought back successively from
each tape drive.
The basic characteristics of these recorders are as follows: tape speed
25 ips, recording density 800/1600 bpi, tape width 1/2 in and number of
tracks 9. The tape drive is selected by the operator by means of a special
switch.
Pericolor digital processing system
A digital image processing system containing an image memory, a mi-

croprocessor, a keyboard and a colour monitor screen is connected to the
Oscar system.
14 I---IHII---e
12
1l
1-Bispectral analyser AGA THV 780 8- OSCAR

2-Time code generator 9- Digital channel switch
3- Display and command electronic 10- Digital tape drives
4- Analogue channel switch 11- Pericolor system
5- Analogue magnetic recorder 12- Interactive alphanumeric
6-.Time code reader keyboard
7- Automatic image search unit 13- Disc drives
14- Color monitor
====:> Video signal Acquisition 1-5

---+ Clock signal Digitisation 3-10
--+ Command signal Processing 8-14
Fig. 14.31 Bispectral infrared imaging system

The final processing of the thermograms is performed by the operator

using the different programs and subroutines incorporated in the system.
The processing system consists of
- two digital tape decks
- the Oscar system
- digital track switching unit
- the Pericolor system that incorporates units for the data acquisition
and storage
- memory readout on standard TV
- display of memory content on the TV screen in accordance with a
content/colour conversion code .
- image processing software
14.4 INFRARED SIGNATURES - NEW ACQUISITION AND

PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Recent developments in optoelectronics have led to more effective mili-
tary systems designed, on the one hand, for the detection of hostile targets
and, on the other, for automatic countermeasures against such threats. For
example, passive infrared equipment is widely used for surveillance, detec-
tion and reconnaissance, whilst laser radiation is employed in telemetry,
illumination and guidance (Fig. 14.32).
The corresponding operational system criteria are based on prior knowl-
edge of emission and reflection characteristics of the moving objects in-
volved and of their environment. This is the optronic signature of the
targets and their backgrounds.
The notion of object signature encompasses a variety ·of data character-
ising the different configurations in which the object presents itself. In the
case of the infrared signature, this can take the form of
- the thermal image or temperature map (Fig.14.33)
- the total or spectral radiated power (Fig.14.34)
- the spatial distribution of radiated energy (Fig. 14.34)
- statistical thermal quantities such as histograms, averages and so
on.
The most effective way to characterise the infrared signature of an object
is to record the distribution of power radiated by its surface. This provides
the thermal image that results from the temperature contrast due to energy
transfers between objects and background.
Thermal imaging systems operate in the 3-5.5 JLm and 8-12 JLm bands
which match the atmospheric transmission windows and produce images
with contrast proportional to variations in received radiation. This de-
pends, on the one hand, on the intrinsic emission of the targets that is
typical for them and is due to internal heat sources associated with their
Surveillance zone
H..ostile
.
airc~\
(
\
i
1----
;;./
I
\ /r
.. -~.~ .
- ~~ i
iJ
t:S
~
~rC
1 - Passive IR surveillance ~, . ".- ...... . .. ~

2 IR tracking ,~. ~,--"--.!.. ~
3~TVtracking .. ~_~
4 - Laser illumination and range finder ===
5 - Homing by laser or passive IR
Fig. 14.32 Military optronic detection and tracking
mode of propulsion or motorisation; on the other hand, it depends on the

influence of the surrounding medium (heating due to friction, scattering
of the solar spectrum and so on). The acquisition and storage of such
data must be performed by suitable radiation sensors and data recorders.
The infrared radiation emitted by a body depends, as we have seen, on its
temperature, its emissivity and its environment and must be detected by
Fig. 14.33 Infrared signature of a ship
,,'
Jet engine
I
A,J.lm
A,pm
Fig. 14.34 Polar distribution of radiation from a jet (in Wsr- 1 )
measuring systems with very high thermal resolution. For example, mea-
surements on missile launches can involve dynamic level ranges in excess of
80 dB, which corresponds to more than 10 000 discernible levels, requiring
a 13-14 bit digital code.
Quantitative infrared thermography systems deliver two-dimensional im-
ages consisting of more than 128 x 128 pixels at rates of 10-50 Hz, the size
of these elementary image points being defined in terms of the signal level
equal to half that for an extended source at the same temperature. In
practice, the measurements must be made on elementary surfaces with di-
mensions capable of producing signal levels corresponding to an extended
source. The consequence of this is that the image is reduced to 30 x 30
elementary measurement points (see Chapter 12.4). However, to main-
tain imaging characteristics during the acquisition process, a sequence of
128 x 120 pixels is recorded, each at a level from among more than 10000
possible levels.
It has not been possible until now to record such streams of data, i.e.,
rates of more than 3 megabits per second, in real time in their entirety
by transportable means. Different methods such as automatic or manual
signal rescaling to a smaller dynamic range (8 bits, in general) have been

and still are used. Such solutions do not allow the capture of images con-
taining significant fluctuations or transient phenomena with the potential
precision of the sensor. The advent of transportable acquisition and high-
speed recording systems has removed this problem whilst preserving the
useful dynamic signal range.
The bispectral infrared analyser produces analogue signals that are com-
pressed in order to scale them over 12 bits, so that measurement with a
relatively "COnstant precision become possible. The signal is then digitised
and recorded in the high density mode or PCM (pulse code modulation).
This magnetic recording method gives a maximum density of 53000 bpi
(1600 bpi usually used in data processing).
Such rates can be accommodated by distributing the serial message
over several parallel lines and recording on different tracks of the mag-
netic recorder. The problem that then arises is the shift between signals
read off each track. For example, a density of 25000 bpi corresponds to a
separation of the order of 1 pm on magnetic tape and, in practice, magnetic
reading heads cannot be aligned with such precision. This means that it
is necessary to include synchronising messages on each track at the record-
ing stage, whose function is to compensate possible shifts (DESKEW), but
this reduces the useful data flow rate on each track. An interesting solution
is to incorporate the synchronising message within the dead time of each
infrared line.
The spectrum of the digital signal must match the recorder pass band,
and this determines the choice of the binary code, which must ensure max-
imum transmission of information. The optimum signal to noise ratio is
obtained when the spectrum of this signal is as narrow as possible and is
free of d.c. components.
The signals can then be recovered at the reading stage either by an
analogue method, by reversing all these operations, or in parallel digital
form to ensure compatibility with the computers. The read rate is then
chosen to match the computer access time or the rate of transport of the
magnetic tapes.
In summary, a high-performance portable thermographic set can consist
of the following.
The AGA THV 780 bispectral analyser

1
(Fig. 14.35) operating simultaneously in the 3-5.5 and 8-12pm bands,

with each channel delivering 25 images of 128 x 64 points per second (at
50% modulation). The video signal has its frequency spectrum in the range
0-300 kHz and its dynamic range is 80 dB (thermal sensitivity 0.15°C over
a temperature range of 30 - 1500°C)
Fig. 14.35 AGA 780 bispectral analyser
Signal drift is compensated and is calibrated for absolute temperature

measurements. Line and frame synchronising signals enable the recovery of
thermal images. The analogue video signals are converted to digital form
before being presented to the following .
AMPEX HBR-ES high-density unit (Fig. 14.36)

The function of this is to perform parallel distribution to recorder tracks
(when the recorder is used in the high-density digital mode) after the inser-
tion of the synchronising messages. This unit can also re-read the recorder
tracks and re-synchronise the message when the video signal is recovered in
analogue or parallel digital form. A number of external parameters relating
to the sensors, the target and the test conditions can be inserted into the
digital message.
The IRIG ENERTEC 4115 magnetic recorder (Fig. 14.36)

This provides
- 14 tracks
- 8 speeds from 238 to 304 cm/s
- maximum output per track, i.e., 4 Mbits/s (NRZ code, 304 crri/s)
- relative error rate of 10- 6 at 2 Mbit/s, reduced to 10- 8 by using an
error correcting code
- maximum density per track of 33 kbpi
Data processing mini or micro computer (Fig. 14.36)

This performs 12-bit. data acquisition in parallel and is equipped with
the software for quantitative image interpretation and capable of generating
the infrared signature in all its forms.
This software performs
- colour coding
- calibration in apparent temperatures
- calibration in emitted energies
- evaluation of averages
- filtering
- plotting of histograms
-linear combination of images (addition to reduce noise, subtraction
to bring out variations)
- bispectral processing
- corrections for atmospheric conditions
- storage.
6
6
5
..... .'-H
~.
-.
.
ACQUISITION PROCESSING
1 - Bispectral analyser 5 - Instrument tape recorder
2 - Analogue to digital converter 6 - High density storage
3 - High density storage 7 - Computer
4 - Instrument tape recorder
Fig. 14.36 Acquisition and processing system
This procedure preserves and processes the complete set of initial ther-
mal data collected by the infrared measuring analyser and reconstructs the
signature of the object .
Recording technology employing magnetic casettes and rotating head
systems can be used to assemble more compact and cheaper acquisition
units.
14.5 INTEGRATED SYSTEMS FOR THE NUCLEAR

INDUSTRY
One of the functions that have to be performed in nuclear fuel repro-

cessing is the thermal testing of t~e stockpile of magnesium. Infrared ther-
mography can be used for hot-spot detection in such environments.
The reprocessing of fuel elements from the graphite/gas technology in-
volves the separation of uranium rods from their magnesium cladding which
is then crushed and conveyed to storage silos. This is a highly flammable
material that presents considerable fire risk. The problem has led to a
search for a way of detecting hot-spots within the volume defined by the
silo walls and the upper surface of the magnesium stockpile.
Since a system satisfying these requirements exactly was not routinely
available, detailed operational specifications were drawn up. They called
for
- provision of a concrete slab 1 m thick
- inspection via a periscope system
- exploration of the entire half-space below the concrete slab
- a maximum integral ionising-radiation dose delivered to optical com-
ponents.( mirrors and lenses)
- particular temperature on an elementary area of 1 cm2 for which
alarms are set off
- localisation in space of detected points
- round the clock operation for several years
- maintenance procedures
- setting off of alarms for particular functional breakdowns
- materials authorised for contaminated media
- target quality and design reliability levels.
Figure 14.37 illustrates schematically a possible system of this kind. The
signal generated by this unit is pre-processed· locally by an electronics rack
located a few metres away. Alarm signals, if any, and the angular position
codes are sent to the control room.
14.6 CONCLUSIONS
Thermal measurements that rely on the detection of infrared radiation

emitted by different objects yield their surface temperature without the
need for direct contact with them.
As we have seen, the emission of radiation due to internal molecular
vibrations in a medium depends on its absolute temperature and the emis-
sivity of its surface. The relationship between the power radiated by a
black body and its absolute temperature is given by Planck's law, which
also shows that there is a relationship between the absolute temperature
1 - IR camera with 46-element detector array
cooled thermoelectrically, 6ox12° field
analysed 30 times per second. Camera
located off periscope axis to limit the
nuclear radiation reaching it
2- Fixed mirror sends image from the

