CHAPTER II

RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents related literatures and studies. It includes local and

international publications, unpublished materials, and other similarly verifiable

sources. Similarities and differences of the studies conducted and how these

findings support the present study is also presented.

Related Literature
I. International
Environmental Impact of Sand Mining in Tamiraparani River, South
Tamilnadu
By Bindhusri, A. and M. Arunachalam

This study is based on the direction from the High Court of Madras

to the junior author. Tamiraparani River is a minor basin with a length of 120

km and it is the only perennial system without any interstate disputes in

water sharing. Moreover, it is the life line for drinking, power generation,

agriculture and industrial use for more than three districts in south Tamil

Nadu. Sand and gravel have been mined commercially from active channel.

Mining of sand includes the processes of skimming, dry and wet pool

mining, bar excavation and channel wide instream mining. Commercial

mining of sand causes various ecological impacts from bank erosion to

ground water depletion. The assessment from five sand quarries from the

middle to lower reaches of Tamiarparani River showed that instream,

floodplain and terrace mining heavily damaged the ecosystem structure and
 function thereby affecting the cleansing capacity of river, lowering of ground

water level, damage to infrastructure and removal of riparian zone and the

destruction of floodplains. Hence it was recommended to ban the sand

mining for five years by the three men committee including the second

author and the court banned sand mining in Tamiraparani River for five

years starting from 2012.

II. NATIONAL

Characterizing the Environmental Effects of the Quarrying Industry: The Case

of Strategic Quarry Sites in the Ilocos Region

By Norma A. Esguerra, Franklyn T. Amistad, Alfredo R. Rabena

This study tried to identify the environmental effects of quarrying in the

identified quarry sites of Region 1 chosen at random, specifically at a geologic

perspective. It further tried to discover the socio-economic benefits they

provided to the residents of adjacent and nearby barangays within the

provinces of Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte, La Union, and Pangasinan; and solicited

their perceptions on the pressing effect(s) of the industry.

Four types of quarrying were found in Ilocos Sur, namely: clay extraction at

Bulala, Vigan City; gravel quarrying at Banaoang, Bantay, and at Bio Tagudin;

sand quarrying at Namruangan, Cabugao and at Libtong, Tagudin; and

mountain quarrying at Nalvo, Sta. Maria. The quarry sites mentioned were

described to be from excessive to highly excessive.

 In Ilocos Norte, the researchers noted three types of quarrying: clay

extraction at Sta. Monica, San Nicolas; sand quarrying at Paoay; and gravel

extractions at Bengcag, Barangays IV and XV, Laoag City, as well as in

Bacarra. Meanwhile, quarrying is banned at Bengcag, Laoag City. A shift in

the original course of the San Cristobal, Sarrat River has been confirmed

by the residents. They attributed the rerouted course of the river to the

continuous unplanned gravel extraction therein.

In La Union, three quarry types were noted; gravel extraction at Sudipen

and Rosario, sand extraction at Rimos 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, Luna, La Union; and

rounded peebles. The quarry operations were assessed to be excessive.

In Pangasinan, the researchers noted sand and gravel extractions at

Bugallon; and gravel extractions at Labrador, Anonang, San Fabian, and

San Jacinto.

The observed physical changes or environmental effects of the

quarrying operations were: a) for sand quarrying: weakened soil cohesion

leading to sand dune collapse and air pollution during windy and stormy

days; b) for gravel quarrying: widened mouth of the river leading to a

widened downstream flow and diverted water course, c) for earth extraction:

uneven ground elevation permitting water to be impounded during the rainy

season, and worst, the cause of flooding for neighboring barangays; and d)

for mountain quarrying: triggered land slide and thinning water reserve.
 The mitigations were concentrated mostly on more extensive regulatory

schemes: for the DENR to regulate the quarrying operations, more strict

monitoring of hauling permittees, and rectification of damaged sites by

environmental interventions.

Pili Nut Canarium Ovatum Engl.

