Chapter 8

Rock Testing
 INTRODUCTION
 Rock Mechanics is a field of applied science
and has been recognized as a discipline in
engineering since the last four decades.

 It is a study on the mechanical properties and

behaviors of rock under loading (mechanics),
sets of established principles expressing rock
mass response to load, and a logical
methodology for applying these notions and
techniques to real physical problems.

 Rock mechanics is a branch in geotechnical

engineering.
Cont’d

 Rock is defined as mixtures formed of

aggregates of one or more minerals.

 Classified according to their types (mode of

formation) that is igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rock.

 In terms of strength, the boundary between

soil and rock is ≈ 1 MPa.

 Other properties that differentiate between

soils and rocks are density, seismic velocity,
Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and
porosity.
Cont’d

 Among the important scopes in Rock Mechanics:-

(1)Measurement and monitoring of the behaviors and

properties of rock (material and mass) and discontinuities in
rock:
 using specific testing procedures and instrumentations,
in laboratory and in situ.

(2)Determination of rock material constants (rock

parameter/properties) and relevant equations:
 describing the rock behavior; deformability under loading
(shear and compressive), strength, mode of failure and
elastic modulus (E, G and v).

(3)Methods of excavation and design of civil engineering

structures in rock.

(4)Rock stabilization methods (support and reinforcement) for

structure in rock.
 Rock Testing
 Rock is a naturally occurring material and thus, it is inhomogeneous
and anisotropic.

 For artificial material like concrete, its strength can be readily estimated
from its designed mix and behaves relatively more homogeneous
compared to rock.

 Rocks are used either as construction materials (fill and reclamation

material) or as part of an engineering structure (cut slope, foundation,
underground excavation).

 Rock names and classifications (as defined in Geology) do not provide

the numerical values on strength or material properties of rock.

 However, these are essential parameters for the design of structures in

rock and anticipating the potential problems in civil engineering construction
(e.g. method of excavation and stabilizations).

 Rock testing is therefore an important topic in rock mechanics.

Cont’d

 Rock testing is aimed at measuring,

numerically, the behaviors and properties of
rock (in terms of material and mass scale).

 Correct properties and elastic constants of

rock are essential particularly when these
parameters are used as input/data for the
design and simulation of a structure under in
situ loading conditions using specific software
(e.g. Plaxis, G-Slope & Finite Element).

 Input parameters for design include properties

like compressive strength, elastic constants
and shear strength of discontinuities.
Cont’d

 Strengths of rock material and rock mass need to be

evaluated for the civil engineering structures design such:

(1) Shear strength (slope, underground excavation and

foundation).

(2) Tensile strength (foundation and shape and size of an

underground excavation).

(3) Compressive strength (slope, foundation and size of an

underground excavation).

(4) Compressive and tensile strength (stress distribution

around an excavation).
 Types of Rock Testing
 Rock testing is divided into two types (1) laboratory and
(2) in situ test.

 The tests are performed to measure the basic properties,

index properties and engineering properties of rock
(Table 8.3).

 Field or in situ test include plate bearing test, full-scale

shear test, creep test and stress distribution by means of
instrumentations.

 Laboratory tests include compression tests (uniaxial &

triaxial), shear test, creep test, fatigue/dynamic loading
test.
Cont’d

 Testing methods or procedures are divided into:

(a) Index or indirect test

(b) Direct test or strength test

 Recommended method of testing: (ISRM, 1982) =

are with the objective of standardizing test
procedures on all types of rocks.

 For laboratory test using small and intact rock

sample, the effect of specimen size and scale of
rock mass discontinuities (bedding planes,
mineral arrangement, joint/cracks) on laboratory
test data must be evaluated and corrected
accordingly.
 Types of Rock Testing
 Testing methods or procedures are
divided into:

(a) Index or indirect test

(b) Direct test or strength test
 Index or Indirect Test
 Normally does not involved preparation of samples
(which is costly) and test may not be associated with
destruction of samples (non-destructive test or NDT).

 Thus, these tests are relatively easier to undertake and

cheaper.

 Among the tests commonly carried out:

(1) Point-load index test

(2) Schmidt's hammer test (rebound hammer L-type)
(3) Slake durability index test
(4) Brazilian test (indirect tensile test)
(5) Seismic velocity test (PUNDIT test)
 Point-load index test
 A simple and fast to estimate the uniaxial compressive
strength of rock.