periscope to the IR camera
3- Image transport by five
fluoride lenses
6- Gearbox
7-
with rotating
Transmission
mirror driven
shaft between by a motor at
gearbox and the top of the
system and
the optical producing a
head spiral sweep
figure on a
8- Angle sphere.
encoder records
the relative
postion of head
and its mirror.
Fig. 14.37 Thermal testing system for a nuclear-waste stockpile
and the power radiated within a particular spectral band used in detec-
tion. It is thus possible to associate a black-qody temperature with each
detected infrared power level.
The black body is a perfect radiator whose surface emissive power or
emissivity is equal to unity. Real objects differ from the black body to a
gre~ter or lesser extent and their emissivity can take a value between zero
(mirrors) and unity (black body). The infrared power radiated by them is
proportional, on the one hand, to the power radiated by a black body at
the same temperature and, on the other hand, to their surface emissivity.
The emissivity appears as a factor in the expression for the power radiated
by the body and is less than unity, which means that the power radiated
by the real body is lower than that radiated by a black body at the given
temperature.
Thus, even a warm body can radiate practically no energy if its emissiv-
ity is very low (this is the case of a mirror) . It is then necessary to allow
for the fact that the body can reflect in the direction of the observer the
infrared power emitted by other neighbouring objects.
In practice, thermal measurements concerned with the amount of de-
tected radiation are helped by high-emissivity surfaces because they min-
imise the effects of stray reflections . Thermographic systems used in such
measurements generate a thermal image from a large number of measure-
ment points distributed on the object under investigation. The image is
refreshed at a rate of a few Hz.
In summary, infrared thermography is equivalent to the simultaneous
reading of temperature by a few thousand thermometers distributed on a
surface, each producing data several times per second. This differs from
the contact method employing contact thermocouples that disturb the lo-
cal surface temperature because they remove heat by conduction, whereaS
measurements relying on infrared radiation are passive and do not inter-
fere with the thermal properties of the object . However, the problem of
emissivity must be kept well under control.
Whenever an absolute measurement of temperature is required, the
quantitative character of the data must be maintained along the entire de-
tection chain, and this imposes stringent conditions on the thermographic
system.
A number of infrared imaging systems is now on the market. Their
characteristics are summarised below.
TV cameras incorporating a pyroelectric vidicon

These are similar to TV cameras and incorporate a tube in which a py-
roelectric target is scanned by an electron beam. The target is a thermal
detector in which the temperature rise due to the absorption of incident
infrared radiation is converted into electrical charges. In France, the Pyri-
con image tube developed by Thomson CSF is used by Sofretec in their
Thermocam camera. Other companies, for example, English Electric (GB)
and Insight Vision (GB) manufacture equivalent equipment .
Pyroelectric cameras are generally sensitive in the 8-14J,lm band, this
limitation being due to the optics and window employed. Their advantages
include no need for cooling and relatively low cost . Their disadvantages are:
low sensitivity, thermal resolution of about I-2°C and the fact that the tube
responds only to variations in radiated power and requires a mechanical
chopper to detect continuous fluxes, which means that it cannot be used
in absolute measurements. Other disadvantages are: the sensitivity is not
always very uniform over the pyroelectric target surface and the dynamic
range of detection is relatively small (20-30dB).
Cameras with optomechanical scanning and quantum detectors

Here the detectors are generally semiconductors that transform incident
photons directly into an electrical signal. The dectectors are usually sen-
sitive in the 3-5.5 J.lm band (InSb, PbSe, HgTeCd) or the 8-13 J.lm band
(HgTeCd). They are liquid-nitrogen cooled (to -196°C) or are maintained
thermoelectrically at intermediate temperatures (-40 to -80°C). These de-
tectors have high sensitivity and very short response times, often less that
1 J.ls. The camera presents each object point sequentially to the detector,
using optomechanical scanning of the optical field.
The main manufacturers of such systems for industrial applications are
AGA Infrared Systems in Sweden (which became AGEMA in 1984), Infra-
metrics and FLIR Systems in the United States and AVIO in Japan. Each
manufacturer offers different equipment with roughly similar properties and
cost as far as the display of thermal phenomena is concerned. All these sys-
tems produce images on the screen of a standard TV or other cathode-ray
tube. The images can be stored photographically (dynamic range 20 dB),
on video recorders (30 dB) or, for high dynamic ranges, on analogue mag-
netic recorders (50 dB) and high-density digital recorders (80 dB) or direct
memory access in a minicomputer.
A wide range of thermogram processing routines is offered by analogue
and digital methods, and the interpretation of the processed data then de-
pends on the experience of the engineer or scientist who must be familiar
with the correlation between such data and the phenomena under investi-
gation.
15
Infrared Spectroradiometry
15.1 SPECTRORADIOMETRY
All bodies emit radiation whose energy distribution, i.e., energy as a func-
tion of wavelength, depends on a large nu'mber of parameters of which the
most important are the temperature of the body, its molecular composition
and the state of its surface. Many of the physical characteristics of a body
can be identified by examining this electromagnetic radiation in wavelength
ranges as different as ultraviolet, visible and infrared. In the case of an in-
frared imager, the output signal is proportional to the energy received by
the detector in its entire spectral sensitivity range. The receiver does not
then distinguish between the two bodies with emissions shown in Fig. 15.l.
The same applies to a radiometer that integrates the emitted energy within
a given band.
E
E
Body 1 Body 2
Fig. 15.1 Radiation emitted by two different bodies in a wide spectral band
A spectroradiometer can be regarded as a radiometer equipped with a

wavelength selecting element. The detector then has a narrow wavelength
window which it can scan across its sensitivity range in a predetermined
way as a function of time. The output signal of the detector is therefore a
function of time and, hence, a function of wavelength.
Fig. 15.2 Spectral scanning
The information delivered by the spectroradiometer is thus much more

valuable than that delivered by the simple radiometer, since it provides
the spectral energy distribution emitted by the body within the sensitivity
range of the detector. It is then possible to separate the two bodies of
Fig. 15.1 by their different spectral signatures.
This method provides data that are full of valuable information, e.g., in
military applications it enables us to distinguish between target and decoy.
The spectral distribution of a pyrotechnical decoy is often different from
that of the target that it is supposed to imitate, even though the wide-band
infrared images of the two are identical.
The narrow spectral band can be produced by a variety of methods, the
three main ones being selection by spectral dispersion, Fourier transform
spectroradiometry and selection by an interference filter.
15.1.1 Spectroradiometry by spectral dispersion

This method employs a dispersive optical element that spreads out the
radiated spectrum on a given surface (Fig. 15.4). A narrow aperture on
this surface then selects a chosen spectral band.
Infrared Spectroradiometry 455
Dispersion by prism At
>'Id>' = B~~
Fig. 15.3 Dispersion by a prism
Dispersion by grating
,
order of diffraction
. /
>'Id>' = N K
integer (number of lines)
Fig. 15.4 Dispersion by a gratmg
The dispersive element is usually a prism whose refractive index is a

function of wavelength, or a grating whose periodic structure produces
a dispersive effect by diffraction . It is clear that the spectral interval 6.>'
resolved by either method depends on the width of the wavelength selecting
aperture. High spectral resolution therefore requires a narrow aperture
which in turn implies a significant reduction in flux .
For these reasons, the dispersion method is not much used in infrared
spectroradiometry; its photometric yield is low, which is all the more serious
because the materials used often exhibit appreciable absorption.
15.1.2 Fourier transform spectroradiometry

This method employs a totally different principle: it relies on a mathemati-
cal relationship between the length of a wave train emitted by the radiating
source and the spectral distribution of the radiation. This relationship is
the Fourier transform. In practice, the length of a wavetrain, called the
coherence length, is measured with what is essentially a Michelson inter-
ferometer (Fig.15.~) whose mobile mirror (corner mirror) is set in uniform
translation.
Dihedral mirror
Source
"'--S-p-e-c-tr-u~m--"' ~ .
mirror
Fringes
pattern
Detector
Fig. 15.5 Fourier transform spectrometry
The source of radiation produces a dynamic fringe pattern at exit from

the interferometer, which is viewed by an infrared detector (whose spectral
response must be matched to the source spectrum). The acquisition of this
interference pattern is performed by digitising the signal delivered by the
detector. The Fourier transform of this function then gives directly the
spectral radiance of the source.
This method, also called interference spectroradiometry, has the advan-
tage of being able to operate without restriction on geometrical source size,
and can use weak sources whilst maintaining very high level of sensitivity.
Its spectral resolution depends on the distance D traversed by the moving
mirror and on the aperture of the entrance optics.
The precision of the system depends essentially on its mechanical stabil-
ity. With this in mind, the translation of the mirror can itself be controlled
by an integral interferometer employing the He-Ne laser.
Spectroradiometers of this type, and also those using dispersive ele-

ments, can suffer from significant thermal drift in the infrared, due to
emission by internal optical components. Drift compensation and correc-
tion devices are therefore necessary.
10- 1 __-----------r----~-----, F/11
F/35
10- 4 -.;.----'--......- ......- ...... Wavelength, Jim

1 5 10 15
Fig. 15.6 Spectral resolution of Fourier transform spectroradiometry
Finally, great care must be taken with calibration because of the com-
plexity of the relation between the information input (interference pattern)
and the output function (spectrogram) .
15.1.3 Spectroradiometry with interference filters

This is a method of spectral selection that relies on pass-band filtering of
the optical beam. A series of interference filters suitably positioned in space
is used to examine a wide spectrum with a resolution that depends on the
pass band D-A of each filter.
Fig. 15.7 Interference filtering
The commercial availability of filters whose spectral pass band can be

varied continuously gives this method greater flexibility and markedly bet~
ter performance as compared with methods employing discrete filters. The
circular optical interference filter with continuous wavelength variation,
seems to be the most efficient because of its simplicity. The polychromatic
flux from an optical system, which can have a large aperture (Fig. 15.8),
is simply sent to one or several radiation detectors after filtering in the
neighbourhood of the focus. The arrangement is simple and provides rapid
spectral analysis that depends on the rate at which the filter is rotated.
In practice, the spectral resolution depends on the area of the filter illu-
minated by the beam, the angle of incidence on the filter and the intrinsic
resolution of the filter.
Signal
;
I
I
An
Filter rotation
Fig. 15.8 Continuously variable filter (CVF)
The wavelength calibration of a spectroradiometer is p'erformed with

the aid of signals produced by an optical encoder built into the circular
filter . Of course, the resultant spectral response depends on the spectral
transmittance of the entrance optics and of the filter itself, as well as on
the spectral response of the detector.
15.1.4 Limitations of spectroradiometry

The determination of the absolute radiance of a body relies on the elimi-
nation by optical, mechanical and electronic means of all sources of stray
radiation that includes inter~al fluxes emitted by the optics, the filters, the
dispersive components and the detector stops and their supports.
The effect of stray radiation becomes relatively more important when
the optical flux entering the spectroradiometer is weak.
11
I
Fig. 15.9 Spectral resolution of the CVF
The stray flux is mostly due to the spectral selector and the different
components located between the latter and the detector. The useful flux
reaching the detector occupies a very narrow spectral interval whereas the
stray radiation components listed above cover a wide band. This means
that, for weak sources, the integrated stray flux can be greater than the
useful flux, in which case measurements become essentially meaningless.
The example presented below will illustrate how this problem can be solved.
15.2 AN INFRARED SPECTRORADIOMETER
The HGH SPR 314 is an infrared spectroradiometer operating in the 2.5-

