Environmental Science and Policy 80 (2018) 53–61

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Environmental Science and Policy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envsci

Air pollution and environmental injustice: Are the socially deprived exposed T
to more PM2.5 pollution in Hong Kong?
⁎,1
Victor OK Lia,b,1, Yang Hana,1, Jacqueline CK Lama,b, , Yixuan Zhua, John Bacon-Shonec
a
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
b
Energy Policy Research Group, Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom
c
Social Sciences Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Poor air quality has extremely detrimental health consequences, including cancer, stroke, asthma or heart dis-
Air pollution modelling ease. Existing research on air pollution-induced environmental injustice (EI) in Hong Kong (HK) is based on
Social deprivation index sparse air pollution data due to the limited number of pollution monitoring stations, rendering the study of the
Environmental injustice relationship between air pollution exposure and social deprivation (SD), and the subsequent study of EI at finer
PM2.5 pollution
geographical scales difficult. A key research question remains to be explored in a methodologically rigorous
High spatial resolution
manner: Are the socially deprived exposed to a higher level of PM2.5 pollution in HK? Our study develops a
Hong Kong
Granger Causality model, utilizing ubiquitous urban dynamics closely related with air pollution, including
ambient pollutants concentration, traffic, meteorology and urban morphology to provide a fine-grained esti-
mation of air pollution in HK at 100 m × 100 m spatial resolution, achieving a 82% accuracy. We focus spe-
cifically on ambient PM2.5 concentration, given its serious health consequences and the preliminary evidence of
differential PM2.5 distribution across different socio-economic groups in HK. We investigate if there is any dif-
ferential distribution in PM2.5 pollution across people residing in constituency areas (CAs) with different levels of
SD. In our study, SD is measured by the Social Deprivation Index (SDI), which is a composite indicator com-
prising four socio-economic status variables, namely, low-income, low-education, non-professional occupation,
and non-owner occupier, selected and combined via principal component analysis. We conclude there is a
statistically significant, positive relationship between ambient PM2.5 concentration and SDI in HK, based on the
SDI and mean PM2.5 exposure values derived from 412 CAs (R2 = 1.4%, p-value < 0.01, based on ordinary least
squares), justifying the existence of PM2.5-induced SD and EI at the CA level in HK. Our study highlights an
emerging need for HK to develop more integrated, human-centric, location- and justice-based environmental
policies, and the need to adopt evidence-based policy-decision-making to properly address air pollution-induced
EI. Our policy implications and recommendations can be extended to the rest of the world, particularly the Asian
metropolis, as well as places where GDP growth is rapid, population density and pollution concentration (in-
cluding particulate pollution) appear to be high, and the income gap between the rich and the poor is widening.

1. Introduction cause extremely detrimental health consequences, such as cancer,

Air quality (AQ) has been slowly improving in Hong Kong (HK)
across the last two decades (HKEPD, 2016a). However, PM2.5 (parti-
culates smaller than 2.5 micrometers in diameter) pollution con-
centration continues to exceed the World Health Organization (WHO)
safety guidelines for most of the days across a year, though the number
of days in which the average daily PM2.5 concentration at the city-level
exceeding the WHO daily limit decreased from 185 days in 2012 to
126 days in 2016 (HKEPD, 2016b; WHO, 2014). PM2.5 pollution can
stroke, asthma or heart disease (Pope and Dockery, 2006; Pui et al.,
2014). However, its health impacts may not be evenly distributed
across all socio-economic groups. In HK, concerns have been raised over
whether air pollution exposure is unevenly distributed, and whether
this is related to socio-economic status (SES) (Fan et al., 2012; Ou et al.,
2008; Stern, 2003; Wong et al., 2008). A key research question arises:
Does differential PM2.5 pollution exposure due to socio-economic var-
iation exist in HK, hence environmental injustice (EI)? EI is defined as
the disproportionate exposure to hazardous pollution among

