Proses Manufaktur Logam 2017-01 RS K3 FORGING PDF

FORGING
An Introductory Lecture
FTUI
Introduction
Forging is a metal forming process in which

the work piece is shaped by compressive
forces applied directly by hammering or
pressing through various tools and dies
RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

FTUI Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia 2
Horseshoes
Blacksmith
A hammer and other iron tools

FTUI Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia
Basic Forging (Video Lecturing by Forging Industry Association)
FTUI
Products
• Majority of forging products are discrete
parts/components for a variety of
engineering applications.
• The products involve bolts and rivets,
connecting rods, shaft for turbines, gears,
hand tools, and structural components for
machinery, automotive, aircraft, and a
variety of other transportation equipment.

Source: Forging Industry Association

Source: Forging Industry Association

Landing-gear components for the C5A and
C5B transport aircraft, made by forging.
Source: Wyman-Gordon Company

Blades for Gas Turbine, made by forging
Source: Cblade Italia

Forged Aluminum Pistons and Connecting Rods
Source: the Aluminum Association

Process
• Forging process may be done at room

temperature (cold forging) or at elevated
temperature (hot forging, warm forging).
• Forging generally require additional
finishing operations, such as heat
treating and machining.

Cold Forged Parts

Hot Forged Parts

Outline of Forging and Related Operations

Equipment and Tooling
• A variety of forging machines are in use
with a range of capacities, speeds, and
speed-stroke characteristics. These are
generally classified as: presses or
hammers.
• Selection of proper equipment and tooling
depends on such factors involving
characteristics of materials, process, and
geometry as well as economic.

General view of a 40,000 ton forging press.
Source: theAluminum Association.
General view of a 445 MN (50,000 ton)
hydraulic press.
Source: Wyman-Gordon Company.

Advantages
Structural Directional
Integrity Strength
Optimum
Dynamic
Material
Properties
Use

Advantages
• Improved internal quality due to

compressive deformation
– Uniform grain structure
– Elimination of casting porosity
– Breaking of macrosegregation pattern

Advantages
• Beneficial grain-flow pattern for

improved part performance
– Improved toughness due to grain-flow pattern
and fibering
– Improved fatigue resistance due to grain-flow
pattern

Advantages
• Controlled surface quality
– Burnished surface can have improved fatigue
resistance due to quality of as-forged surface
• High through put due to potentially high
rates of forming
• Ability to produce a net shape or near
net shape part

Refinement of Microstructure

Grain Flow Pattern
A part made by three different processes, showing grain flow.

(a) casting, (b) machining, (c) forging. Source: Forging Industry Association.

Grain Flow Pattern
• Grain flow pattern refers to the combination of (1) grain
shape and (2) stringering of nonmetallic inclusions
that develop with metal flow.
• Together, these can produce a "fiber” that results in
anisotropic behavior in the workpiece.
• The anisotropy is most easily identified by differences
in ductility, toughness, and fatigue resistance for
longitudinal, transverse, and short-transverse
directions.
• Both hot and cold deformation result in directionality of
mechanical properties in the forging, respectively.

Grain Flow Pattern
• If the grain flow can be aligned in the direction of
maximum tension in the part during service, superior
performance will be achieved. The resistance to crack
initiation and propagation is highest in the direction
normal to the grain flow because the grain boundaries
and elongated inclusions act to blunt advancing
cracks.
• If the tension is normal to the fiber direction, the fiber
will enhance crack propagation, hence transverse and
especially through-thickness directions have lower
dynamic properties such as toughness and fatigue than
the longitudinal direction.
Grain Flow Pattern
• Figure 30 shows grain-flow patterns for a channel
section forged with different parting-line locations.
• Because the grain-flow pattern breaks out to the part
surface at the parting line, any stress during service
that is normal to the parting line will act
perpendicular to the weakest planes. These planes
are the easiest to fracture along, for example, the short-
transverse equivalent position.
• Because a channel will usually be stressed in a
direction normal to it (flexing the channel legs to open
or close), the grain flow pattern in Fig. 30(b) is least
detrimental.
Fig. 30 Parting-line location and its influence
on grain-flow pattern in a channel section forging
(a) Parting lines resulting in metal-flow patterns that cause forging defects.