14.5 J.lm range and incorporating a continuously variable filter (CVF). It
employs an original principle whereby stray radiation emitted by the filter is
first examined and then eliminated. With the exception of the filter, all the
optical components are mirrors, which ensures high spectral transmittance.
Useful flux
Spectral selection
Stray flux
Useful flux
Fig. 15.10 Useful and stray fluxes
Finally, the system employs a two-colour type detector which means

that it uses two superimposed layers: the first (InSb) film is sensitive in
the 2 - 6 J1.m range and being dichroic, transmits radiation between 6 and
15 J1.m , which is detected by the second (HgCdTd) film. The response of
this sandwich detector is therefore continuous in the 2.5 - 14.5 J1.m range.
15.2.1 Optics
The image of the scene produced by the interchangeable entrance optics is
focussed on the circular filter in an image spot 2.5 mm in diameter . This
is also the focal length of the entrance optics, which determines the optical
field of view of the system.
After passing through the filter, the image spot is matched by the exit
optics to the 500 J1.m sensitive area ofthe detector (magnification 0.2) . The
Cassegrain configuration is used in both entrance and exit optics, i.e., each
contains two mirrors. The detector is in a liquid-nitrogen cooled Dewar
(77 K).
The continuously-variable interference filter consists of three 90 0 sectors,
covering the following spectral ranges: 2.5-4 .5,4 .4-8.0 and 7.9-14.5J1.m
Sighting optics Interference fHter
/
/ Reference black body
IR detector LN2
Front optics Relay optics
Fig. 15.11 Schematic of the HGH spectroradiometer
The three sectors are mounted in a circular filter holder which has two
further zones: one perfectly reflecting and the other a perfect black body.
The position of the circular holder is monitored with an optical angular
encoder.
----- - ._ - - -- -
Filter 3
Filter 2
~ ____~---+--~------~e
8 4,5 8 14,5
2,5 0
Filters 1, 2 and 3 for 2.5 - 4.5,
4.4 - 8.0 and 7.9 - 14.5 pm
Mirror
90
Black body
A(9)
Filter 1
Fig; 15.12 Wavelength-rotation relation
~."..--- ....... .... .....
14,5 A, JLm
Fig. 15.13 Filter transmittance as a function of wavelength
A beam-splitting viewer, which is used to look through the entrance

optics, also serves as an aligning tool that ensures that the optical axis of
the spectroradiometer cuts the object.
HgCdTe
I
i
2 3 ~ 5 & 7
Fig. 15.14 Spectral response of the sandwich detector
15.2.2 Elimination of stray flux

The stray flux is eliminated or, more precisely, taken into account by an
original method (licenced by the Office National des Etudes et Recherches
Aerospatiale, Paris). It employs a filter holder that is tilted so that it
presents to the detector an internal standard source by reflection from the
filters (Fig . 15.11). For a given filter position-, the optical flux received
by the detector is then the sum of three components, namely, the flux
from the scene, filtered at wavelength>., the stray flux from the filter that
corresponds to its temperature Tp and the flux from the internal reference
source at the temprature TR , which is reflected by the filter. These fluxes
are weighted by the spectral transmittance of the filter T(>.) for the first
term, the spectral emissivity of the filter £( >.) for the second term and the
spectral reflectance R( >.) of the filter for the third term.
If we represent the spectral flux emitted by the black body at the tem-
perature T by F(>., T) and the spectral flux emitted by the object by Fo(>'),
we obtain the result illustrated in Fig. 15.15.
The overall response of the spectroradiometer is also influenced by the
spectral sensitivity of the detector S( >.) and the spectral transmittance of
the optics 0(>').
The voltage due to a filter is
V1 = f{ S (>.) 0 (>.) [T (>.) Fa (>.) + £ (>.) F (>', Tp) + n (>.) F (>', T R )] ,
the voltage due to the mirror is
and the voltage due to the black-body is
V3 = f{ S (>.) 0 (>.) F (>., Tp)

Reference source
- - - ~ .'R(X).F (A, TR )
Object _ _~~~--~ b( A ).~)( A)
K"'oo""""''--_ E (A ). F (J ,T P)
Filter
Fig. 15.15 The energies reflected, transmitted and emitted by the CVF
We note that O(,x) represents only the spectral transmittance of optical

components after the filter [i.e., the relay optics and detector window if it
is not included in S(,x)].
In the above expressions, K is the flux-voltage conversion factor of the
detector and the associated amplifying electronics. It is independent of
wavelength.
Actually, the untreated signal V" delivered by the spectroradiometer
consists of the numerical difference between the voltage due to the filter Vi
and the voltage due to the mirror V2 . Hence
V,,=Vi -V2
Thus, when the mirror crosses the detector field of view (Fig. 15.16), the
capacitor C is charged by the voltage V2 , the output being earthed by the
synchronising signal produced by the position encoder on the filter holder.
When the filter crosses the field, the output is no longer earthed and the
detector applies a voltage Vi to the capacitor C, which gives the untreated
signal V" = Vi - V2 .
Finally, when the black body crosses the field, the measured voltage V3
is used to control the temperature of the internal reference source (by the
Peltier effect) in such a way that V2 = V3 , which means that
F (,x, T R ) = F (,x, T,,)
and
TR = T"
The filter and the internal source are then at same temperature and the
voltage Vl is given by
Vi = f{ S (,x) 0 (,x) [T (,x) Fo (,x) + F (,x, TR) [£ (,x) n (,x)]]
Reference source
YII~YI-Y2
----------..1-
Raw signal
C
Fig. 15.16 Calibration of the SPR 314 spectroradiometer -:r

taking into account the fact that
E (A) + n (A) =1 - T (A)
The raw signal from the spectroradiometer is then
Vu = f{ S (A) 0 (A) T (A) [Fo (A) - F (A, TR)] (15.1)
The electronics provided with the device then ·divides this signal by
the spectral gain of the spectroradiometer, represented by the expression
S(A) O(A) T(A). The resulting signal is called the relative spectrum:
(15.2)
This expression gives the spectrum of the object under examination FO(A)
relative to the spectrum of a blackbody at temperature TR .
The absolute spectrum is finally obtained by the addition of the calcu-
lated flux due to the black body at temperature TR which is known since
it is in fact the temperature of the internal reference:
(15.3)
The factors S(A) O(A) T(A), F(\ Tp) and K are determined by calibration
in the laboratory and are stored in an internal EPROM.
The spectral calibration is carried out against a laboratory black body
and the wavelength reference is provided either by standard spectral lines
or by using calibrated interference filters placed in front of the black body.
15.2.3 Description of the spectroradiometer

The SPR 314 comes in the form of three units: (1) optical head, (2) power
supplies and signal reception system and (3) spectrum processing and dis-
play system. The overall design is modular, compact and integrated so
that it is suitable for launching ranges and test centres.
The instrument is primarily intended for bispectral (two-band) measure-
ments on infrared radiation from missiles and aircraft in flight. Numerous
other applications are, of course, also possible.
Optical head
The layout of the optical head is illustrated in Fig. 15.17. The front
optics is interchangeable and the different focal lengths offer the following
fields of view: 2.5 mrad, 5 mrad and 8 mrad; 10 ,3 0 and 12 0 .
The Cassegrain configuration is employed throughout except for the 30
and 12 0 objectives with wide-band coated refracting surfaces. The different
objectives have F /5 apertures, but the complete spectroradiometer unit has
an F /1 aperture because of the relay optics.
The system examines 30 spectra per second. The filter holder is rotated
by a dc motor and monitored by an optical encoder. The spectral range
of the apparatus is 2.5 - 14.5]lm with a spectral resolution of 1.5% for a
pinhole object and better than 4% for an object covering the whole field.
Hence 6.oX = O.l]lm at oX = 2.5]lm and 6.oX = 0:5 mum at oX = 12.5 ]lm.
The relay optics is purely reflective and concentrates the flux on to the
sandwich detector . The stray signals are handled directly in the optical
head. In this way, the raw, relative and absolute spectra are available
directly on the receiver. The synchronisation signals provided by the optical
encoder are also available, as well as the value of the internal black body
temperature. All these signals are delivered in analogue form.
Supply and signal reception unit

This unit constitutes a 19-in half-module connected to the head unit by
a 10-m cable. It provides the supplies for the optical head, and delivers the
signals necessary for analogue and digital measurements. More particularly,
it provides the absolute spectrum in analogue form of 0-10 V or 12-bit
parallel digital form.
Focusing motor Two-color detector
\
Sighling through front optics
electronics for the head
I
Front optics Optical encoder
Fig. 15.17 Optics of the SPR 314 infrared spectroradiometer

.. .
Raw spectrum
Relative spectrum
Absolute spectrum .----1 Output
Analogue output signal l.eropulse amp
Time base
Internal temperature '' - - - L__-1
Fig. is.1s Block diagram of the optical head
Processing and display unit

Spectrum acquisition, processing and display is handled by a PC AT
386 microcomputer. Data is acquired directly in real time.
For an acquisition rate of 30 spectra per second, a 150-Mb hard disk has
about one hour to record all the successive spectra and about n hours for
one spectrum out of n. The data are processed after recalling the different
spectra and expressing them in the desired photometric units (intensity,
radiance or emittance) .
The wavelength scale is graduated in steps of 0.025 Jlm, so that it is
possible to perform operations such as integration of the spectral energy
between two wavelengths, calculation of an average over any number of
spectra, addition, subtraction or division of spectra (for example, the sky
background spectrum can be subtracted whilst the spectral signature of an
aircraft in flight is being acquired) and the spectral transmittance of the
atmosphere can be taken into account.
There is a number of display modes, including scaling of the spectra in
energy. units and three-dimensional evolution of the spectra in time.
Input Analogue to Digitised absoi.

amplifier digital spectrum
converter
0-10V/1Z'bits
,-----l~ Raw spectrum
ReI. spectrum
Absol. spectrum
Clock
Top 0
I
'--~.'
Supplies '---_-I~ SYl1chro

'---_ _ _...,_ Internal
1----1 ±12V (Peltier) temperature
±15V
+5V
Fig. 15.19 Supply and reception unit
Spectral radiance, W sr -lm-2 j.lm- 1 CURSOR 1

1. 211E+01I,- 1.=5 j.lm
I
1.28 E+08 Wsr -lm ·2 j.lffi-l
1. 12E+O~
CURSOR 2
A= 11 j.lm
9.61E+0~
i
I
6.53 E+08 Wsr -lm- 2 j.lffi-l
a ,OtE+o.,.
;
Integral radiance
3.74 E+08 W sr- 1m-2
3.20E ..O
I.SOE+OJ
!
V Cursor 2
o , ooE+OOLJ[
___ ~ _ _ J_ _ _ ~_ _ _ _ _~_ _ _L_~~_ _..J.
a
2 3 5 II 10
" 12
Fig.15.20 Spectrum recorded with the SPR 314 (laboratory black body with
atmospheric absorption)
T10,00
-,
t 8,750
t 7,500 E
:::1.
6,250
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
11 m
Fig. 15.21 Time evolution of spectra. recorded with the SPR 314
'......~
Tracking telescope
SPR 314 spectroradiometer
Display of spectra
Computer with 150-Mh