 Sample can be in the form of core (cylinder) or irregular

shape (block).

 Equipment is portable and test can be undertaken in the field.

 Point-load index strength obtained (Is) can be used to

estimate the UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (UCS) of
rock tested using the following formula (after Broch & Franklin,
1972):

 σc ≈ 24Is (for core sample diameter = 50mm)

 σc ≈ (14 + 0.175)Is (for platen separation, D ≠ 50mm, size

correction is necessary)
Point-load index test
 Schmidt's hammer test
(rebound hammer L-type)
 Can be conducted using Schmidt's hammer (L-type).

 Test is simple and fast and equipments is portable.

 Test can be undertaken on the surface of block or core samples and

does not involve destruction of sample.

 Index value obtained is rebound number (R) which is a measure of the

degree of hardness of rock surface.

Value of R can be used to estimate the COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ROCK

using the following equation:
Log10 JCS = 0.00088(y)(R) + 1.01 (Franklin, 1989)
Where, JCS (MPa) is the compressive strength of rock surface; y (kN/m3) is
unit weight of rock.

 For fresh rock (weathering grade I), JCS is approximately equals to the
UCS of the rock material.
 Schmidt's hammer test
(rebound hammer L-type)
 Slake’s durability
 Slake's durability test is used for measuring the
'RESISTANCE INDEX' of a rock when SUBJECTED TO
WEATHERING.

 Test is conducted under simulated rapid weathering

condition (soaking of aggregate sample in water).

 Softer and highly weathered rock slakes easily and

slake durability index (Is) is less than 80%.

 For harder or unweathered rock the value of Is is

above 90%.
Slake’s durability
 Brazilian test (indirect tensile test)
 The test is an indirect method for measuring
the TENSILE STRENGTH of rock.

 Direct tensile test on rock sample is relatively

difficult and expensive to undertake.

 Sample, in the form of disc-shaped, is loaded

under compression until failure.

 Tensile strength of rock is much less than its

compressive strength, normally about 5 to
10% of UCS.
Brazilian test (indirect tensile test)
 Ultrasonic Velocity Test
 This is the test for estimating the DEGREE OF DENSENESS OF ROCK.

 PRIMARY (P) WAVE travels FASTER in DENSER MATERIAL.

 Typical P-WAVE VELOCITY (VP) for materials like top soils and clays is
LESS THAN 2000m/s compared to HARD ROCK that may EXCEED 3000m/s.

 Rock of LOW POROSITY also exhibits a HIGHER P-WAVE VELOCITY.

 P-wave velocity can be used to DIFFERENTIATE between SOIL and ROCK

material and also as a GUIDE FOR ROCK CLASSIFICATION.

 If VELOCITY OF SECONDARY (S) WAVE (VS) is also measured in PUNDIT

test (using a SPECIAL TRANSDUCER), a number of DYNAMIC material
properties (e.g. dynamic elastic modulus, E and v) of rock sample can be
approximated using, e.g. E:

 E = [(VS2 * γ)/g][(3 * (Vp/ Vs)2 - 4)/((Vp/ Vs)2 - 1)]

 Where γ is unit weight of sample (kN/m3) and g is gravitational pull.

Ultrasonic Velocity Test
Cont’d
 In summary, INDIRECT or INDEX TESTS do NOT PROVIDE
DIRECTLY the STRENGTH OF THE ROCK.

 STRENGTH of the rock material is measured NUMERICALLY using

an INDEX and CONVERTED TO STRENGTH using SPECIFIC
CORRELATION (e.g. UCS estimated from hammer rebound number).

 STRENGTH VALUE obtained is LESS ACCURATE however, tests are

relatively EASIER and CHEAPER to conduct.

 INSTRUMENTS are also PORTABLE and EASY to handle.

 Test can be conducted on IRREGULAR SAMPLES and ON ROCK

SURFACE.

 NON-DESTRUCTIVE NATURES of some tests allow samples to be

REUSED for other tests.

 Although, the value of strength obtained is LESS ACCURATE but tests

can be done in a LARGE NUMBER thus, improve the average
strength value for better estimation on rock strength.
 Direct or Strength Test
 DIRECT TESTS require DETAILED SAMPLE
PREPARATION (size and shape) using specific
laboratory equipments.

