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INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURE:
in the broadest sense any material object that is able to sustain loads (forces) may be called a structure
(3, p.11).
This includes objects in nature such as land and water, animals and plants, in the universe such as stars,
planets, solar systems and galaxies, as well as man-made objects such as buildings, bridges, vehicles,
furniture, appliances etc.
the OBJECT, defined by its SHAPE and the MATERIAL it is made of, and the LOADING the object is
subjected to.
In order to understand structure in its essence and its totality we must first consider shape, material and
loading in turn and than combine them to form an integrated whole: structure.
We will be concentrating on building structure, but while looking at buildings and the structures that
make them stand up we should always be aware that buildings form only one part of the world of
structure.
In order to be universally valid our investigation must address itself to the much wider context of
structure: much can be gained and learned from observing and understanding the basic principles which
govern structure in nature and its organisation in other technological fields often leading to insight and
subsequent improvement of structures utilised in building.
In order to obtain such insight and then to be able to draw parallels with buildings we must first look out
for those basic properties and attributes of shape, material, loading and structure which are common to
a wide range of different structures and subsequently identify them.
For this analytical process to occur and for the outcome to be understood we must first agree on a
common terminology. That is a clearly identifiable, recurring set of definitions of those recognisable
properties and attributes which are common and valid to all structures.
TERMINOLOGY
BUILDING STRUCTURE, a specific type of structure, encloses and protects space from drastic changes in
shape while resisting loads exerted on it by the elements of nature (wind, snow and earthquake), by the
gravitational pull of the earth and by other influences such as temperature.
That space usually accommodates people, animals, plants and goods.
BUILDING is a part of the built environment which is relatively independent in its function and
appearance.
STRUCTURE is that part of a building that provides the support function in order to safeguard the overall
functioning of the building.
It consists of a STRUCTURAL CONTINUUM, a BOUNDARY which borders the continuum and SUPPORTS.
Supports can be placed within the continuum or at the boundary.
Depending on the complexity of make-up, the structure can be an ELEMENT STRUCTURE, a UNIT
STRUCTURE, an AGGREGATE STRUCTURE or a COMPOSITE STRUCTURE.
The CONTINUUM is that part of a structure that encloses (interior) space and is directly subjected to
LOADING by external loads.
Stresses are channelled through the object and through its elements into the structural MATERIAL which
reacts to stressing with SHAPE-CHANGE.
At the SUPPORTS these stresses are collected and channelled into forces which are then transmitted
through the supports to the ground or to another supporting medium where they are resisted by
opposite forces activated by the supporting medium.
In the case of an aggregate and composite structure the continuum is bordered by a BOUNDARY. The
boundary makes up the extreme limits of the continuum and may consist of one or more structure
elements.
A STRUCTURE ELEMENT is the smallest part of a structure which when connected to other structure
elements makes up a continuum, a boundary or a support of that structure.
(an example for an element in a continuum is a single beam in a series of floor beams).
According to the make-up of the structure we differentiate between the following levels:
ELEMENT STRUCTURE is a structure that consists of one structure element only. (eg. a single board
providing a small bridge between two parts of a building; a single rope for lifting goods).
Element structure consists of an element which is simultaneously its continuum, boundary and its
support(s).
Unit structure consists of a number of elements which make-up the its continuum, boundary and
support(s). Usually a unit structure is made up of several different elements (an example is a timber floor
unit using two different elements: bearers and boards).
AGGREGATE STRUCTURE is any assembly of structure units. (eg. a house made up of walls, floors and
roof).
Aggregate structure consists of a continuum made up of structure units, a boundary and supports.
COMPOSITE STRUCTURE is any assembly of identical or different aggregate structures (eg. a cluster of
houses).
Composite structure consists of several continua, each of which may be bordered by a boundary, a
composite boundary encloses these continua, supports may be arranged at composite or at aggregate
boundaries or, alternatively, continua may be directly supported.
SUPPORT-FUNCTION is the very purpose of structure namely to accept forces and moments through
loads, to transform, transport, and to transmit them (to the ground).
STRUCTURAL QUALITY is the integration of those essential properties of a structural system that are
required for it to fulfil it's support-function.
STRUCTURAL (SUPPORTING) BEHAVIOUR is the expression of structural quality of a structure system for
a set of given loads and other influences. Structural quality is determined at the conceptual design stage
while structural behaviour is principally determined at the engineering design phase of structural design.