(b) Parting lines resulting in smooth flow lines at stressed sections.
Source: Ref 24

Extrusion Forging
Source: The Open University's OpenLearn website

Extruded Gear
Forged Gear

(Impression Die Forging)

Characteristics
of Forging Processes
Process Advantages Limitations
Open die Simple, inexpensive dies; useful for small quantities; Limited to simple shapes; difficult to hold close
wide range of sizes available; good strength tolerances; machining to final shape necessary; low
characteristics production rate; relatively poor utilization of material;
high degree of skill required
Closed die Relatively good utilization of material; High die cost for small quantities; machining often
generally better properties than open-die necessary
forgings; good dimensional accuracy; high production
rates; good reproducibility
Blocker type Low die costs; high production rates Machining to final shape necessary; thick webs and
large fillets necessary
Conventional type Requires much less machining than blocker type; high Somewhat higher die cost than blocker type
production rates; good utilization of material
Precision type Close tolerances; machining often unnecessary; very Requires high forces, intricate dies, and provision for
good material utilization; very thin webs and flanges removing forging from dies
possible

Open Die Forging
• Carried out on billets or bars using flat
dies/dies of simple shape.
• Material is free to move in at least one
direction.
• Used for making large objects or for small
production runs.
• Also used for pre-forming work piece for
closed die forging.

Edging Dies
• Used to shape ends
of bars and to gather
metal for subsequent
operations.
• Die usually have
concave surfaces
which cause metal to
flow to center of die
producing thickening.

Fullering Dies
• Used to reduce cross

section of part of
stock.
• Material can be made
to flow away from
central part of die or
to gather there.

Drawing Dies
• Also used to reduce

cross section but
operation carried out
on end of bar and
used to increase
length
• Die is usually convex

Swaging
• Also drawing down

operation but
incorporates concave
dies.

Cogging
Two views of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar. Blacksmiths use this process to reduce
the thickness of bars by hammering the part on an anvil. Note the barreling of the workpiece.

Cogging
Compressive
Force
Workpiece

Upsetting
• Compression between two flat dies.
• Simplest forging operation (used originally to
produce nail hands).
• Compressive force causes the metal to flow
laterally, BUT this is opposed by friction at the
surface of the dies.
• As a result, deformation is greatest at the center
and barreling occurs.
• The effect of friction in restraining metal flow is
used in advantage to produce shapes with
simple dies.

Upsetting
Ideal Non Ideal
Condition Condition
F Compressive F
Force
Work Friction
piece Force
H0
D0 Metal Friction Barelling
Flow forces
Flat Die/
Platen
Homogenoeous Non Uniform

Deformation Deformation
Bolt/Nut
FTUI
Heading/Upset Forging
Heading operation, to form heads on fasteners such as nails and rivets.

Cold Heading & Threading
2 3
4
1
Sequence of operations to produce
a bolt head by heading.

Upsetting Ratio

Buckling
• Generally speaking upset ratio h/d are
kept below 2.5 (one stroke) or below 4.5
(two stroke) to prevent buckling.

Permissible Deformation

Upsetting Force

Problem 1
• A solid cylindrical slug made of 304
Stainless Steel is 150 mm in diameter and
100 mm high. It is reduced in height by
50% at room temperature by open die
forging with flat dies.
• Assuming that the coefficient of friction is
0.2, calculated the forging force at the end
of the stroke.

Problem 1
• A cylindrical part is warm upset forged in an
open die. Do = 50 mm and ho = 40 mm. Final
height = 20 mm. Coefficient of friction at the die-
work interface = 0.20. The work material has a
flow curve defined by: K = 600 MPa and n =
0.12.
• Determine the force in the operation (a) just as
the yield point is reached (yield at strain =
0.002), (b) at h = 30 mm, and (c) at h = 20 mm.
R a h m a t S a p t o n o - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008/9

FTUI Faculty of Engineering University of Indonesia - 67
Problem 2
• A hot upset forging operation is performed in an
open die. The initial size of the work part is: Do =
25 mm, and ho = 50 mm. The part is upset to a
diameter = 50 mm.
• The work metal at this elevated temperature
yields at 85 MPa (n = 0). Coefficient of friction at
the die-work interface = 0.40.
• Determine: (a) final height of the part, and (b)
maximum force in the operation.