 ROCK SAMPLES are usually TESTED UNTIL

FAILURE to give their strength value DIRECTLY.

 Equipments used in the test are COMPLEX, BULKY

and EXPENSIVE.

 These factors make direct test MORE EXPENSIVE and

thus LIMITED TO ROCK PARAMETERS that are
essential for design purposes.
Cont’d

 Among tests normally conducted are:

(1) Permeability test.

(2) Deformation modulus - modulus of elasticity

E and Poisson's ratio, v.

(3) Unconfined compression test (UCT) &

Triaxial compression test.

(4) Shear test on discontinuity planes (e.g. joint,

bedding and foliation).
Uniaxial Compression Test (UCT)
 This test requires specific sample preparation (as recommended by ISRM)
that involved coring, trimming and lapping.

 Sample is cylindrical shape of 52 mm diameter (NX Barrel) & height greater than
2 x diameter.

 UNIAXIAL/ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (UCS) of rock sample is

determined by-loading the sample under compression until failure.

 Machine used is high capacity compression machine (Figure 8.6).

 Besides UCS (MPa), if uniaxial strain (εa) and lateral strain (εr) are
measured during testing, value of Young's modulus (E) and Poisson ratio
(v) of the rock sample can also be determined.

 Graph that normally plotted is STRESS (MPa) versus uniaxial and lateral
STRAIN (%) (stress-strain curve), such as Figure 8.7.

 From this plot, the following parameters can be obtained:

 E = σ / εa
Cont’d
 Typical value of E for rock is between 3 – 90 GPa (Table
8.1).

 UCS or σc of rock varies between rock types, e.g. 50 MPa

for marble up to 500 MPa for quartzite.

 The strength also varies between rocks of similar type

obtained from different locality.

 Poisson's ratio is calculated as:

 V = εr / (-εa)

 Typical v for rock is between 0.10 and 0.3 as shown in

Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Typical values of modulus of elasticity for fresh rock (Stacey & Page, 1986)

Rock type Young's modulus E (GPa) Poisson's ratio, v

Andesite, Basalt 60 0.20

Gabbro, Dolerile 90 0.20
Coal 3 0.42
Dolomite 70 0. 1 5
Gneiss 60 0.24
Granite 60 0.22
Limestone 70 0.30
Quartzite 80 0.17
Sandstone 20 0.15
Syal 12 0.10
Cont’d

 Table 8.2 shows the typical static mechanical properties

(index and strength) of some common rock types (after
Bengt Stillbog, 1986).

 MODE OF FAILURE of rock sample after compression

also INDICATES ITS STRENGTH.

 Unlike soils, ROCKS FAIL EXPLOSIVELY in a SUDDEN

MANNER under uniaxial compression.

 Occasionally FRACTURE PLANES are distinctive.

 This indicates their brittleness, i.e. higher stress and

smaller strain at failure.

 Typical modes of failure for rock samples are shown in

Figure 8.10 (Farmer 1982).
 Table 8.2 Typical static mechanical properties of some common
rock types (after Bengt Stillborg, 1986)

Unconfined
Tensile Modulus of Point load
compressive Angle of
Rock class Rock type Strength σt elasticity E Index
strength σc Friction, Ø°
[MPa] [GPa] Is(50)[MPa]
[MPa]
Limestone 50 - 200 5-20 20 - 70 0.5 - 7 33 -40
Mudstone 5-15 - - 0.1 -6 -
Sedimentary rock Sandstone 50- 150 5-15 15-50 0.2-7 25-35
Siltstone 5 - 200 2-20 20-50 6- 10 27-31
Shale 50- 100 2- 10 5 -30 - 27
Gneiss 100-200 5-20 30-70 2- 11 23 - 29
Metamorphic rock Marble 100-200 5-20 30-70 2-12 25 - 35
Quartz 200 - 400 25 - 30 50-90 5- 15 48
Basalt 100-300 10- 15 40-80 9- 14 31 -38
Igneous rock Gabbro 100 - 300 10-15 40- 100 6- 15 -
Granite 100-200 5-20 30-70 5- 10 29-35
Mode of failure of rock under compression: crushing, fracture plane and barreling (ductile)
 Triaxial Compression Test
 This test is to evaluate the STRENGTH OF ROCK
UNDER CONFINED CONDITIONS, representing
rock occurring at depth (σ = ρgh).