Consideration of structural quality during design of a building requires knowledge of structure systems.
For the architect, knowledge of structure systems is essential as it enables him to conduct the
conceptual design of a building in a comprehensive and adequate manner.
Structural behaviour involves determination of loads and their intensities and choice of materials for
construction.
At a more general level, however, a basic understanding of structural behaviour is required from the
architect in order to become an active participant in the structural design process rather than a passive
bystander.
Quality and behaviour of a structure forming a building cannot be isolated from each other but are
intimately connected. Therefore, co-operation of the architect and engineer-designers is imperative
during the conceptual design stage so that a building structure emerges, that is both, in tune with the
overall architectural concept and safe and economical to construct and to use.
The "morphological" approach described in the following has proven to be a convenient analytical
method to introduce structural systems while at the same time developing a closer understanding of the
"structure" of structures and their many possible variations.
At a subsequent stage, the morphological approach can also be utilised for design synthesis: the
systematic, conceptual design of structure systems (2).
In the present context, the morphological approach is an analytical tool that assists in the conceptual
understanding of structural systems. As such it is a means to an end and as any such tool dependent on
understanding of its operation and use.
Prerequisite for it's use is systematic and rigorous application of logical steps.
For practical purposes, the morphology can also be used to produce an organized OVERVIEW OF
STRUCTURE SYSTEMS as is shown in the latter part of this paper.
During this stage photographs and sketches are important aids as well as information on a range of
previous structural solutions for similar applications.
The aim is qualitative recognition of principal structural behaviour of a chosen system -its structural
quality- based on the study of equilibrium, and development of the student's ability to recognise and to
understand structural quality in its essence.
Qualitative knowledge of principle load/force distribution ie. internal forces and torques/moments
(stresses) within structural elements in response to loading is required.
This stage normally concludes the extent of structural knowledge required from the architect and,
shared with the engineer, it becomes the stepping stone for the next stage, which is normally conducted
by the engineer:
The aim is quantitative determination of essential values for load-bearing, stressing, and shape-change
of a structure system based on studies of equilibrium and changes in shape dependent on types of
loading. Subsequent aim is the development of the student's capability to assess the influences of
parameter changes on stressing and shape-changing of structural systems.
At this stage diagrams which illustrate quantitative changes in stress levels and deformations in response
to changes in load intensity, and loading type and cross-sectional/material properties are required.
The morphological approach directed at a particular field of study helps to discover the intrinsic
"structure" of this field in its totality. This is done by observing and analysing a representative range of
existing samples in a systematic, logical and reproducible manner:
The first step is to establish the field of investigation, in our case STRUCTURE.
The second step is to identify a recurring set of recognisable principle attributes called PARAMETERS and
the range of their possible VARIATIONS by observation and analysis of a representative range of existing
examples (eg. buildings).
The most convenient method to establish and display a morphology is a MORPHOLOGICAL TABLE, which
is a matrix where parameters are listed in order of hierarchy in a column to the left and their
corresponding variations in rows to the right.
PARAMETERS VARIATIONS
The third step is to check the validity of established parameters and variations by identification of an
arbitrary range of new samples.
The fourth step is to create an entire range of structures, including known and hitherto unknown
structures, by selectively combining different variations from all parameters in a series of successive
steps.
This process is known as the SYNTHESIS FUNCTION of the morphology and as such utilised for creative
development of structure systems during the conceptual design stage of a building. (this paper does not
deal with the fourth step)
MORPHOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND THEIR VARIATIONS
We will now investigate how they relate to each other and show their VARIATIONS.
1. SHAPE
(for background information on the following including a detailed analysis of shape ("form") see (8,
p.14ff) and (9))
SHAPE GENERATION
Every object is characterised by the process through which it was created. Every object is in a state of
change.
Dynamic Shapes are objects whose shape varies rapidly (eg. waterfall, cloth). Static Shapes are objects
whose shape varies only very slowly (eg. mountain, building).
Change of shapes in NON-LIVING NATURE (eg. the evolution of landmasses on earth by folding and
faulting of the earths crust, by volcanic activity; erosion of rock, mountains)
Evolutionary shape-changes in LIVING NATURE (eg. evolutionary development of species; growth and
decay of microbes, plants, animals and man).
