0.

0 TABLE OF CONTENT

BIL CONTENT PAGE

0.0 TABLE OF CONTENT 1

1.0 TITLE 2

2.0 INTRODUCTION 2-4

3.0 OBJECTIVE 5

4.0 THEORY 5-6

5.0 APPARATUS 7–8

6.0 PROCEDURE 9

7.0 RESULT & DATA 10 – 12

8.0 SAMPLE & CALCULATION 13 – 14

9.0 DISCUSSION 15 – 19

10.0 CONCLUSION 20 – 24

11.0 REFERENCES 25

12.0 APPENDIX 26 – 28

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1.0 TITLE
Drag force in flow over a body

2.0 INTRO

Drag is also known as aerodynamic force that opposes an objects

motion through the air. It happen as the solid body must be in contact with the
fluid. If there is no fluid existence, no drag will occur. Drag is generated by the
difference in velocity between the solid object and the fluid. It makes no
difference whether the object moves through a static fluid or whether the fluid
moves past a static solid object.

In fluid dynamics, drag or sometimes called as fluid resistance is the

force that resists the movement of a solid object through a fluid whether in a
form of liquid or gas. The most familiar form of drag is made up of friction forces,
which act parallel to the object's surface, plus pressure forces, which act in a
direction perpendicular to the object's surface.

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 Figure 1 – Sphere in Stokes Flow

An object moving through a gas or liquid experiences a force in direction

opposite to its motion. Terminal velocity is achieved when the drag force is
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the force propelling the object.
Figure shown is a sphere in Stokes flow, at very low Reynolds number .

For a solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of
the net aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force acting in the direction of the
movement. The component perpendicular to this direction is considered lift.
Therefore drag acts to oppose the motion of the object, and in a powered
vehicle it is overcome by thrust. Drag is a force and is therefore a vector quantity
having both a magnitude and a direction. Drag acts in a direction that is opposite
to the motion of the aircraft.

3
 For this experiment, we will study on movement of a body through a fluid
medium such air or water will give rise to resultant force acting on the body due
to the effect of the pressure and shear stress acting on the surface of the body.
The resultant force can be divided into horizontal and vertical components
which are termed drag and lift forces respectively. These forces are described
schematically in figure below.

Figure 2 – Flow over a Cylinder

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3.0 OBJECTIVE

1) To measure the drag coefficient CD,over a range of velocities in

2) The test section for hemispherical (open end facing flow and open
end facing down stream )

4.0 THEORY

It is a general experience that a body meets some resistance when it is

forced to move through a fluid especially liquid, such as difficulty to walk in
water because of the much greater resistance it present rather than air. It is
found that drag coefficient much convenient to work with dimensionless unit as
it a function of Reynolds number. The part of drag that is directly
to wall shear stress is called skin friction drag (or friction drag) as it caused by
frictional effects, and the part is directly due pressure is known as pressure
drag (known as form drag due to strong dependence on the form or the shape
of the body)

𝐹𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷
Drag coefficient, 𝐶𝐷 = 1 =𝑓( )
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐷2 𝜇
2

𝜌𝑉𝐷
Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

Where FD is the drag force, V is the free stream velocity, AP is the

platform area, and D is the cord length of the shape (cylinder).

Figure 3 – Real fluid flow around a cylinder Figure 4 – Ideal fluid flow around a cylinder

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 The drag coefficient may be determined experimentally in two ways. The
most obvious method is to measure the drag force (FD) and the velocity (V)
directly and then calculate Cd from equation 1. The second method to
determine drag force is to use the Moody chart with drag coefficient versus
Reynolds number for known shapes. Using the Moody chart in combination with
the strain measured in the experiment, the drag force can be found. The fluid
velocity can be calculated from the pressure recorded on the DAQ and the use
of Bernoulli's equation

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5.0 APPARATUS

Figure 5 – Rod, Hollow Hemispherical (rear and front)

Figure 6 – Wind tunnel

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Figure 7 – Balance arm

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6.0 PROCEDURE

1) The diameter of the hemisphere was measured

2) The rod was fit into the balance arm.

3) The balance arm was put to a balance start.

4) The blower fan was switched on and the flow was set to the velocity
of 8m/s.

5) The arm was once again balanced and the reading was taken.