Production of Valve Lifter
1. Initial blank
2. Pre-form
3. Final heading

Seamless Rolled Ring
Forging Process
FTUI
Producing a ring "preform" by
the open die forging process
Rolled ring
forging process

• Starting stock cut to size by
weight is first rounded, then
upset to achieve structural
integrity and directional
grain flow.
• Work piece is punched, then

pierced to achieve starting
"donut“ shape needed for ring
rolling process.
• Completed pre-form is ready

for placement on ring mill for
rolling.

• Ring rolling process begins
with the idler roll applying
pressure to the pre-form
against the drive roll.
• Ring diameters are increased

as the continuous pressure
reduces the wall thickness.
• The axial rolls control the

height of the ring as it is being
rolled
• The process continues until

the desired size is achieved.

Typical Spindle-shaped Part
Forging Process
FTUI
• Rough forging a heated billet
between flat dies to the
maximum diameter
dimension.
• A "fuller" tool marks the

starting "step" locations on
the fully rounded workpiece.

• Forging or "drawing" down
the first step to size.
• The second step is drawn

down to size. Note how the
part elongates with each
process step as the material
is being displaced
• "Planishing" the rough

forging for a smoother
surface finish and to keep
stock allowance to a
minimum.

Closed Die Forging
• 3D control of metal is possible using

matching machined die blocks.
BUT
• large production runs are necessary to
justify cost of these expense.

Impression Die Forging
Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet.

Note the formation of flash, which is excess metal that is
subsequently trimmed off

Standard Terminology
Web
Rib
Standard terminology for various features of a typical impression-forging die.

Stages in forging a connecting rod

Stages in forging a connecting rod
• Forging billet is usually prepared by edging and
fullering to distribute metal in appropriate
thickness for subsequent forging.
• Pre-shaped billet then placed into cavity of
blocking or roughing die and rough forged into
shape.
• Transfer then made to finishing die where part is
forged to final shape and dimension.
• Part is then trimmed to remove flash.

Fullering and Edging
Fullering (spreading) and edging (gathering) operations to

distribute the material when pre-shaping the blank for forging.

Finishing and Trimming
Note the amount of flash required to

ensure proper filling of the die cavities

Blocker
Blocking and finishing cavities

are usually machined into same
die block.
Fullering (spreading) and

edging (gathering) impression
are often placed on edges of die
block.

Blocker

Flash
• Sufficient metal must be used to fill die cavity.
To achieve this, a slight excess is normally
required. The excess is squeezed out as flash.
• Flash regulates escapes of metal from die cavity
by increasing flow resistance due to:
– Progressive thinning of flash section.
– Increasing flow stress due to rapid cooling flash.
• Flash gutter is incorporated in dies to stop flash
widens excessively and to allow dies to fully
close.
Forging with Flash VS Flashless Forging

Trimming & Punching

Factor Influencing Die Filling
• FORGING TEMPERATURE
• FORGEABILITY
• FRICTION AND LUBRICATION
• DIE TEMPERATURE
• SHAPE

Forging Temperature
• Increasing temperature
– Decreases flow stress
– Increases ductility
– Promotes die fill
• Maximum forging temperature is limited by
excessive grain growth or hot shortness.
• Forging is usually finished at low enough
temperature to avoid excessive grain growth.

Forgeability
• Defined as capability of a metal to undergo
deformation in forging without cracking
BUT often considered to also include
FLOW STRESS.
• Materials with good forge-ability is then:
one which can be shaped with low force
without cracking.

Friction and Lubrication
• Die lubricants are used to reduce friction:
– Reduce Forging Load;
– Reduce Die Wear;
– Increase Material Flow.
• Lubricants must be:
– Low corrosion;
– Low toxicity;
– Low coefficient of friction.
• Graphite in various dispersion is used most
commonly.

Ideal deformation of
a solid cylindrical
specimen
compressed
between flat dies.
This process is
known as upsetting.
(a) frictionless
(b) with friction at
the die-
workpiece
interfaces.

Schematic illustration of progressive in-homogenous
deformation in the compression of a cylinder with
interface friction

Die Temperature
• Heated dies are often used:
– Improve die filling
– Reduce die pressure
– Does not chill surface of Forging.

Shape
• Die filling is easiest for parts of simple shape
which have low surface area to volume ratios.
– Spheroidal and block like parts.
• Parts with large surface area to volume ratios,
e.g. parts with thin and long sections or
projections, experience greater frictional
resistant and also greater temperature
variations.
• As a result, higher pressure is required to fill die
cavity.