Shape generation by HUMAN ACTIVITY (shaping, forming of materials for objects which serve man
in this quest for dominance of his environment eg. tools, machines, buildings, vehicles).
Geometric description of most shapes is difficult, if not impossible, due to their complexity.
Only the simpler, regular shapes can be readily described (eg. sphere, cone, cube).
Objects in living nature are usually described by shape characteristics of a specific species.
However, for the purpose of this study, a different definition of proportion is more practical.
An object that is relatively large in one dimension (length) and relatively small in both other
dimensions (width and height) is termed ONE DIMENSIONAL. It extends into a linear direction, it is
LINEAR.
An object that is relatively large in two dimensions (length and width) and relatively small in the third is
termed TWO-DIMENSIONAL. It extends into a surface (area), it is SURFACE.
An object that is relatively large in all three dimensions (length, width and height), or if little difference
can be seen between all dimensions of the object, is termed THREE-DIMENSIONAL. It extends into three-
dimensional space, it is SPATIAL.
A three dimensional object that is infinitely small so that its proportions are not visible to the eye is
termed POINT. Point implies that there is no visible extension in any dimension. A relatively very small
spatial object that is in an assembly with other, much larger objects is often idealised and called POINT.
Transition between one-, two- and three-dimensional proportions is often not clear cut:
a one-dimensional object can grow into a two-dimensional one by extension of the second
dimension or vice-versa.
a two-dimensional object can grow into a three-dimensional one by extension of the third
dimension or vice-versa.
Objects which are of different size, but of similar proportions do not change their proportion.
CURVATURE OF OBJECTS
LINEAR OBJECTS can be straight, angular or curved in one plane, or angular or curved in space
SURFACE OBJECTS can be plane, single curved, folded and double curved (domical = synclastic or saddle
= anticlastic).
SURFACE OBJECTS can have positive peaks or negative peaks (navel), folds or undulations.
SPATIAL OBJECTS are identified by the surface(s) which border(s) them. The surface can be a continuous
unit (sphere) or a composite one: pointed, with edges and corners, faceted or with undulations.
COMPOSITE OBJECTS
Any one-, two- or three-dimensional object can be combined with other objects. Any object can also be
composed of one-, two- or three-dimensional elements
ELEMENT OBJECTS
An object that is composed of a number of elements is termed a UNIT OBJECT. Each one of its elements
may be one-, two- or three-dimensional.
An object that is composed of more than one unit object is called an AGGREGATE OBJECT. Each one of its
units may be one-, two- or three-dimensional.
An object that is an assembly of aggregate objects is termed COMPOSITE OBJECT. These aggregates may
be one-, two- or three-dimensional.
EXAMPLES
We can now summarize the criteria (parameters) pertaining to SHAPE -which are valid for all shapes of
objects without exception- in form of a
MORPHOLOGICAL TABLE:
PARAMETER VARIATIONS
(relates to surface)
(OBJECT)
undulated (composite)
(UNDULATIONS)
Having analysed the morphology of shape we can now consider the next principle parameter:
2. MATERIAL
these can be gaseous, liquid, plastic, granular or solid, in various combinations and densities.
Transitions between these states are often undefined, such as between solid and liquid states of ductile
materials such as metal or water(ice).
All materials can be subdivided into two groups depending on their capacity to sustain loading (stresses)
as well as on the magnitude of shape-change when elements made from these materials are loaded:
NON-SHAPE RESISTANT.
Solid materials are usually shape-resistant, while granulose, plastic, liquid and gaseous substances are
usually non-shape-resistant.
Examples are timber, steel, concrete, masonry, plastics, glass, bricks etc.
Depending on the type of stress the material is subjected to we distinguish between tensile-, bending-,
shear- or torsional stiffness.
Elastic materials are those which deform under stress, but recover from this shape-change in time.
Plastic materials are those which, when stressed, do not recover from shape changes but remain in a
permanently deformed state.
Depending on the time/deformation/failure characteristic of solid materials when under stress (eg. the
degree of shape-change in relation to the duration of load application at failure) we distinguish between
BRITTLE and DUCTILE materials.
Rigid materials can resist AXIAL STRESSES such as compression and tension as well as NORMAL STRESSES
such as shear and bending.