6) The velocity was increased by 2m/s until 20m/s, the arm balanced
and the reading is again taken.

7) The hemisphere body was fit into the balance arm with the open end
facing the flow.

8) Step 3 until 6 was repeated.

9) The hemisphere body was fit into the balance arm with the end of the
open end facing the downstream.

10) Step 3 until 6 was repeated.

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7.0 RESULT & DATA

No Velocity Rey. no Rigid Rod Body base surface facing Body base surface facing Net
. Drag upstream downstream Drag
Force, FD Body diameter : 0.065 m Body diameter : 0.065 m Coeffici
(N) Drag Net Drag Drag Net Drag Drag ent, CD
force, drag coefficien Force, Force, coefficie
FD (N) force, t, CD FD (N) FD (N) nt, CD
FD (N)

1 8 41338.8 0.022 0.219 0.197 1.210 0.061 0.039 0.240 0.970

2 10 51793.5 0.038 0.343 0.305 1.199 0.106 0.068 0.267 0.932

3 12 62152.2 0.039 0.485 0.446 1.218 0.154 0.115 0.314 0.904

4 14 72510.9 0.059 0.676 0.617 1.238 0.221 0.162 0.325 0.913

5 16 82869.6 0.075 0.855 0.780 1.198 0.274 0.199 0.306 0.892

6 18 93228.3 0.092 1.102 1.010 1.226 0.364 0.272 0.330 0.896

7 20 103587.0 0.122 1.345 1.223 1.202 0.415 0.293 0.288 0.914

Table 1. : Tabular data of Drag force in flow over a body test sheet.

Body Face Surface Facing Upstream

1.24
1.235
1.23
1.225
1.22
CD

1.215
1.21
1.205
1.2
1.195
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
Re

Graph 1

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 Body Face Surface Facing Downstream
0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
CD

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
Re

Graph 2

CD NET vs Re
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
CD NET

0.93
0.92
0.91
0.9
0.89
0.88
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
Re

Graph 3

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 CD NET VS Velocity
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
NET

0.93
CD

0.92
0.91
0.9
0.89
0.88
0 5 10 15 20 25
Velocity

Graph 4

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8.0 SAMPLE & CALCULATION

Velocity = 8m/s

Properties of air at 1 atm pressure at 20 °𝐶

𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 1.204 𝑚3 𝜇 = 1.511 𝑋 10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠 𝐷 = 0.065𝑚

𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑹𝒆𝒚𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒔 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓, 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

1.204(8)(0.065)
=
1.511 𝑋 10−5

= 41334.81

𝜋𝐷2 𝜋0.0652
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂, 𝐴 = = = 3.318 𝑋 10−3 𝑚2
4 4

Drag coefficient (CD) for open end facing upstream,

𝐹
𝐶𝐷 =
1 2 2
𝜌𝑉 𝐷
2
0.197
=
1
(1.204)(82 )(0.0652 )
2

= 1.210

Drag coefficient (CD) for open end facing downstream,

𝐹
𝐶𝐷 =
1 2 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝐷

0.039
=
1
(1.204)(82 )(0.0652 )
2

= 0.240

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CD NET = (Drag coefficient (CD) for open end facing upstream) – (Drag
coefficient (CD) for open end facing downstream)

= 1.210 − 0.240

= 0.97

Percentage error CD for open end facing upstream,

CD,theory = 1.2 CD,exp = 1.213 (average)

𝐶𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝐶𝐷 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
Percentage error, % = × 100%
𝐶𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

1.213 − 1.2
= × 100%
1.213

= 1.072%

Percentage error CD for open end facing downstream,

CD,theory = 0.4 CD,exp = 0.296 (average)

𝐶𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝐶𝐷 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦
Percentage error, % = × 100%
𝐶𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

0.296 − 0.4
= × 100%
0.296

= −35.14%

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11.0 REFERENCES

Books

1. Fluid Mechanics, 7th Edition, Wiley SI Version

Ted H. Okiishi, Wade W. Huebsch, Bruce R. Munson, Alric P.
Rothmayer
2. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 6th Edition, Wiley International
Edition
Robert W. Fox, Alan T. Mcdonald, Philip J. Pritchard

Websites

1. Drag equation :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_equation

2. Definition of drag :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_(physics)

3. Applications of drag force :

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15715124.2006.963
5283#.VFIXcfmUcwI

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