Sighting turret hard disc and fast data
acquisition card
Supplies and receiver unit
Fig. 15.22 Spectral signature of an aircraft, recorded with the SPR 314
16
Line Scanners
\ \
• I V
16.1 FIRST GENERATION THERMOGRAPHY
The detector technologies and optical materials for the infrared that were
available at the end of the sixties led to the development and commercial
availability of infrared cameras. The first-generation equipment described
in detail in the previous chapters constitutes sophisticated instrumentation
that is better suited to the laboratory than to the industrial environment.
In particular, the cameras require the assistance of and the interpretation

by a skilled operator. Such systems are very limited in industrial applica-
tions for the following reasons:
• The systems require attention in respect of liquid-nitrogen or gas cool-
ing of the detector. This is overcome in more recent cameras in which
detectors are thermoelectrically or closed cycle cooled (with limited MTBF
in the latter case) .
• The sensor is unsuitable for industrial applications because it is sensi-
tive to dust, heat, nuclear radiation and corrosive vapour.
• The output signal is not transmitted correctly beyond a few metres.
• The setting up procedures and, especially, the interpretation of the
thermograms require a specialist who has to analyse the data for diagnostic
purposes .
• Brief or transient phenomena cannot be assessed in real time.
• The equipment does not generate warning signals indicating thresholds
or position changes.
• The two-dimensional character of the infrared image presents a large
volume of data that is difficult and costly to process and exploit.
Despite these limitations, infrared cameras attracted considerable atten-
tion in the seventies and the eighties, and there were significant applications
in the fields of inspection, infrared surveillance, nondestructive testing, pro-
cess control and research. These applications were gradually developed by
interested users from standard commercially available infrared equipment.
Very few of these applications have stimulated manufacturers to design
specific receivers, and automatic signal processing was never fully tackled.
16.2 SECOND GENERATION THERMOGRAPHY
The second phase of thermography involves integrated functional applica-

tions for which the user requires systems in the form of turn-key answers
to problems encountered in industrial production. Indeed, the majority
of industrial processes involve the application of thermal and mechanical
cycles to a product on a process line.
These observations demonstrate the potential of integrated infrared tech-
niques in processes such as on-line soldering, hot or cold roiling, extrusion
of materials, annealing and tempering, production of float glass, plastics
and paper, and also the control and inspection of objects moving relative
to the receiver, e.g., in rotating kilns, in cement making, in electrolytic
processes and in the storage nuclear material.
The integration of a control method in a particular process involves mon-
itoring of the transverse thermal profile. In second-generation thermogra-
phy this is done with infrared line scanners integrated into the process. The
combination of linear motion of the product with lateral scanning offers the
Line Scanners 473
possibility of global monitoring, the generation of warnings and the storage

of the infrared signature in the course of product development.
It is thus possible to tackle the monitoring and regulation of industrial
processes and automatic security monitoring.
The infrared system must not only have adequate sensitivity, resolution
and processing rate, but it must also be consistent with the industrial pro-
cess environment, especially in relation to independent operation, very high
reliability (several thousand hours without external intervention), simple
servicing procedures and automatic signal processing.
16.3 THE INFRARED LINE SCANNER
The line-scanning infrared analyser is the answer to problems in second-

generation thermography. It will find increasing applications in industrial
thermography without excluding the infrared camera whose natural domain
is in research and inspection.
The concept of infrared linear scanning has been around in the field
of defence for about 20 years and has led to the development of airborne
systems for the infrared imaging of the ground ,with high spatial resolution.
Industrial line scanners are above all radiometric systems and in this
sense their architecture differs from that of military imagers. In particular
they require internal reference sources and the absence of pupil modulation.
The four analysers described below are: ATL 100, ATL 020 and ATL
080 from HGH and THP 5 from Agema Infrared Systems.
16.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE ATL 100 SYSTEM
Based on a concept already well known, in the military infrared field, the
ATL 100 has a modular structure that relies on the separation of the differ-
ent functions in order to achieve flexibility in its many possible applications.
In this way, the scanning module determines the scanning field angle whilst
the detector module establishes the spatial resolution and the infrared sen-
sitivity. This technology also allows receiver upgrades whilst preserving its
basic structure.
The choice of the spectral band is, of course, dictated by the atmospheric
transmission window between 3 and 5.5 pm because of the temperatures en-
countered in industrial processes (50-1600°) . Moreover, thermoelectrically
cooled detectors are available in this spectral range.
The optical head contains the scanning and detection modules. Line
scanning is performed by optomechanical deflection of the analysing beam
falling on the detector. Satisfactory lifetime and reliability are assured by
using kinematics confined to uninterrupted uniform rotation.
The detector is cooled by a multistage thermoelectric system and re-

ceives infrared energy from the successive points on the scanned line. The
output signal produced by the optical head is sent to the processing unit
which contains the electrical supplies and performs signal digitisation and
the generation of temperature and alarm thresholds based on the thermal
profiles displayed on the monitor screen.
These opera:tions are controlled by a microprocessor that compares the
acquired thermal profile with the industrial process parameters defined
earlier. The integrity of process control is assured by logic circuits that
constantly test the operation of the infrared system itself. Any problem
with the receiver is thus immediately detected and communicated to the
process controller. The output signal is transmitted between the optical
head and the electronics by a balanced line with symmetric signal trans-
mlSSlOn. The signal difference (Fig. 16.1) is then free from any industrial
1
pickup.
InduJd ,t<ay "gnal
SIGNAL
SIGNAL -
+: J
ATL 100 n'ansmitted signal
Fig. 16.1 Balanced transmission line
The data are transmitted between the electronics crate and the process
controller over a distance of several hundred metres, using frequency modu-
lation on a 500-kHz carrier, or digitally, using an optical-fibre transmission
line .
The operational characteristics of the ATL 100 analyser are as follows:
Optical head
Scanning frequency: 100 lines per second
Spatial resolution: 128 points per line
Field of view: small field 6°
Field element: 0.75 mrad (at 50% modulation)
Temperature range: 50°C to 1600°C
Thermal resolution: 1°C at 100°C and O.l°C at 300°C
Continuous operation
Line Scanners 475
PbSe detector operating in the 3-5.5 p.m band

Detector cooling by two-stage Peltier device
Entrance window : sapphire
Working temperature range: 10-55°C
Viewing range: 25 cm to infinity by motorised focussing
Analogue output signal
Synchronisation signal generated independently by optical sensors
Optics Detector
Scanning prism doublet
sapPhir~window~~ii~~~~~~~l=ij~~~~
Preamp
Scanning motor
Fig. 16.2 HGH ATL 100 line scanner
Signal processing unit

This unit contains the following items:
• Supplies for the scanner circuits.
• Analogue to FM converter for long distance transmission.
• Analogue to 8-bit parallel converter.
• Circuits that convert the maximum level of each line into a current of
4-20 rnA .
• Detector of malfunctions such as slowing down of scanning, unsatis-
factory oper(l,tion of the infrared detector and electrical supply problems.
These are indicated on the control panel by red LEDs. Any of these mal-
functions puts the system on general alarm by switching an unpowered
relay.
• Display and processing of the signal from the scanner. The thermal
profiles recorded by the ATL 100 infrared analyser are displayed on a mon-
itor screen.
• Real time processing for the detection and generation of warning sig-
nals indicating thermal anomalies or brief interruptions.
16.5 ATL 100 USED FOR WELDING CONTROL
The temperature distribution around a welding line must be known before,

during and after the melting stage because, depending on the working
conditions, this can then be used to guide the welding head, or to adjust
welder parameters such as the current, the distance and the speed, all of
which have a direct effect on the penetration depth.
In the first instance, the diversity of welding processes and of the shapes
of components and joints make the thermal control of the lateral tempera-
ture profile quite difficult. The profile is useful only if it can be compared
with a typical profile corresponding to the ideal weld configuration. This
reference profile can be obtained either by calculation, which can be very
complex, or experimentally by examining a welded zone, considered as be-
ing of good quality from the point of view of centering and penetration.
Reference profiles can be saved in memory and subsequently successively
compared with current data. Deviations encountered in this way can be
used to generate an alarm or correction signal, depending on the particular
processes. Figure 6.3 shows the temperature distribution around a weld
during fabrication.
Depending on the type of information required, the infrared scanner
can be used to view zone B (Fig. 16.3) immediately ahead of the molten
zone, which gives a profile that can be used to direct the welding head
by observing the separation between the two parts being welded together.
The scanner can also monitor and measure the precise temperature and
the width of the molten spot (zone A). The thermal gradients at the edges
of the molten zone are generally quite high, which means that the width
of the zone can be determined quite accurately (±0.2 mm).
Finally, the scanner can monitor zone C (a few centimetres after the
molten zone) and record the thermal profile which can then be compared
with the reference profile, so that the penetration depth can be computed
and possible drifts evaluated. Figure 16.3 illustrates the operation of the
ATL 100 with the parameters specified above. In normal use,. the optical
window is situated at '" 500 mm from the welding line, so that the receiver
scans a line 50 mm long. It has an optical resolution that allows it, in
this case, to see 128 O.4-mm elements (points). The line is sampled at 256
points and displayed at 128 points.
The scanner electronics performs real-time signal processing and deter-
mines the drift of the welding head relative to the joint as well as variations
in penetration depth. The processing is based on a weighing scan of two
preset sections. The reference profile is displayed on the monitor screen.
For a given weld, the operator specifies the positions of A, Band C, D,
which define the areas to be saved.
The tolerances expected of these surfaces are saved in the microprocessor
memory, and by computing the sum (Fig. 16.5) and difference of these two
Line Scanners 477
Fig. 16.3 Welding control
Fig. 16.4 Thermal profile
areas (Fig. 16.6) the microprocessor can determine the extent to which
the thermal profile remains within specified tolerances. The system thus
provides information on the drift of the profile to the right or left, which
can be used to generate alarm and control signals
By recording thermal profiles, the operator can establish correlations
between variations in welding parameters and the nature of the profiles.
+ +
Output± 10 V = 0 Output ± 10 V > 0 Output± 10 V < 0
Optimum weld Too deep Too shallow
Fig. 16.5 Control of depth of penetration with the ATL 100
The welder thus has the means of optimising the process for the required
quality of welding. The records can also be used for certification purposes.
This procedure can be implemented on a PC AT running HGH Thermo-
couleur software and equipped with the necessary interfaces . The system
then displays the profiles in real time, saves them in computer memory and
can dump them on to floppy discs. Astored profile can be displayed in one
of three ways: as a longitudinal thermal map, as a transverse profile and
as a three-dimensional thermal surface.
16.6 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: CONTROL OF ROLL

WELDING
16.6.1 Description of process and objective of measurement

Roll welding is a variant of spot welding in which the electrodes are replaced
by copper wheels. The process is continuous. The rotating wheels exert
pressure which pulls together the components to be welded. The welding
current can be continuous or alternating. The main parameters that control
the process are the welding current, the speed and the pressure due to the
wheels. The ATL 100 is capable of continuous real-time monitoring of weld
quality and of signalling possible defects. Its analogue and digital outputs
can then be used directly to control welding quality and to detect drifts that
Line Scanners 479
Optimum weld
Output± 10 V =0
Drift to the left
Output± 10 V < 0
Drift to the right
Fig. 16.6 Control of solder-line drift with the ATL 100
can result in defective components. The system can be used in conjunction

with a PC 386 computer, running HGH Thermocouleursoftware which can
record successive thermal profiles as functions of time.
16.6.2 Installation of the ATL 100