By Roberto E. Coronel

Measurements were taken from a total of 84 female trees, and the

ripe pili fruit was found to weigh from 15.7 to 45.7 g (Coronel and Zuño

1980b). The pili pulp, which makes up about 64.5% of the fruit by weight,

contains 73% moisture. On a dry weight basis (per 100 g), it contains: 8%

protein, 33.6% fats, 3.4% crude fibre, 9.2% ash, 45.8% carbohydrates and

2.2 kJ (Marañon et al. 1954). The pulp oil, which is clear and greenish yellow

in colour, has the following composition: 56.7% oleic glycerides, 13.5%

linoleic glycerides and 29.3% saturated fatty acids.

The kernel, which weighs 0.74-5.13 g and which comprises 4.4-

16.6% of the whole fruit by weight, contains: 35.6-51.4% moisture, 11.5-

15.7% protein, 69.2-76.6% fats and 2.59-4.32% carbohydrates. Its food

energy was reported to be 2.7 kJ/100 g, with the following mineral and

vitamin contents (per 100 g): 119 mg calcium, 508 mg phosphorus, 2.6 mg

iron, 489 mg potassium, 45 IU vitamin A, 0.95 mg thiamine, 0.12 mg

riboflavin, 0.4 mg niacin and traces of vitamin C (Intengan et al. 1968). Other
 authors have reported on the chemical composition of the pili kernel (Brill

and Agcaoili 1915; Padilla and Soliven 1933; Garcia 1941).

In comparison, 20-30% of seed kernel of the cashew, a more popular

tropical nut than the pili, is edible. The kernel contains 7.6-16.0% moisture,

18.0 25.4% protein, 43.4-57.4% fats and 19.2-21.0% carbohydrates

(Coronel 1983; Verheij and Coronel 1991). The pili kernel therefore contains

more oil and less protein and carbohydrates than the cashew kernel.

The kernel oil is composed almost entirely of the gylcerides of oleic

(59.6%) and palmitic (38.2%) acids. The oil is light yellow, has an agreeable

odour and taste, is suitable for culinary purposes and keeps perfectly for as

long as 6 months (West and Balce 1923).

The pili shell has 3.2% moisture content, 11.9% volatile combustible

matter, 11.1% ash and 77% fixed carbon.

Related Studies

I. International
Developing Concrete using Sea Shell as a Fine Aggregate

By V. Mohanalakshmi, P. Hema, S. Indhu, and V.C Prabha

Concrete is the widely used material in the world. This automatically creates

a huge demand for ingredient of concrete (Fine Aggregate, Coarse Aggregate

and cement). From the environment point of view, the huge extraction of the

aggregate creates depletion and manufacturing of cement causes pollution.

This scenario affects the world’s ecological balance. As a civil engineer, we

have planned to replace the river sand which is widely used in construction by

sea shell. Sea shell is the dead remain of the marine organism. We have

replaced the sea shell after grinding it to the maximum size of 4.75 mm. The IS

10262-2009 was followed for the mix design of M20 grade concrete after that

optimization of cement is done. Sea shell which is used in concrete confirming

to the zone II as per IS 383-1970. Then cubes were casted for the 5 parts of

partial replacement as 20%, 40%, 60 %, 80%, and 100 %. All the specimens

are used for 7 & 28 days and tested for compressive, flexural and split tensile

strength. We have observed the maximum strength is obtained for 80%

replacement of sea shell.

Lightweight Concrete Using Coconut Shells as Aggregate

By K. Gunasekaran and P.S. Kumar

Aggregates provide volume at low cost, comprising 66% to 78% of the

concrete. With increasing concern over the excessive exploitation of natural

and quality aggregates, the aggregate produced from industrial wastes and

agricultural wastes being viable new source for building material. This study

was carried out to determine the possibilities of using coconut shell as

aggregate in concrete. Utilizing coconut shell as aggregate in concrete

production not only solves the problem of disposing this solid waste but also

helps conserve natural resources. In this paper, the physical properties of

crushed coconut shell aggregate were presented. The fresh concrete

properties such as density and slump and 28-day compressive strength of a

lightweight concrete.
 II. Local

Hollow Blocks with Sea Mollusks’ Shell as Additive

By Karen E. Azul and Juan Paulo M. Sera Jose

The target of the study is to make a possible improvement in the existing

commercial hollow blocks and contribute in the construction world near in the

future. This product development study shows the possibility of making a

stronger hollow block and the potential of Sea Mollusks’ Shell as an additive in

Hollow Blocks mixture. Known its calcium carbonate content, Sea Mollusks’