Coining
(a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. the earliest coins were made by open-die forging
and lacked sharp details. (b) An example of a coining operation to produce an impression of the letter
E on a block of metal.

Roll-Forging
Two examples of the roll-forging operation, also known as cross-rolling.
Tapered leaf springs and knives can be made by this process.
Source: (a) J. Holub; (b) reprinted with permission of General Motors Corporation.

Production of Bearing Blanks
(a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process.

(b) Production of steel balls by upsetting a cylindrical blank.
Note the formation of flash. The balls made by these processes are subsequently
ground and polished for use in ball bearings (see Sections 25.6 and 25.10).

Orbital Forging
Various movements of the upper die

in orbital forging (also called rotary,
swing, or rocking-die forging); the
process is similar to the action of a
mortar and pestle.
An example of orbital forging. Bevel gears, wheels, and rings for

bearings can be made by this process

Swaging
Schematic illustration of Forming internal profiles on a

the rotary-swaging tubular workpiece by swaging.
process.
A die-closing type swaging machine, Typical parts made by swaging.

showing forming of a stepped shaft.

Swaging of Tubes With and
Without a Mandrel
(a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel; not the increase in wall thickness in the die gap.
(b) Swaging with a mandrel; note that the final wall thickness of the tube depends on the mandrel
diameter.
(c) Examples of cross-sections of tubes produced by swaging on shaped mandrels. Rifling (spiral
grooves) in small gun barrels can be made by this process.

Defects in Forged Parts
Labs formed by web buckling during forging; web thickness should be

increased to avoid this problem
Internal defects caused by oversized billet; die cavities are filled

prematurely, and the material at the center flows past the filled regions
as the dies close.

Die and Die Inserts Materials
Die inserts used in dies for forging an automotive axle housing.

Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1985. Used with permission.

Forging Machines
Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (a) Hydraulic

press. (b) Mechanical press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft can be
replaced by a crankshaft to give the up-and-down motion to the ram. (continued)

Forging Machines
Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (c) Knuckle-joint

press. (d) Screw press. (e) Gravity drop hammer.

Speed Range of Forging Equipment
Equipment m/s
Hydraulic press 0.06–0.30
Mechanical press 0.06–1.5
Screw press 0.6–1.2
Gravity drop hammer 3.6–4.8
Power drop hammer 3.0–9.0
Counterblow hammer 4.5–9.0

Range of k Values for Equation F=kYfA
Simple shapes, without flash 3–5

Simple shapes, with flash 5–8
Complex shapes, with flash 8–12

Load Characteristic
P3
• Loads are
P2 comparatively low
Load until more difficult
details are partly filled
and metal reaches
P1 flash opening.
Strokes

• Two conditions must be fulfilled at this point
(P1):
– Sufficient metal must be trapped with die to fill
remaining cavity.
– Difficulty of extruding metal through narrow flash must
exceed that of filling difficult details.
• Final stages of die filling requires highest loads
(P2 to P3) particularly in die closing when final
shape is formed.

Unit Cost in Forging
Typical unit cost (cost per piece) in forging; note how the setup and the tooling costs per piece
decrease as the number of pieces forged increases, if all pieces use the same die.

Relative Unit Costs of a Small Connecting Rod
Relative unit costs of a small connecting rod made by various forging and casting
processes. Note that, for large quantities, forging is more economical. Sand casting is
the more economical process for fewer than about 20,000 pieces.


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FORGING

Forging is a metal forming process in which

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

A hammer and other iron tools

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

Source: Wyman-Gordon Company

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

Source: Cblade Italia

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

Source: the Aluminum Association

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

• Forging process may be done at room

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

• Improved internal quality due to

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

• Beneficial grain-flow pattern for

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

A part made by three different processes, showing grain flow.

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

Source: The Open University's OpenLearn website

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

Source: The Open University's OpenLearn website

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

Source: The Open University's OpenLearn website

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

• Used to reduce cross

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

• Also used to reduce

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

• Also drawing down

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

Homogenoeous Non Uniform

Heading operation, to form heads on fasteners such as nails and rivets.

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9

R a h m a t S a p t o n o - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008/9

R a h m a t S a p t o n o - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008/9

RAHMAT SAPTONO - Department of Metallurgy and Materials DoM 2008-9