The optical head is placed in a fixed position at 25- 100 cm above the line
of the weld. The ATL 100 is then adjusted to view the thermal profile of
the weld at a distance of between 5 mm and a few centimetres, after the
molten spot. Its scanning angle of 60 thus controls a zone of 3.5-10 cm.
The thermal resolution is such that temperature variations of the order of
l°C can be detected with a spatial resolution of 0.2 -1 mm. A sealed and
dust free container equipped with a sapphire optical window protects the
detector from the industrial environment.
The ATL 100 produces temperature distribution data on the weld line
just after the molten spot . The data is output in analogue and digital form
at the rate of 100 times per second. The thermal profile thus obtained is
characteristic of the welding material and welding parameters. It is directly
related to welding tool parameters such as current, velocity, wheel pressure
Pressure
Fig. 16.7 Roll welding
DO
A1L 100
Weld thennal profiles
Inspection points
Fig. 16.8 Monitoring roll welding
and wheel wear as well as the surface area, thickness and quality of welded
material.
The diversity of materials and welding-wheel configurations allow the
operator to establish, after a period of observation, the typical profile of a
good weld. Once this reference profile has been determined, the welder sets
the maximum and minimum alarm levels. A relay operates every time a
threshold is·crossed and the ATL 100 is thus able to detect welding defects.
Line Scanners 481
, - -_ ...... ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' )

ATL 100 THERMOCOULEDR I ATL 100 THERMOCOULEUR
1000 (\I\ - 1000
) ;=
('"" 900 JJo. 1-900
" ~
" " 800 ,,1\ -800
I I 1lO
I I 600
I I ~ I - 'DO
l~~~~i-I]~lii~r= :
400
300
200
profile scanned at display of

100 sec- 1 time dependence
Fig. 16.9 Typical thermal profiles
Wheel welding is used in the car industry as well as in the fabrication of

metal boxes and containers.
ATL 100 ATL 100

I- 1000 I - 1000
I- 900
max I- 900
1-800 800
.
J-700 1-700
:i\ J- 600 ,! . . min I- 600
I
I I
I
J-~
I I
:soc
I I J- 400 I I I- 0400
II I- 300
J- 200
I\ I- 300
- 200
typical profile of fault detection

optimum weld limits
Fig. 16.10 Determination of a reference profile and setting of thresholds
16.7 THE HGH ATL INFRARED SCANNER
The ATL 020 is a high-sensitivity high-resolution infrared scanning system

offering a spatial resolution of 0.75 mrad at 50% modulation or 2.5 mrad
at 90% modulation. It can scan at 20 Hz, producing the lateral thermal
profile of a product executing linear motion. It does so over a distance of
several metres in a 90° field, continuously round the clock and without any
need for external intervention. It incorporates a PbSe thermoelectrically
cooled detector that operates in the 3-5 Jllll wavelength range with 37 cm 2
optics. Its temperature range is 50-2000°C. The overall modular design
ensures good performance in hostile industrial environments.
As in the case of the ATL 100, the associated electronics delivers thermal
data in analogue and digital forms. The analogue signal is supplied as volt-
age and current, and allows direct monitoring and control of the industrial
process in accordance with preset instructions. The HGH software running
on a PC (in real time or otherwise) takes care of the display, storage and
processing functions.
All this means that the system can cope with an extensive range of tasks
such as:
Monitoring of hot or cold rolling mill in the steel industry.
Nonuniformities in the cooling of the sheet metal cause bending of the
plates delivered by the presses. These thermal anomalies can be
corrected by local heating or cooling of areas identified by
analysing the thermal profiles.
Control of paper or card production.
Monitoring of the cooling of float glass
Measurement of the temperature of extrusion of plastic materials.
Display of the thermal state of kilns in the cement industry
Monitoring of electrolytic processes
16.8 APPLICATIONS OF THE ATL 020
16.8.1 Monitoring of the rolling process in steel industry

The surface temperature of the sheet metal before and after rolling must
not fall below the metal transformation point since this would produce
poor quality sheet metal. The lateral thermal profile of the sheet is thus
directly related to the metallurgical quality of steel. Continuous monitoring
of this profile can be used to correct thermal anomalies by local heating.
The example presented in Fig. 16.13 shows a series of thermal profiles with
reduced gradient at the edges of the sheet, which can be corrected by local
heating. After cooling, the sheet reeling stage relies on the temperature of
the metal being uniform, which can be maintained by analysing the thermal
profile.
16.8.2 Glass industry

Sheet glass is made by the float method in which molten glass is floated on
molten tin after which it passes through a large cooling system. The cooling
process must be very slow and very regular. to avoid residual mechanical
stresses in the glass, which reduce the quality of the product by reducing its
Line Scanners 483
! ~ ~ !:: =
('0') ('0')
u
0
~ <or
01) ~
~
UJ
(!)
a«
:J
--
!E
.....
<X:
i 0
c:i:
a=s
';J VI
'" .-: UJ
i
a - .
I-
:J 8
«
u. ~
UJ
a ~
is
=
ia
§
~
______ ~ ________________________ ~ __________ ~
Ci
iS
~I
I
v
f\..J, ~ ,-.I~"-r~"'~'.'fv-"",,,~-""'i-"'l
·v_,i' ·~
"-Il T_El - 1._

==~~~~=-~~===-~~----
Fig. 16.11 Typical welding results obtained as part of quality control

Scanning motor
Silicon window Internal

reference source
Rotating mirror - __........_ .~
Optics
Detector _-f---"TtT1i
Preamp
Fig. 16.12 Schematic of the HGH ATL 020
optical transparency and increasing its brittleness. Continuous monitoring

of the thermal profile in the cooling system can therefore be used to control
the cooling of glass and thus improve product quality.
Another interesting application of thermal-profile monitoring in the
glass industry is in the fabrication of windscreens for the motor industry.
Figure 16.14 shows the thermal image reconstructed from a line scan of a
car windscreen . Optical access in this case is such that the full image can-
not be acquired by a two-dimensional camera. Image acquisition therefore
relies on line by line scanning during the motion of the windscreen .
""
00
"" HGH FICHIER: falck.1
lam i naz i 0118 64Bx2, 7
PROFItS: 1 A 5fl LE 83-H1-8H A 61:85:16 Q
N
Q
~
~t:: -.621 -,31 e .31 .621 "' ~
t:t:l
:\i<.> ot:t:l
...
~
Q,) II
·s '.
....
~,
~ ~
~-( ~
"'0
\, CLI
I "'0
:.-
"~ ~
t'
" ,r g
,. ~
<...
=
",,
{
). ]
....'o"
-~
l ~
<. ~
~
PROFIL: 5
8 CLI
~
ECART : E-<
CO)
B ~
TEMP. :
(j)
~
677.9 &DB 728._L .. A ·c ~
tlO
- .8711 - .11'1 o .-414 .aZB n
- .8711 - .114 o .-414 .aza n
.H,Io'1
{.•'I-'''' ,
'i II'
,.
r iil Sf! 118 138 'c
Fig. 16.14 Thermal profile of a windscreen recorded with the HGH ATL 020
Line Scanners 487
16.9 THE AGEMA THP 5 AND 6 INFRARED SCANNER
This is based on a technology close to that of the ATL 020 and was devel-
oped for the monitoring of rotating kilns in the cement industry.
The design of modern continuously-operating kilns prevents internal in-
spection for the purposes of maintenance of refractory materials. . This
problem is currently tackled by measuring the external temperature of the
kiln and, especially, its time dependence. Detection of thermal anomalies
provides the data necessary for the maintenance of the kiln.
The line scanner produces a succession of thermal profiles corresponding
to the successive generators of the rotating kiln (Fig. 16.15). The scanning
rate is 8 lines per second within an angular field of 90° .
Fig. 16.15 Monitoring a rotating kiln in the cement industry
The spatial resolution is 2 mrad at 50% modulation or 7 mrad at

90% modulation. The temperature range is 110-1200oC with optics of
,...., 1.5 cm 2 . As an example, Fig. 16.18 shows the thermal profile of a kiln in
a cement factory.
Fig. 16.16 AGEMA THP5 or THP6 line scanner

16.10 THE HGH ATL 080 INFRARED SCANNER

This system is designed to be carried aboard a helicopter or aircraft
from which it collects calibrated infrared signals from ground-level sources.
These signals are recorded and can be used later to reconstruct images
obtained in the two spectral bands 3-5J.lm and 8-12J.lm with a sandwich
detector with dichroic layers.
Field element
=-_____-;--t(V-V·.)M
2 mrad 1--.........
h
7(V-V·).M
h
Fig. 16.17 Scanning with the ATL 080
The ATL 080 repetitively scans a line within an angle of 45°. When
this scanning is combined with the translational motion of the platform,
the result is a two-dimensional image or thermal map of the scene below.
The spatial resolution is less than 2 mrad at 50% modulation (imaging
of approximately 500 points) and of the order of 4mrad at 90% modula-
tion (measurement at approximately 200 points). The thermal resolution
(NETD) is of the order of 0.15°C for the InSb channel and less than O.OgoC
for the MCT channel (room temperature). Other parameters are a,s follows:
.Noise equivalent irradiance (NEI) for a 100-mm pupil:
40 nWm-2(lnSb) and 210 nWm- 2 (MCT) .
• Nominalline frequency: 80 Hz (variable in the range 20-100 Hz) .
• Uniformity of response along the line: '" 0.5NETD .
• Image acquisition and processing: 780 pixels per line. Direct acquisi-
tion on hard disc in real time. Dynamic range of 84 dB (14 bits) .
• Optomechanical scanning technology employing continuous rotation of
an eliptically shaped plane mirror inclined at 45° .
• The reduced scanning efficiency (1/8) is compensated by the very high
photometric accuracy .
• Ifthe helicopter velocity is V and its altitude h, an object on the ground
moving with the velocity V' produces tilted lines of duration l:1t as shown
Line Scanners 489
Fig. 16.18 Thermography in the cement industry: (a) on-line temperature mon-
itoring of rotary kilns, (b) multiple thermal profile and alarm limits (HGH-ATL
020)
in Fig. 16.17. The condition necessary for joined lines (complete coverage
of the ground) is :
8 ( V - V ') h:S:
D.t 2 mrad
t = 801 x "81 = 1.56 x 10 -3 s

Hence
h ~ 6.25(V - V')
For a fixed object on the ground, V' = o.
eThe relatively large entrance pupil (100 mm in diameter) and the angu-
lar velocity of the scanning mirror (80 rps) require extremely precise static
and dynamic balancing. The mounting of this mirror is such as to produce
an opposing couple due to the ring orthogonal to the mirror (Fig. 16.19).
Fig. 16.19 Scanning mirror of the ATL 080
Fig. 16.20 The HGH ATL 080 bispectralline scanner

