INTRODUCTION

Cardiovasular system consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood. It has three major
functions: transportation of materials, protection from pathogens, and regulation of the body’s
homeostasis. It is powered by the body's hardest working organ called heart, which size is only about
the size of a your closed fist while its main fuel is the blood which transport through blood vessels and
responsible for carrying oxygen, nutrients, hormones and cellular waste products throughout the body.
There are two (2) primary circulatory loops in the human body: Pulmonary circulation transports
deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs, where the blood picks up oxygen and
returns to the left side of the heart. The pumping chambers of the heart that support the pulmonary
circulation loop are the right atrium and right ventricle while Systemic circulation carries highly
oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to all of the tissues of the body (with the exception of
the heart and lungs). Systemic circulation removes wastes from body tissues and returns deoxygenated
blood to the right side of the heart. The left atrium and left ventricle of the heart are the pumping
chambers for the systemic circulation loop.
From the heart, blood travel through blood vessels that serves as the body’s highways that allow
blood to flow quickly and efficiently from the heart to every reflow quickly and efficiently from the heart
to every region of the body and back again. The size of blood vessels corresponds with the amount of
blood that passes through the vessel. There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries
and veins. Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Blood carried by arteries is
usually highly oxygenated, having just left the lungs on its way to the oxygenated, having just left the
lungs on its way to the body’s tissues. Arteries face high levels of blood pressure as they carry blood
being pushed from the heart under great force. To withstand this pressure, the walls of the arteries are
thicker, more elastic, and more muscular than those of other vessels while capillaries are the smallest
and thinnest of the blood vessels in the body and also the most common. They can be found running
throughout almost every tissue of the body and border the edges of the body’s avascular tissues and
lastly, Veins which are the large return vessels of the body and act as the blood return counterparts of
arteries. Because the arteries, arterioles, and capillaries absorb most of the force of the heart’s
contractions, veins and venules are subjected to very low blood pressures. This lack of pressure allows
the walls of veins to be much thinner, less elastic, and less muscular than the walls of arteries.

Blood helps to maintain homeostasis of nutrients, wastes, and gases. Blood is made up of red
blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and liquid plasma: Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes,
are by far the most common type of blood cell. Erythrocytes are produced inside of red bone marrow
from stem cells and with the shape of biconcave—disks with a concave curve on both sides of the disk
so that the center of an erythrocyte is its thinnest part. White blood cells, also known as leukocytes,
make up a very small percentage of the total number of cells in the bloodstream, but have important
functions in the body’s immune system. There are two major classes of white blood cells: granular
leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) and agranular (lymphocytes and monocytes).
Platelets also known as thrombocytes, are small cell fragments responsible for the clotting of blood and
the formation of scabs and lastly, plasma is the non-cellular or liquid portion of the blood that makes up
about 55% of the blood’s volume. Plasma is a mixture of water, proteins, and dissolved substances.

The heart rate is one of the 'vital signs,' or the important indicators of health in the human body. It
measures the number of times per minute that the heart contracts or beats. The speed of the heartbeat
varies as a result of physical activity, threats to safety, and emotional responses. It is normal for the
heart rate to vary throughout the day in response to exercise, anxiety, excitement, and fear. However, a
person should not normally be aware of their resting heartbeat. The resting heart rate refers to the
heart rate when a person is relaxed.

The pulse rate is exactly equal to the heartbeat, as the contractions of the heart cause the
increases in blood pressure in the arteries that lead to a noticeable pulse. Taking the pulse is, therefore,
a direct measure of heart rate. Cardiovascular training aims to reduce the target heart rate. The ideal
target heart rate reduces with age. It is also worth noting the maximum heart rate. This demonstrates
the full capability of the heart, and it is normally reached through high-intensity exercise. The speed of
the heart is not the only factor to bear in mind when considering its health. The rhythm of the heartbeat
is important too. The heart should beat with a steady rhythm, and there should be a regular gap
between beats.

METHODOLOGY

A. Pulse Rate
First, pulse points was located by placing the right index and middle finger on the palm side of
the left wrist, on the neck or located to the beneath the ear and jawbone. Pulse will be count for 15
seconds and will multiply by 4 to get the bpm (beats per minute). Set of activity like running in place,
jumping jacks and toe touches will perform and pulse will immediately calculated after the each activity
for 15 seconds and then multiply by four. Pulse rate will calculate again after 3 minutes of rest.

B. Blood counting
Middle or ring finger will be clean using the cotton swab and dipped from 75% ethanol. The
procedure was applied to disinfect the surface of skin. Finger will be pricked using the lancet and use
cleaned RBC dilution pipette tip to collect 0.5 mm from the droplet of blood. Using a small tube of
Sodium-Citrate solution, solution will be added to the pippette. Gently turn the dilution tube then
introduce the diluted blood to haemocytometer. Count the instructed blood cells from the finer grid.

C. Alkalosis and Acidosis of Blood

Tic-tac-toe lay-out will be draw, Values of pH, paCO2 and HCO2 will be analyze using the given
table then lastly, Mnemonic RO-ME will be use.