Shell is a good soil stabilizer which is same as lime and cement. Using different

ratios of mixtures, they intend to show the effectiveness of the hollow blocks

added with pulverized Sea Mollusks’ shells and how it will affect the weight,

density and strength and other structural data of hollow blocks. It is also shows

the ability of the product to compete in the market and the possibility of having

a stronger hollow block with a reasonable price.

SYNTHESIS OF THE ART

This part of the study summarized the review in the previous part of this

chapter, and discusses the differences and similarities between the other related

researches and the study of this paper “Evaluation of Compressive Strength of

Concrete Using Recycled Material (Canarium Ovatum Shells or Commonly Known

as Pili Nut Shells) As Fine Aggregates”.

The study of “Developing Concrete using Sea Shell as Fine Aggregate” by

V. Mohanalakshmi, P. Hema, S. Indhu, and V.C. showed us that the addition of

sea shell increases strength in all replacement. This increase in strength clearly
shows us the sea shell starts to react with the others ingredients of concrete which

there by increase in the heat of hydration in concrete as far seen from basics of

concrete technology.

Moreover, the study conducted by K. Gunasekaran and P.S. Kumar entitled

“Lightweight Concrete Using Coconut Shells as Aggregate” concludes that the

aggregate impact value and aggregate crushing value of coconut shells

aggregates were much lower compared to the commercial aggregates, which

indicates that these aggregates have good absorbance to shock. The good

absorbance to shock of the material is based on the maximum grain size, median

grain size, uniformity coefficient, fines content, grain shape and moisture content.

Finally, Karen E. Azul and Juan Paulo M. Sera Jose clearly state in as study

that the calcium carbonate content of an additive could increase the compressive

strength of hollow blocks. Their study entitled, “Hollow Blocks with Sea Mollusks’

Shell as Additive, distinctively demonstrate to us the effect of Sea Mollusks’ Shell

on the characteristics of the concrete.

In relation to study, the researchers also aim to test the Canarium Ovatum

shells for fabrication of concrete that were mainly used in building construction. To

create a new material through Canarium Ovatum shells like the study made to sea

shell, coconut shell, etc. as fine aggregate for concrete that can pass to ASTM

specifications and Philippine Standards for a high quality of concrete mixture

design is the goal of the study. The related studies show that it is possible to use

such materials as an alternative binding material and aggregates for concrete

works, which is locally affordable and was economically available in relevance to

the design of structures. In addition, this study has a different purpose to other

studies which is to recycle waste material that was only known to our locality, the

Pili Nut shells. Our main priority is to decrease the large amount of Pili Nut shell

wastes for production of a new concrete mixture through innovation in relation to

civil engineering field. Furthermore, by this study we can help to settle the

problems in our community especially waste problem, set a good example for

production of recycled material, practice proper waste management and maintain

the biodiversity of the environment.

GAPS TO BE BRIDGED

Although there are inconsistencies and vagueness of findings in the

different studies presented, it is the proponents desire to develop a new concrete

mixture design that can be used in the construction of structural members.

The studies presented focused on the effect of used materials as an

alternative aggregate in the compressive, tensile and fracture strength of the

concrete samples. Given the limitations of this present study as stated in chapter

1, the proponents will conduct two test methods. The concrete samples will go

through the Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical

Concrete Specimens (ASTM C39). The test will determine if there’s an increased

in the compressive strength of the concrete. The pulverized pili nut shells will also

go through ASTM C136, ASTM D7428 – 15, ASTM C128 and ASTM C29.

The present study focused on the concrete mixture design for columns. For

the previous study, further investigations are required before it can be used as

building material in the construction.