Line Scanners 491
84.2
73.8
59.2
38.7
H!.O
Fig. 16.21 Thermal mapping using line scanners: (a) glass industry (ATL 050),
(b) paper industry (ATL 020), (c) airborne line scanner (ATL 080). (This figure
is reproduced in colour as Plate 16)
Fig. 16.22 Thermography in steel industry: (a) thermal monitoring of the rolling
process before adjustment (b) and after adjustment (c). (This figure is reproduced
in colour as Plate 17)
17
Advances in Thermographic Systems
~. -
---:.--
Continuing technological advances and market demand have led the

manufacturers of thermographic equipment to try to achieve ever better
performance. These developments are, of course, led by the needs of the
armed forces. They include improvement such as the diamond cutting of
optical components, multilayer coating of optical surfaces, the use of multi-
element detectors, thermoelectric or Stirling-cycle cryogenic cooling of de-
tectors and digital signal acquisition and processing. Each manufacturer
uses one or several of these technologies.
17.1 AGEMA (SWEDEN)
This company has improved the cycle efficiency and the optical transmis-
sion of its scanning system by replacing refracting prisms with a diamond-
cut total reflection block (LK4). The very original optical solution gives a
global sensitivity improvement by a factor close to 1.3. The system uses a
polygon of mirrors operating in a mode known as facet tracking.
Advances in Thermographic Systems 493
Detector Do
Fig. 17.1 Scanning by polygons
The lens Ll produces the image Dl of the detector Do on the facets of a

rotating polygon reflector Pl. A large-diameter lens L2 produces the image
D2 of DI after reflection by the polygon PI and the reflected beam scans
the diameter of lens L 2. The final image D2 remains fixed (in practice D2
is at infinity and Dl at the focus of L2) . A second reflecting polygon P2,
identical to PI and synchronised with it, is located between L2 and D2 in
such a way that the width of its facets is equal to the cross section of the
instantaneous optical beam. A given facet reflects this beam and moves at
the same time as the latter. The image D3 of D2 moves along a line. Each
facet of the polygon P2 tracks in this way the beam reflected by the first
polygon Pl . The LK4 scanning module uses reflection optics and produces
double reflection by two opposite facets of the same polygon. The Agema
800 and 900 cameras are interesting because they employ a scanning system
based on a drum of small mirrors and offering high scanning efficiency with
optimum useful image scanning time The LK4 scanning efficiency is thus
raised to 0.83 and 0.8 for line and frame analysis, respectively, so that the
total efficiency 0.664 as compared with 0.49 for the older equipment (Aga
780).
The electrical pass band can be reduced in the ratio
0.49 = 0.74
0.664
For an equivalent number of image points per second, this improves the
signal to noise ratio, so that the thermal sensitivity of the camera improves
by the factor
1
ffi77:i = 1.16
yO.74
As far as optical transmission is concerned, the old and the new systems
can be compared in the following way. The Aga 780 system corresponds
to the crossing of sixteen silicon refracting surfaces (n. = 3.4223) coated
with SI0 2 (ne = 1.8), so that the .reflection factor of each refractive surface
becomes (see Chapter 8.3.1)
R _ (n. - n~)2 + (1- n~)(n~ - n;) cos 2 (¥nee)

- (n. + n~)2 + (1 - n~)(n~ - e;
n;) cos 2 nee)
For an antireflective coating with central wavelength Ap = 5 J.lm
and
0.0332 + 18.98cos2 I~
R-------~~
- 44.386 + 18.98cos2 I~
so that for>. = 4J.lm
R =
2.804 0.059 =
47.157
Hence the transmission factor of a coated surface is
T = l-R = 0.94
which gives a total transmission factor for the sixteen refractive surfaces
(neglecting absorption)
T16 = 0.37
The Agema 800 or 900 systems have twelve refracting surfaces with a
mean T = 0.94 per surface and eight reflections from aluminium coatings
with r = 0.98 per mirror. Hence resultant optical transmission factor is
Top = (0.94)12 X (0.98)8 = 0040

The gain in optical transmission between the two systems is therefore
0040 = 1.1
0.37
This new technology brings about an overall improvement in thermal
sensitivity proportional to the gain in transmission and inversely propor-
tional to the square root of the relative reduction in the pass band, i.e.,
1.1 x 1.16 = 1.3.
This change in scanning technology thus offers a gain in radiometric
sensitivity of the order of 30%. Moreover, the size of the polygon can be
Objective
AGA 780
AGEMA 900
Fig. 17.2 Optical system of the Aga 780 and Agema 900 cameras
reduced, which allows the use of fast rotation and high line frequency, i.e.,
2.5 - 3 .5kHz. The polygon is made up of ten facets driven at 18 000 rpm.
The Agema 900 SW cameras use two detector elements scanning in
parallel, which improves their sensitivity by a factor of 1.4. The spatial
resolution is about 200 horizontal points and one hundred vertical points
for an SRF of 50% modulation.
17.2 AVIO-NIPPON AVIONICS (JAPAN)
This manufacturer employs multi-element detectors in combination with

parallel scanning in order to improve the thermal resolution. The TVS
2000 camera is in fact a drift compensated scanning radiometer. In effect,
the scanning of the beam over the exit pupil (parallel beam) avoids the pupil
modulations found in scanning systems located between the objective and
detector (convergent beam). On the other hand, this solution ensures a
radiometric uniformity during the scanning.
Reference black body
Location of detector
I
10-facet horizontal line scanner
, scanning with
Vertical .
encoding
I
Fig. 17.3 The LK4 scanning module
The detector is an array of ten InSb elements located in the image plane
of a refracting objective. The elements are far apart and cover 90% of the
vertical field.
Scanning is performed over the pupil, i.e., in front of the objective,
by the polygonal ten-mirror drum. The facets of the diamond-machined
polygon are very slightly tilted relative to one another, which produces the
vertical displacement necessary for interlacing. The total image of 100 lines
is obtained by a complete rotation of the polygon. This principle controls
the vertical and horizontal deflections simultaneously by a single rotating
element and eliminates synchronisation problems.
The line scanning efficiency Pl is given in this case by the relative size
¢> of the optical pupil and the facet length I:
Pl = (l-I(J)/I ~ 0.33
The frame scanning efficiency is equal to unity, so that the resultant scan-
ning efficiency is 0.33.
The optical transmission factor is relatively high because of the small
number of components, i.e., two reflections and 4-6 refractions. Hence
Top = (0.98)2 X (0 .94)6 = 0.66
17.3 INFRAMETRICS (USA)
This equipment uses a unit consisting of two vibrating plane mirrors

mounted on a resonating galvanometer. The vertical scanning mirror fol-
AGEMA 900
Fine analysis of thermal signature of Temperature measurement of car

military targets interior
A VIO TVS 2000
Inspection of buildings: searching for

cracks in concrete
Medical facial thermogram Car air-conditioning

A VIO TVS 2000
Space plane supersonic wind tunnel Electricity distribution: Transmission

experiments (from the Science and line insulators
Technology Agency, National
Aerospace Laboratory, USA)
Electric circuit (LSI)
INFRAMETRICS
Electricity transport: searching for faults in connections

/
tp
Facet n
Lines due to facet n + 1
Fig. 17.4 Evaluation of the scanning efficiency of the TVS 2000 (AVIO)
100detector array
/
Refracting objective
Return mirror
Fig. 17.5 Parallel scanning by a drum of mirrors
lows a 60-Hz sawtooth motion. The vertical scanning efficiency is confined

to 72% by linearity considerations. The horizontal scanning mirror vibrates
sinusoidally with a frequency of 3933 Hz. Line scanning is performed from
left to right, then from right to left, at the rate of 7886 lines per second
and a useful time of the order of 67% . Each frame consists of 131.1 lines so
that image is made up of two interlaced frames (262.2 lines corresponding
to half the standard 525 TV lines) .
The video signal of each line, sampled at 256 points (2 MHz pass band),
is digitised using 7 or 8 bits, depending on the option chosen, and is then
saved. During the acquisition of the next line, the content of the first line
is displayed twice on two consecutive lines of the monitoring device (TV
Used portion of scan
Fig. 17.6 The TVS 2000 (AVIO)
1- Entrance window
2- Frame scanning mirror (60 Hz)
3- Line scanning mirror (3933 Hz)
4- Chopper (60 Hz)
5- Return mirror
6- Objective
7- Detector
Fig. 17.7 Inframetrics camera
screen). This display is presented in the order of acquisition of the points in

the TV scanning and, after reversal, in the opposite direction. The optical
arrangement (Fig. 17.7) involves three reflections and six refractions. The
resultant optical transmission factor is of the same order as for the AVIO
camera, i.e., Tap = 0.65.
17.4 COMPARISON OF INFRARED SENSITIVITIES OF

DIFFERENT THERMOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
The thermal sensitivity of an infrared system increases as its noise equiv-
alent temperature difference (NETD) decreases. The former quantity is
proportional to the square of the optical aperture and the square root of
the passband ~11 and is inversely proportional to the optical transmission
factor Top and to the detectivity of the detector [Eq. (11.11)]). The thermal
sensitivity of systems with identical and perfect detectors and equal optical
apertures ('" f /1, i.e., corresponding to the maximum field angle useable
with the detectors) is thus proportional to Top /Vl1I1. The passband ~11 is
given by
NH Nv 1
=-
~11
PH
X -
pv
xN x-
n
where N H is the number of horizontal pixels, PH is the horizontal scanning
efficiency Nv is the number of vertical pixels, pv is the vertical scanning
efficiency, N is the number of images and n is the number of detector
elements. Consequently, the sensitivity of a device is proportional to
17.4.1 AGA 780SW

Tap = = = = =
0.37,n 1,NH 100,PH 0.7,Nv 90,pv 0.7,N 25 images = =
per second. Hence, substituting in the above expression we find that the
sensitivity is proportional to 5.4 x 10- 4 .
17.4.2 AGA 900SW

Top = 0.40,n = 2,NH = 200,PH = 0.83,Nv = 100,Pv = 0.8,N = 30
images per second. Hence, substituting in the above expression we find
that the sensitivity is proportional to 6 x 10- 4 .
17.4.3 AVIO TVS 2000

Top = 0.75, n = 10, N H = 150, PH = 0.33, Nv = 100, pv = 1, N = 30
images per second . Hence, substituting in the above expression we find
that the sensitivity is proportional to 20 x 10- 4 .
17.5 INFRAMETRICS 700
Top = 0.7,n = 1,NH = 190,PH = 0.72,Nv = 130,pv = 0.67,N = 30

images per second. Hence, substituting in the above expression we find
that the sensitivity is proportional to 5.6 x 10- 4 .
In practice, the detectors and the optical apertures of these devices are
not strictly equivalent. The NETD is then proportional to the square of the
numerical aperture N (ratio of focal length to diameter of the optics) and
inversely proportional to the square root of the detector area A, i.e., to the
linear dimension of the detector when it is a square. The table below shows
the correction factor that has to be applied to the above results in order
to take into account the difference between detector and optical apertures.
Detector Number of Correction factor N

dimensions ..JA, apertures, N 2J..JA
urn
AGA 700 250 1.8 0.013
AGEMA 800/900 150 not given
AVIO TVS 2000 50 1.15 0.026
INFRAMElRICS 25 1.0 0.040
6OOnoo
To calculate the infrared sensitivity, the previous values must now be
divided by the correction factor. Thus the sensitivities of the AGA 780 SW,
AVIO TVS 2000 and Inframetrics 600/700 are 5.4 x 10- 4 /1.3 x 10- 2 =
4.15x 10- 2 ,20 x 10- 4 /2.5 x 10- 4 = 7.7x 10- 2 and 5.6 x 10- 4 /4 x 10- 2 =
1.4 X 10- 2 , respectively. The higher sensitivity of the AVIO camera is
essentially due to the use of multi-element detectors. The table below
summarises the number of points per image for an SRF of 50%.
SRF=50% AGA AGEMA AGEMA AVIO INFRAMElRICS