Examples are steel in the form of rolled or cold formed section or plate, masonry, brick, concrete, timber
and the range of products derived from them.
Non-rigid (flexible) materials can resist mainly tensile stresses and to a lesser extent shear. Examples are
steel in the form of wire, cable or thin sheet; cellulose, animal hair, plastic or glass in the form of fibre-
rope or woven fabric.
Granular, liquid and gaseous material substances are normally non-shape resistant they can, however,
withstand loading (stresses) when they are subjected to uniform pressure (eg. air in a balloon).
Gases must be contained in enclosed spaces, liquids or granulates can be contained in open containers,
when under the influence of gravity (eg. water in a container or in a lake, sand in a bag).
Non-material substances such as electrical energy, magnetism and gravitational attraction and repulsion
between masses can also transmit forces. Examples are atoms and solar systems.
3. LOADING SYSTEMS
Loads, such as weight, wind, snow, earthquake, temperature, acting on a composite structure, such as a
house, create stresses in an aggregate structure, such as a timber frame, which subsequently create
stresses in its elements, such as posts, beams, studs etc., and these, in turn, create material stresses at a
molecular level.
External forces are caused by loads (ACTIONS) which are resisted at the supports (REACTIONS).
Stresses act in different directions depending on the load application and on the proportion of the object
or element: STRESS DIRECTION.
Stressing of a component usually involves a range of composite stresses acting in different directions and
with different intensities. Ref.(4) (sections 2.3 - 2.6) gives examples of the range of multi axial stressing of
objects and elements.
4. STRUCTURE SYSTEM
Under the influence of load an object, defined by its shape and material, becomes a STRUCTURE.
In this study we are concerned with abstract models of structures: STRUCTURE SYSTEMS.
Structure system may refer to ELEMENT STRUCTURE, UNIT STRUCTURE, AGGREGATE STRUCTURE or to
COMPOSITE STRUCTURE.(we defined these types previously).
The parameters used to describe the shape of an object are identical to the ones used to describe the
shape of a structure system:
We identify a STRUCTURE ELEMENT primarily through its PROPORTION and STIFFNESS regardless
whether the element is part of either continuum, boundary or support .
By morphological combination of four variations of proportion (point, linear, surface, spatial) with two
variations for stiffness (rigid and non rigid or flexible) altogether seven useful element combinations
result:
POINT
RIGID LINEAR -
NON-RIGID LINEAR
RIGID SURFACE -
RIGID SPATIAL -
Depending on their shape and stiffness, these elements can be subjected to different stresses acting in
different stress directions.
Structure elements are useful common identifiers when analysing or studying structure systems and
their behaviour under load.
a CONTINUUM (surface) which is bordered by a BOUNDARY with both, continuum and/or boundary
requiring SUPPORT.
various COMBINATIONS.
POINT
STABILITY refers to the ability of an element, unit or aggregate to limit shape-changes which are
associated with loading to safe and (visually and practically) acceptable limits.
It is the fundamental responsibility of the designer of structural systems to ensure stability of the
proposed structure under all expected loading conditions.
Unfortunately many architects do not possess adequate structural knowledge to resolve their designs in
terms of stability and proposed buildings are often unstable under certain loads which the architect did
not consider. In such cases it becomes the engineers task to correct these shortcomings. Models are
convenient aids to stability studies and their use should be propagated during study and in professional
practice.
Stability is fundamental to all building design considerations and must forms part of the basic structural
knowledge required by the architect.
(RIGID JOINTS),
ELEMENT STABILITY refers to resistance of a slender, rigid structural element (eg. strut or slab/sheet)
against buckling deformation, or to stability of a flexible cable by prestress or weight.
UNIT STABILITY refers to stability of a structural unit (eg. post and beam system, linear cable system etc.)
against falling over/larger deformations. Three basic methods are available for ensuring lateral stability
of simple, linear assemblies:
We can now summarise all parameters and their variations, those relating to MATERIAL, LOADING and
STRUCTURE which we just discussed as well as SHAPE which we considered earlier in the combined
MORPHOLOGICAL TABLE OF STRUCTURE.