 These include rock material in HIGH SLOPE and

material at TUNNEL WALLS.

 Under CONFINED CONDITION, rock is STRONGER

and at relatively HIGHER CONFINED STRESS may
exhibit DUCTILE (strain-hardening) behavior.

 Besides compression machine, the test requires a

Hoek's Cell (Figure 8.8) to GENERATE
CONFINEMENT STRESS.
Cont’d

 Testing procedures are similar to UCT (Uniaxial

Compression Test).

 Each test is conducted at specific confining stress to

simulate stress at depth.

 For triaxial compression test on rock discontinuities,

triaxial test is used to obtain the shear strength
parameters of the discontinuities (г and Ø).

 Triaxial compression test is important to evaluate the

strength of rock in construction of underground
excavations located very deep below ground surface
(cavern for power house) and underground cavity for
radioactive disposals.

 The test is also essential for evaluating strength of

bed rock for foundation of heavy structures.
Triaxial compression test set-up
Compression
machine
Hoek Cell
Constant
Pressure Unit
 Shear Test
 The test is done on rock sample and is important in project involving EXCAVATION
OF FRACTURED and JOINTED ROCK.

 Shear test is normally conducted on WEAKNESS PLANES IN ROCK (joint, fault and
bedding plane).

 Failure and instability in rock mass (plane, wedge, toppling and rock fall) are usually
associated with WEAKNESS PLANES.

 Thus to evaluate the stability of CUT SLOPES and TUNNEL WALLS, the shear
strength of the discontinuities in the in-situ rock must be evaluated using
laboratory test or field test (if necessary).

 Sampling of DISCONTINUITIES for laboratory test is EXPENSIVE and COMPLEX.

 Depending on the roughness scale of the discontinuity surface sample up to 300 x 300
mm may be required

 CORE SAMPLES obtained during site investigation may also be used for laboratory test.

 During SAMPLING AND SAMPLE PREPARATION, care and precaution must be taken
to ensure simple is NOT DISTURBED.
Portable shear box apparatus
 Direct shear apparatus

Direct shear apparatus with Shear box assembly for 300 × 300 mm
servo-controlled system square-shape joint block.
(a) and (b) types of in situ shear test. (c) shear test on unconfining sliding block at constant normal load (d) shear test
on confined sliding block, variable normal load to ensure constant normal displacement (Bradey & Brown, 1985)
 Parameters affecting laboratory testing

Standard testing and sample preparation procedures (ISRM 1982)

are mainly to MINIMIZE factors affecting data obtained from a test.
Among the factors include:

 TESTING PROCEDURES - test procedures according to standard

methods.

 ENVIRONMENT (mainly laboratory test) - temperature and humidity.

 SPECIMEN SIZE (when discontinuities are included in the sample;

core sample of clastic sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock).

 SPECIMEN SHAPE (e.g. D:L and H:D ratio)

 LOADING RATE (kN/s), STRAINING RATE (% strain/s) and
SHEARING RATE (mm/s) - the higher the loading rate, the lower
the strength. (ISRM recommended range: 0.1 to 0.001 millistrain/s
or corresponding to 1,000 to 10 psi/s

 DEGREE OF SATURATION OF SAMPLE (normally tested under

saturated condition or report on sample saturation during test).

 FLATNESS AND SMOOTHNESS OF SPECIMEN SURFACES

(bending and flexural effect on compression, cracks may initiates
failure).

 END-CONDITION OR CONTACT BETWEEN SAMPLE AND

LOADING PLATENS (standard surface finish of sample and platen
and platen material).

 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT END-CONDITIONS AND H/D RATIO on

compressive strength is shown in Figure 8.12.
 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT END-CONDITIONS AND H/D RATIO on compressive
strength.
 For a given simple diameter (D), ultimate compressive strength (σult) decreases
with increasing sample height (H).
 For H/D greater than 2.0 σult remains constant, thus the recommended H/D > 2
to eliminate size effect.

 End-conditions also affect σult.

 The stronger the end platens (graphite, rubber and steel) the higher is the σult.
(note: an important aspect in designing a pillars size in underground coal mining).

 STIFFNESS OF COMPRESSION MACHINE USE - stiff loading column or machine

equipped with closed-loop servo-controlled loading system to reduce sudden/violent
post failure mode.