780 880 900 TVS 2000 600 700
NH
horizontal 100 170 200 155 170 190
PH 0.7 0.83 0.83 0.33 0.7 0.7
Ny 90 70 100 100 130 130
vertical
py 0.7 0.8 0.8 I 0.67 0.67
No. of
images per 25 25 30 30 30 30
sec
Tot no. of
points per 9000 11900 20000 15500 · 22100 24700
image
The Agema 900 and the Inframetrics cameras offer the highest number
of image points (at 50% modulation). In summary, the evolution towards

multi-element detectors has led to a considerable increase in infrared res-
olution (AVIO) whilst advances in scanning systems have improved the
spatial resolution (Agema). In any case, in so far as thermographic sys-
tems are concerned, the emphasis must be on radiometric measurement. It
is important to remember that this type of equipment must be closer to a
scanuing radiometer than an infrared imager. These conditions are better
satisfied for scanning systems placed before the optical pupil, i.e, in a par-
allel beam (AVIO and Inframetrics), since they then avoid the vignetting
modulation encountered in a convergent beam (AGA and Agema).
Similarly, radiometric consistency between successive lines in so far as
it relates to the height of the thermogram is better when a single detector
is scanned (AGA 780, Agema 880 and Inframetrics). This prevents the
spread in response of the multiple detectors in the case of parallel scanning
(Agema 900 and AVIO TVS 2000) . In each case, the manufacturer uses
technological solutions to minimise these effects (optics with very little
vignetting and correction of detector response). It is useful to recall that
the increase in the number of detectors in the case of IRCCD does not
necessarily lead (indeed, far from it), to greater infrared sensitivity which
is inversely proportional to the square root of the number of detectors.
For example, a camera using an array of 512 x 512 detectors and imaging
at the rate of 50 Hz, has the maximum thermal sensitivity if the integration
time constant is 20 ms per frame. The actual integration time constant is
20/Jm because of the saturation of the readout register. This illustrates
this important limitation due to charge buildup in the CCDs (loss by a
factor of v'I05O ~ 30). For the single-element detector, the total gain is
then only v'512 x 512/v'1000 = 16 instead of the 512 predicted by the
theory of non-multiplexed detectors.
17.6 COOLING OF DETECTORS

All manufacturers offer thermoelectric detector-cooling systems (Agema
THV 870, 900 SW-TE, AVIO TVS 2000 TE, Land-TI 35, Land-TI 35,
FLIR Systems IQ 325) or cooling by cryogenic Stirling cycle (AVIO TVS
2000, Inframetrics 700).The miniaturisation of cryogenic systems (mini-
refrigerators) ensures that this technology can be introduced without no-
ticeable increase in the volume of the thermographic cameras and without
further demands on the power supplies (the mass is less than 500 g and the
power consumption is of the order of 0.25 W).
Thermoelectric cooling systems can be used in continuous and reliable
round the clock operation in industrial environments, whilst Stirling type
cryogenic equipment requires maintenance after a few thousand hours. The
choice of detector cooling depends on the conditions under which the de-
tector operates.
Appendix: Data for Fig. 6.61
Spherical Coma, rad Astigmatism, Chromo aberr.,

Optics aberr., rad rad rad
Spherical mirror
radius R= 2f = 0,008
(stop at dist. L d9 = (L-RJe (L-RJ 29 2
s dEl dS = d9 = 0
c A ch
from apex) N3 16 RN 2 2 R2N
Spherical mirror, • 0,008

stop al centre of d8 d8 =0 d8 A = 0 d8 =0
s c ch
curvature (L = R) N3
Spherical mirror,
d8
= 0,008 =_9_ 92
d8 d8 A = - de =0
stop alL =0 5
N3 c ch
16 N2 2 N
Parabolic mirror,
stop at dist. L
from apex = 0 =_8_ (L+ f J2e 2
de d8 d8 =. . d8 =0
5 c ch
16 N2 A 2 f 2N
------ r - - - - - - - - - ----- -----

Schmidllelescope e2
de =0 detotal =--
5
24 N3
10- 3 1)2 1
d8 de =_8_ d8 A = - d8 ch = - -
Mangin telescope 5 c
4 N" 32 N2 2 N 6 vN
4 , 10-"
Bouwers telescope d9 =
5 N5 ,5
Simple lens 0,067

(best shape) n = 1.5 de s=~
Refractive
n=2.0 de =~
N de =
8 e2
de A =2N" de =--
1
index 5 c 16(n+2JN2 ch
2 vN
n=3.0 d8 5 = ~
N
0,0087
n=4.0 d8
5
=
--w-
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Index
Abbe's condition 168 Band model 76

Aberrations Black body 11, 22
Abbe's condition 168 Bolometers 274
achromatic conditions 138 Bouguer's law 6
aplanaticsystem 147,168-9
Camera,
aspherical surface 159
optics 371
astigmatism 141, 151, 153, 171,
see also Thermography
209
Carbon dioxide 67
chromatic 136-7
Cardinal elements 165
coma 141,147-9,169,208
Charged coupled devices (CCll)
distortion 141, 156-7, 172-3
298-301
field curvature 141-51
infrared 304
geometrical 139, 159
Contrast, thermal 23,400-1
mirror 155-6
Coordinates, reduced 17
orthoscopic condition 157
pupil 158 Data processing 437, 448
spherical 141-6,167-8,208 Detectivity 267,345,405
thin lens 145, 154, 159 Detector
third-order corrections 167 array 238, 240
variation 158 bolometers 274
Absorptance 66 characteristic 263
Absorption 48, 111 cooling 311-18
atmospheric 65 detectivity 267,273,278,290,293
by gases 62 equivalent circuit 263, 266
magnesium fluoride 50 equivalent power (NEP) 267
molecular 78 fluctuations 277
self 62 frequency response 294
Aggregate model 77 HgTeCd 305
Aplanaticsystem 147,168 indium antimonide 306
Atmosphere microchannel 282
inhomogeneities 70 multielement 296
particles 91 noise 264, 292
ray paths 69 passivation 295
refractive index 68 photoconductive 284
scintillations 70 photoemissive 280
transmission 61,64, 75, 78, 82-9, photomultiplier 281
97,404,412 photovoltaic 287
turbulence 68, 73 pneumatic 276
Autocorrelation function 181 pyroelectric 275
506 Index
Detector contd Fabry's tables 18

quantum 276 Filter
response 270, 294 continuously variable 458
sensitivity 268-70,289,291-2 fabrication 256
sprite 308 interference 258
thermal 271 types 255
thermographic 297 Filtering
thermopiles 276 function 218
types 261,274 and infrared systems 254
Diffraction spectral 244
Airy disc 177 types 255
by aperture 173-7 Flux, radiant 2
circular aperture 177 Focallength 166
Digitisation 325 Fourier analysis 180
Dispersion 110 Fourier transform spectrometry
anomalous 107 456-7
normal 107
Doppler effect 63, 79 Glass, reflectance and transmittance
Drift 368,377,429,435,439 255
Globar 51
Electromagnetic waves Goody's model 77
Maxwell's equations 104
propagation 104 Humidity 80
reflection 111
transmission 111 Image
Emittance 32 aberrations 136
Emissivity 24-5 calibration 334
angle effect 40 cardinal elements 165
of dielectrics 37 formation 135-6
of dielectric sphere 45 presentation 331
of dihedrons 45 processing 333
directional 41 Imaging 232
of materials 36, 39 background effects 410
measurement 42 bispectral 40,432,442
normal 40 electronic 240
of rough surface 43 filtering function 218
spectral 36-7, 397-9 Gaussian approximation 164
table 44,47 impulse response 179
in thermography 43 infrared methods 236
total 38 linear filter theory 178
of trihedrons 45 multielement detectors 234
of water 42 objective 160, 203
Exitance pupil 206,231
ina band 31 stop 162-3
black body 16, 20 transfer function 181
radiant 5, 27 two spectral bands 30,426
spectral 13 Infrared
Exposure 5 camera 320, 371
Infrared Thermography 501
Infrared drum 497

CCDs 304, 307 hyperboloidal 194, 196
characterisation 340 optics 189
detectors 343 oscillating 224
imagers 422 paraboloidal 193
imaging system 415 polygonal 225
metals in 113 Modulation transfer
military applications 443 function (MTF) 181, 183,360,362,
nuclear applications 449 364,376,382
optical materials 104
optics 188 N ernst filament 50
radiation sources 50 Noise
signature 407,411,443 detector 264
spectra 8-10 equivalent irradiance (NEI) 341
spectroradiometer 459,460,464 equivalent power (NEP) 267, 344
Intensity, radiant 5 equivalent temperature difference
Irradiance 4 (NETD) 342,351,357,374,
noise equivalent (NEI) 341,345, 382
347,354,356,370,373 Non-destructive testing 414,417
Junction Optics
biased 51-2 conjugate planes 214,349
gallium phosphide 53 geometrical 135
refractive 200
Kirchhoff's laws 11 Orthoscopic condition 157
Lambertian radiator 34 Passman-Larmore tables 80

Lambert's law 42 Pericolor system 441
Laser 56 Phase transfer function 181
argon 59 Photoconductivity 285
carbon dioxide 59 Planck's law 12, 14,401
helium-neon 58 Planck-Boltzmann statistics 53
neodymium glass 58 Population inversion 54
ruby 57 Precipitation 79
semiconductor 59 Prism
triggered 60 doublet 229-31
Lens Pumping
drum 228 optical 54
germanium 201 electronic 54
Line-by-line method 76
Line spread function (LSF) 380 Radiance 2,213,217
Lorentz line 75 . Radiometer 366
Lowtran model 78 Rayleigh-Jeans relation 13
Rays
Michelson interferometer 457 marginal and field 140, 160
Middleton's formula 93 Recorders 395
Mirror Reflectance 26, 250
dichroic 257 of germanium 251-2
508 Index
Reflection 111 Structure function 72

parasitic 42
Refraction 110 Telescope
parallel plate 226 Cassegrain 188-9
Refractive index, silicon and catadioptric 198
germanium 138 Mangin 199
Resolution mirror optics 189
measurement 355 paraboloidal mirror 193
spatial 342,380,387 reflecting 188
thermal 341,383,392 Schmidt 199
Response function Temperature
impulse 380 measurement 335
slit 380-1 minimum detectable difference
(MDTD) 342, 360
Scanning 430 minimum resolvable difference
AGEMA system 487, 492, 495 (MRTD) 342,357-8,434,438
airborne 235 Thermography 220
ATLsystem 473,479,484 AGA680 330
Avio-Nippon 495,497 AGA THV 680 LW 370,432
bidirectional 237 AGA THV 680 SW 370,375,
Inframetrics 496 378,427,432
line 221-2,471 AGA THV 780 446
methods 220, 233-4 AGATVS 499
polygon 493 AGEMA 500
parallel array 235,238 DUAL780 439
serial and parallel 239 industrial 418-21,476
single detector 234 Inframetrics 498
spectral 454 Thermopile 276
Scattering 6-7,67,81,90 Thin film 246
Mie 93 antireflective 249,251
Rayleigh 92 graded-index 253
Schottky diode 306 listed 250
Semiconductors 283 Thin lens 144
Signal astigmatism 145,154
acquisition 326 cardinal points 202
digitisation 325, 327 distortion 159
recorders 395 Transferfunction 181-2
storage 329 degradation 184
Signal processing 320, 424 detector 185-6
analogue signal 323 electrical 185
digital signal 323 optical 181
Slit response function 380 system 187
Snell's law 110, 161 Transmittance, spectral 244
Spectroradiography 454
Sprite 308 Vidicon tube, pyroelectric 241,451
Stefan-Boltzmann law 15
Stefan's law 20 Welding 476
Stimulated emission 52-4 Wien's law 13, 15
Plate 1 Thennogram of a warship (source: DeAN, Toulon)
Plate 2 Thermogram of a trawler (source:
DeAN, Toulon)
Plate 3 Thermogram of a car park in front of a

house (source: HGH). Note the influence of stray
reflections. Heat is lost through the window of the
house, and the emitted radiation is reflected by
the bonnet and roof of the car. This can lead to an
erroneous interpretation of the thermogram. The
thermal image of the car can lead to the false
conclusion that the engine is warm (the image
was recorded in the morning after the car had
been parked overnight)
Plate 4 Synthetic image. Simulated thermal image of a warship