PARAMETER VARIATIONS
SHAPE:
TYPE OF SHAPE positive (proud) shape, negative (cavity) shape
(relates to surface)
(OBJECT)
undulated (composite)
(UNDULATIONS)
MATERIAL:
CHARACTERISTIC
MATERIAL TYPE solids: such as timber, metals (steel, aluminium etc.), plastics,
LOADING SYSTEM:
on a molecular level
triaxial (three-directional)
STRUCTURE SYSTEM:
STRUCTURE
COMPONENT
ELEMENT non rigid linear, non rigid surface, non rigid solid
and combinations
TYPE OF SUPPORT point, line (rigid linear, non rigid linear), surface (rigid surface,
CONSIDERATION
Subsequently we can also demonstrate the practical use of the morphological table by establishing an
OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS.
In order to create the range of structural systems for buildings we utilise a convenient classification
based on the predominant element type which makes up the continuum of the system.
Discontinuous elements
Any combination of the elements above (eg. tensegrity systems: RL and NRL)
In establishing the criteria for the following classification spatial (three dimensional) elements were
omitted. The reasons for this omission are predominantly of a practical nature:
rigid solid elements, such as bricks or stone (masonry) are mainly found in historical structures, non-rigid
spatial elements, such as living cells, are mainly found in natural structures.
Both these areas were considered to be peripheral when dealing with contemporary building and were
eliminated for the sake of brevity and clarity.
It must also be emphasised that for this classification neither boundary nor support elements were
considered. This exclusion is valid because of the large number of possible variations of boundary and
support for most structural continua. Furthermore it is both boundary and support, who, when varied or
manipulated, lead to variations in shape of the structure using the same continuum and can therefore be
considered to be variables.
RETICULATE STRUCTURES
beam - truss
arch
frame
"tree" systems
CABLE STRUCTURES
folded surface
folded shell
MEMBRANE STRUCTURES
4.22 with point and line supported membranes: external - internal support: mast
arch
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
7.11 with rigid linear/non rigid linear elements: continuos strut: (prestressed) column,
(linear tensegrity)
7.12 with rigid linear/rigid (plane) surface elements: skin/frame (box) beam,
7.13 with rigid linear/non rigid surface elements: strut supported (prestressed) membranes
arch, frame,
7.15 with non rigid linear/non rigid surface elements: cable reinforced membranes
7.2 Surface systems:
7.21 with rigid linear/non rigid linear elements: continuous strut: (prestressed) cable truss grid
(linear tensegrity)
7.23 with rigid linear/non rigid surface elements: strut supported (prestressed) membranes
(surface tensegrities):
(as above)
folded surface,
7.25 with non rigid linear/non rigid surface elements: cable reinforced membrane
7.31 with rigid linear/non rigid linear elements: continuos strut: cable truss
bridges, towers
7.33 with rigid linear/non rigid surface elements: strut supported membranes
(surface tensegrities):
(box) beams,
bridges, towers
skin/frame structures
7.35 with non rigid linear/non rigid surface elements: cable reinforced membranes
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The previous pages outlined a rigorous approach to the organization of structure systems and their
shape based on the morphological method . An overview of possible STRUCTURE SYSTEMS illustrates the
wide range that are available to the creative designer.
Current building construction practice utilises only a very narrow range of these possibilities.
The predominant reason for this situation is lack of knowledge by the architectural and engineering
professions about the range of alternative structural systems, their structural behaviour and how to best
integrate them into building design.
usually architects emphasise a general, all-encompassing approach to building design often at the
expense of sufficient basic knowledge of building technology and usually engineers concentrate on the
analytical quantitative approach to building structures often at the expense of adequate development of
their conceptual structural design capacity.
The morphological approach to the conceptual design of structure systems has been proven a successful
tool in architectural training and teaching courses conducted by the author at the University of New
South Wales and internationally over the past 17 years.
Current trends world-wide point to a far wider variety of structures than during the past history of
building. Major changes in approach to design and in the practice of building are now happening that
will determine future directions for our professions in the next century.
The technological progress made in associated fields, such as motorcar, ship, aircraft and spacecraft
design and manufacture continues to influence construction practice and the range and depth of
technological knowledge required from architects have increased accordingly.
Architects and engineers must face these challenges. Prerequisite is adequate training in conceptual
design of building structures based on systematic, logical and reproducible methods.
Awareness of the full range of available shape and design options and better knowledge of structure
systems will enable architects to design better buildings and will hopefully lead to a more appropriate,
more adaptable and richer built environment and to economical buildings.
REFERENCES