 THE STATE OF STRESS (remnant stress) in tie rock mass may affect the strength of
rock sample obtained for testing.

Most of the above effect CANNOT BE ELIMINATED but can be MINIMIZED through
STANDARD PROCEDURES (ISRM, ASTM, U.S. Bureau of Mines, South African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy).
 Discontinuities in rock and
their effect on strength
 Strength of rock material and rock mass
consist of COMPRESSION (uniaxial and triaxial),
TENSILE, SHEAR (discontinuity planes) and
other strength properties like fatigue and creep.

 Depending on the SCALE being considered

(MATERIAL or rock MASS scale), the strength
of rock is affected by the presence of
DISCONTINUITIES (big and small scale) in rock.

 The most important effect is strength reduction.

Cont’d
 For small laboratory rock sample, it is affected by minerals
arrangement and how cleavage such as schistoscity (Figure 8.13) in
metamorphic rock.

 On a larger scale, rock masses are affected by geological structures

and discontinuities like bedding, joint and fault (Figure 8.14).

 The degree of strength reduction depends on loading orientation

with respect to discontinuity planes.

 Figure 8.15 shows the effect of single joint and multiple joint-set
under different inclination of uniaxial compression.

 In many cases luck exhibits multiple joint sets hence, it is weakened

in all directions (3rd curve in).

 In laboratory testing it is important to note the direction of loading

with respect to rock anisotropy.

 Strength parameters of a rock mass that exhibits small and large-scale

discontinuities are more appropriately assessed using in-situ large-scale
testing (e.g. in-situ shear and plate bearing test).
Cont’d

 WEATHERING also affects the strength of rock.

 DEGREE OF ROCK WEATHERING is usually evaluated by SITE

ASSESSMENT.

 Table 8.4 describes degree of weathering of rock mass (Zone 1 to

Zone 6) and rock material (Grade I to Grade VI).

 Table 8.4 can be used to estimate the strength reduction of the rock.

 It is important to differentiate between ZONE (rock mass) and

GRADE (rock material).

 Since WEATHERING GRADE could only be assessed

SUBJECTIVELY with little information on numerical value of
weathering degree, the effect of weathering is relatively DIFFICULT
to be INCLUDED IN DESIGN.

 SLAKE DURABILITY TEST may be used to assessed the degree of

weathering numerically.
 Summary
 Geology – Normally referred as General Geology:
Intro (planet, earth etc), Minerals, Rocks (Igneous,
Sedimentary & Metamorphic), Weathering, Agents
& Geological structures etc.

 Engineering Geology – Application of Geology in

Engineering: S.I, Geophysics, Slope, Tunnel,
foundation on rock etc.

 Rock Mechanics – Rock Testing: Field & Lab

Test, rock strength & properties of rock (basic,
index or engineering etc).
End of the Chapter 8…

Q & A
 Laboratory test In situ test
Properties

Rock | Soil Rock Soil

Table 8.3: (a) BASIC PROPERTIES

Measurement Specific gravity

porosity
X X

X
of Void ratio X

geotechnical Moisture content X X X X

Density: X X X X
properties of Natural X X
Maximum X X
rock and soil Minimum
Relative
X
X
(after Hunt, Hardness X

1984) Durability X

Sonic-wave characteristics X X X X

(b) INDEX PROPERTIES

Grain-size distribution X

Liquid limit X

Plastic limit X

Plasticity index X

Shrinkage limit X

Chemical test (organic, SCX pH) X

Uniaxial compression X

Point-load Index X

(c) ENGINEERING PROPRETIES

Permeability X X X X

Deformation modulus X X X X

Consolidation X X

[ixpansion X X X X

Strength: X X X X
Unconfined X X
Confined

California bearing ratio (CBR) X X

 Figure 8.13 Effect on flow cleavage
(schistosity) on strength of rock material
Figure 8.14 Scale effect – transition from intact rock to
heavily jointed rock mass with increasing sample size
Figure 8.15 The influence of weakness or discontinuity planes
on strength, e.g joint orientation with respect to loading axis
Table 8.4 Description of zone and weathering grade of rock (Attwell, 1993)
 Figure 8.6 UCS Test

Conventional compression Compression machine with

machine 2000kN servo –controlled system
Figure 8.7 Stress versus strain