Plate 5 Infrared image recorded as part of a check on the thermal insulation
of a building (source: Daedalus Enterprises Inc)
Plate 6 Thermogram of a warship

Plate 7 Thermogram of a tank
Plate 8 8-13.um bispectral thermogram of the car ferry le Provence in the

Toulon bay, with the Saint Mandrier peninsula in the background
Plate 9 3-5.5.um thermogram of the same scene (note the better definition
of the thermal contours and gradients at low temperature in image 8, and the
higher isothermal resolution of the high temperatures in image 9, in particular
in the stack, which is described by five or six isothermal levels in image 9 whilst
only three can be resolved in image 8
Plate 10 Rescaling of images 8 and
9 to the dynamic 'range of the display
Plate 11 Extraction of the contours

after the imposition of thresholds
Plate 12 Bispectral representation

obtained by a linear combination of
the previous images
Plate 13 8-13,um images obtained

with spatial resolution of 0.25 mrad
Plate 14 8-13 fJ-m images obtained

with spatial resolution of 1 mrad
Plate 15 8-13,um images obtained

with spatial resolution of 2 mrad
f'AC.'IIf"lL rilEAMlout::. °c
898
866
843
828
7%
DEFAUT DE SOUDAGE
n3
I
::=~ 7S
°C I~~ .
898
."
..a 8&0 1\ ~
.
i. 843
,
~
829 ~
J
t;.
196 I
m \
7S8
1""- .-- ~
HGH niERtIOCOULWR An 188 tHEJlI1OCOUUlJR

GH
Fig. 16.11 Typical welding results obtained as part of quality control
FICHIER: falck.t PROFILS: 1 A5tj LE 83-61-86 A tj1:05:16
HGH laminazioue 64Bx2,?
-.621 -.31 B .31 .621 m
"
~;(
,'>
}
(
'....,
r'
<...
{
/"
",
)
I
(
PROFIL: ....~r\\. .·. . . ...,.-\r ,~.,"",{\\__,1

I '
. . '. /
8
ECARl : I '"\/'J I
e I
l~P. :
G?7.9 (GU I ·C
Fig. 16.13 Thermal profile of a lamination, recorded with the HGH ATL 020
- .EIZf.l - .U1 II OZ8 n
~--------~ --------~--------~
- .B2fI - .11'1 II .H1 .OZO n
'c
Fig. 16.14 Thermal profiles of a windscreen recorded with the
HGH ATL 020
(a)
(b) ====== (@Jj

LARtlES
Fig. 16.18 Thermography in the cement industry: (a) on-line temperature mon-
itoring of rotary kilns, (b) multiple thermal profiles and alarm limits (HGH-ATL
020)
(a)
84 . Z
73.8
59 . Z
38 . 7
HL9
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 16.21 Thermal mapping using line scanners: (a) glass industry (ATL 050),
(b) paper industry (ATL 020), (c) airborne line scanner (ATL 080).
Fig. 16.22 Thermography in steel industry: (a) thermal monitoring of the rolling
process before adjustment (b) and after adjustment (c).
5 6
8 9
Plate 1 Image showing quantitative levels of heat loss from an industrial

building (source: AGA)
Plate 2 Analysis of the energy loss at the wall-roof junction, based on a
statistical study of the junction zone (source: AGA)
Plate 3 Image of a chimney duct inside a wall (source: HGH)
Plate 4 Image showing the presence of a defect in an industrial chimney
(source HGA)
Plate 5 Thermogram of a high-voltage transformer
Plate 6 Thermogram of power lines at the input of a transformer, showing a
probable loose contact
Plate 7 Thermogram of an abnormally hot junction
Plates 8, 9 Visible image and a thermogram of a power line on a pylon.
Thermography is a means of detecting defects that appear as local hotspots
1
3 4
Plate 10 Visible and infrared images recorded in an industrial environment.
Thermography provides an indication of defects in thermal insulation of piping
Plate 11 Thermogram showing the energy loss from an industrial furnace

Plate 12 Display of heat transfer in the pipes of the turbo compressor of a car
engine (source: GM)
Plate 13 Bispectral image processing, using a zoom on a level histogram in

one of two zones (source: DeAN TOULON)
Plate 14 Thermogram of a circuit board (source: AGA)
15 16
Plate 15 Thermography of a powered micro-electronic circuit (source: HGH)

that allows the determination of the working temperatures of the different
components (HGH documentation)
Plate 16 Thermograph of a power transistor (source: HGH)
Plate 17 Nondestructive testing by
active thermography of the adhesion
of an epoxy resin skin on a honeycomb
structure. Adhesion faults are made
apparent by the presence of layers of
air, which slow down heat transfer
from the surface and create hot
areas. Note the sensitivity of the
method which reveals the honeycomb
structure (source: HGH)
Plate 18 Nondestructive control by

active thermography of voluntary and
calibrated inclusion inside an extruded
plastic material (HGH documenta-
tion)
Plate 19 Thermography of a rotating kiln in a cement factory, displaying

defects in the internal refractory material
Plate 23 Thermogram of the author
Plate 24 High resolution 8-12,um thermal image of the embankment of the

Seine in Paris (source: SAT). Recorded by serial- parallel scanning
Plate 20 Thermographic meas-
urement inside a furnace in the
petrochemical industry. A flame
rejector filter is used to reduce
the influence of hot gases or
flames during the measurement.
Two tubes are clearly over-
heated (source: AGA)
l1li(
Plate 21 Medical ther-

mography: skin temperature
distribution used in a diagnostic
proeedure
l1li(
Plate 22 Visualisation of a gas (~02) by

its infrared emission between 3 and 5.5 ,um
(source: HGH)
Plate 25 The infrared image of a merchant navy ship (note the loss of
uniformity in the response due to the parallel scanning of the detector array on
several levels)
Plate 26 Serial - parallel thermal image (8-12 ,urn) recorded at night with
the TANGO system (TRT - HgTeCd photovoltaic detector cooled by a split-
Sterling cycle machine)
Plate 27 Serial- parallel thermal image (8-12 ,urn) in reverse contrast (hot
spots appear black) recorded at night with the SAT APHRODITE camera
(source: SAT)
Plate 28 Infrared image recorded by a French modular thermal system. Note

the thermal sensitivity of the imaging system that reveals the internal struc-
ture of the hull, e.g., at the rear (source: TRT)
Plate 29 SMT image of a pilot boat in Le Havre harbour. Note again the
thermal sensitivity that is high enough to resolve the characters on the cabin
and some other internal structures of the hull (source : TRT)
Plate 30 Logistic support ship (source : TRT)

Plate 31 Tugboat (source: TRT)
Plate 32 SMT thermal image of a vertical-takeoff aircraft. Note the thermal

sensitivity that reveals the internal structure (TRT)
Plate 33 A helicopter (note the stroboscopic effects of the blades) (source :
TRT)
Plate 34 A fighter aircraft - SMT (8-13 .urn) (source: TRT)

Plate 35 Aerial thermography of the Aries Arena recorded with the TANGO
system (source: TRT)
over
Plate 37 Infrared image of Paris (shown in reverse contrast) (source : TRT)
Plate 36 Thermal image of the Seine. The foreground shows the level of
water in the tanks; it is visible because of the temperature gradient along the
vertical wall; the top looks very cold by reflection from the sky - the unusually
good atmospheric transmission makes it possible to distinguish details in the
background of the bay at 35 km (source: TRT)

(Microwave Technology Series 5) G. Gaussorgues (Auth.) - Infrared Thermography-Springer Netherlands (1994)

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(Microwave Technology Series 5) G. Gaussorgues (Auth.) - Infrared Thermography-Springer Netherlands (1994)

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Infrared Thermography

Microwave Technology Series

1. The Microwave Engineering Handbook Volume 1

2. The Microwave Engineering Handbook Volume 2

3. The Microwave Engineering Handbook Volume 3

4. Solid-state Microwave Generation

6. Phase Locked Loops

7. Frequency Measurement and Control

8. Microwave Integrated Circuits

Original French language edition - La Therrrwgraphie lnfrarouge-

ISBN 978-94-010-4306-9 ISBN 978-94-011-0711-2 (eBook)

2 Origins of Infrared Radiation 8

3 Thermal Emission by Matter 11

3.5 Problems with the reflectance of a material 26

4 Transmission by the Atmosphere 61

5 Optical Materials for the Infrared 103

5.3.2 Thermal properties 115

6 Optical Image Formation 135

7 Scanning and Imaging 213

7.5 Imaging 232

8 Spectral Filtering 244

9 Radiation Detectors 261

9.5.4 Detectivity of heat detectors 273

10 Signal Processing 319

11 Characterisation of infrared systems 340

11.5.5 Measurement of spatial resolution 375

12 Imaging and Measurement 379

13 Choosing the Spectral Band 397

14 Industrial and Military Applications 414

15 Infrared Spectroradiometry 453

16 Line Scanners 471

17 Advances in Thermographic Systems 492

Colour and Black and White Plates 509

Spectral filter Detector

The infrared radiation emitted by a body carries specific information about

In 1800, Sir William Herschel discovered the presence of thermal radiation

vVe begin with some definitions employed in the quantitative measures

1.1 THE RADIOMETRIC CHAIN

The ensemble of phenomena that accompany the emission of radiation by

1.2 RADIANT FLUX

1.3 GEOMETRICAL SPREADING OF A BEAM

Consider a source S and a detector R a distance d apart, and surface

Fig. 1.1 Beam geometry

The geometrical spread of a thin beam subtended by dS and dR is

d2 C = dSdf"'lHS cos (J S = dRdoHR cos (JR = ----:;::----

If the surface S is small and R is circular and sub tends an angle of 2a

If the radiance is uniform, the flux becomes

where T < 1, T = 1 and T > 1 for absorbing, non-absorbing and emitting

The radiance is conserved on refraction

where n is the refractive index of the medium in which the geometrical

where the integral is evaluated over the half-space, E(x. Y) is in W m- 2

Fig. 1.3 Irradiance

Fig. 1.4 Radiant exitance

1.6 RADIANT EXITANCE

where the integral is evaluated over the half-space and R(x, Y) is in W m- 2 .

where the integral is evaluated over the half-space, we have

1. 7 RADIANT INTENSITY OF A SOURCE IN A GIVEN

where L(x,Y) is the luminance distribution over the source.

1.8 QUANTITY OF RADIATION AND EXPOSURE

Its unit is the joule (J).

1.9 BOUGUER'S LAW

Fig. 1.5 Bouguer's law Detector

This inverse square dependence on distance from the source is valid if