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
E-mail address: jcklam@eee.hku.hk (J.C.K. Lam).
1
The first three authors have contributed equally significantly to this manuscript.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.10.014
Received 11 June 2017; Received in revised form 27 October 2017; Accepted 28 October 2017
1462-9011/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V.O. Li et al.
disadvantaged groups, due to unjust environmental policy-making and
regulatory process (Morello-Frosch et al., 2001; Schlosberg, 2009). EI is
closely connected to social deprivation (SD), which refers to a situation
in which one’s living standards fall below the general standards. SD is
typically characterized by indicators such as the proportion of popu-
lation with low-income, low-education, non-professional occupation
and non-owner occupier (Townsend, 1987). Air-pollution related EI is
evident among the socially deprived in Western countries (Bowen et al.,
1995; Buzzelli et al., 2003; Grineski et al., 2007; McLeod et al., 2000;
Pearce et al., 2006). Further, studies in estimating pollution exposure
have deployed various estimation methodologies, but are of high
computational complexity (Jerrett et al., 2005) (see Section 1 of the
Supplementary Document for details), with exposure readings limited
to small geographical areas. Related literature in HK suggests that the
adverse effects of pollution exposure are unevenly distributed across
different socio-economic groups (Stern, 2003). Prior work in HK has
investigated if differential exposure to vehicular pollution exists across
different socio-economic groups (Fan et al., 2012), or if air pollution is
associated with the health risks among the socially deprived (Ou et al.,
2008; Wong et al., 2008). However, it remains unclear whether ag-
gregate PM2.5 exposure is statistically correlated with SD at finer geo-
graphical scales throughout HK; the uneven distribution of PM2.5 ex-
posure due to socio-economic variation, hence the preliminary evidence
of SD and EI, remains to be verified, in the absence of fine-grained air
pollution data covering the whole city of HK.
Our study aims to fill the current research gap regarding air pollu-
tion, SD and EI in both HK and overseas. We determine if there is any
statistically significant relationship between PM2.5 exposure and SD at
the constituency area (CA) level, a fine-grained geographical scale, via
the development of Granger Causality model, a sophisticated air pol-
lution estimation model. Our model is capable of providing estimates of
PM2.5 concentration at 100 m × 100 m high spatial resolution, cov-
ering all areas of HK, which provides the needed PM2.5 readings for any
geographical area in HK as small as 100 m × 100 m, and the basis for
evidence-based policy implications and recommendations that address
air pollution-induced EI, which can also be relevant in other Asian and
non-Asian contexts.
1.1. Environmental injustice, social deprivation, and PM2.5 pollution in
Hong Kong
EI refers to the disproportionate exposure to hazardous pollution
among the disadvantaged groups due to market failure or political in-
equality, in addition to the inequalities in pollution exposure due to
disproportionate environmental burdens and adverse health outcomes
(Jerrett et al., 2001; Morello-Frosch et al., 2001, 2011; Schlosberg,
2009). While environmental inequity emphasizes the unequal share of
environmental burdens, EI further implies the need for certain remedial
actions to redress the injustice imposed on the disadvantaged groups
(Bullard, 2000; Cutter, 1995). Distribution-based inequity (uneven
distribution of environmental burdens) and process inequity (causal
explanation for environmental inequity) are two key aspects examined
under EI studies (Jerrett et al., 2001; Mohai and Saha, 2015). Given the
potential differential exposure to PM2.5 pollution across different SES
groups in HK, our study will focus on the distribution-based aspects of
EI, highlight policy implications and provide policy recommendations
to redress air pollution-induced EI.
SD is defined as the condition in which one’s standard of living falls
below the general standard of the community (Townsend, 1987). In-
dicators, such as low-income, low-education, non-professional occupa-
tion, and non-owner occupier, can be used to measure SD, based on the
SD indicators developed by Ou et al. (2008) and Wong et al. (2008),
also taking into account the specific socio-economic characteristics of
HK. These SD indicators can be measured in relative terms, such as low-
income household, measured as the percentage of householders whose
monthly household income is below the lowest tertile, while other
54
Environmental Science and Policy 80 (2018) 53–61
indicators can be measured in absolute terms, such as low-education,
measured as the percentage of population whose highest education
level is below the high school education.
In HK, Stern (2003) concludes that the Air Pollution Index in HK
was correlated with the mean monthly household income across eight
selected districts in HK in 2000 and 2001, respectively. Further studies
reveal that differential exposure to road-traffic noise or vehicular pol-
lution is linked to SES (Fan et al., 2012; Lam and Chan, 2008; Lam and
Chung, 2012). Given the preliminary evidence of uneven distribution of
environmental burdens, potentially causing distribution-based EI in HK,
rigorous research is needed to examine if differential exposure and
hence PM2.5-induced EI exists across different socio-economic groups in
HK.
1.2. Air pollution in Hong Kong
15 monitoring stations were installed by Environmental Protection
Department (EPD) of HK Government to monitor ambient air pollutants
concentration. The high mean PM2.5 concentration is reflected by the
persistently high Air Pollution Index (API)/Air Quality Health Index
(AQHI) at the station level documented by EPD over the last two dec-
ades. API converts air pollution concentration of PM10, PM2.5, NO2,
SO2, O3, CO into a value ranging from 0 to 500. The new AQHI adopted
by the HK Government couples air quality with health risks. It converts
ambient concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10, NO2, SO2, O3 into a scale of
1–10 and 10+, with higher values representing higher health risks, and
compare these readings against the maximum air pollution levels al-
lowed by the HK Air Quality Objectives (HKAQO) (HKEPD, 2013).
Different health risks are implied for different levels of AQHI. Among
the 15 monitoring stations, 44 days in HK in year 2016 have daily
maximum AQHI readings exceeding the Level 8, which belongs to the
highest health risk category (HKEPD, 2016c).
1.3. Review of air-pollution related environmental injustice studies
Studies have been conducted to establish the relationship between
disproportionate environmental burdens and socio-economic variation
around the world. As far as air pollution-related EI is concerned, re-
search that examines the disproportionate exposure to air pollution
among the disadvantaged groups has expanded from the initial focus on
proximity to polluting facilities, to the accuracy of exposure assess-
ments and the relevance of statistical modeling for examining dis-
tribution-based EI (see Morello-Frosch et al. (2011) and Pastor et al.
(2005) for a detailed review). In Los Angeles, Boer et al. (1997) ex-
amine the location patterns of hazardous facilities by multivariate lo-
gistic analysis. They highlight that siting bias of hazardous facilities is
related to class and race. Chaix et al. (2006) investigate children’s ex-
posure to NO2 in Sweden. They deploy a spatial clustering and multi-
level statistical model to approximate roof-level NO2 concentration, and
conclude that children residing in lower SES neighborhoods are ex-
posed to a higher level of concentration. Kingham et al. (2007) adopt an
atmospheric dispersion model to estimate traffic-related pollution in
New Zealand. They find that such exposure is highest among people
living in the most deprived areas. Molitor et al. (2011) examine how
multiple air pollution exposures are associated with the number of in-
dividuals living in poverty in Los Angeles via Bayesian multi-level
modeling. Their results show a general non-linear relationship between
the higher level of pollution exposure and poverty. These studies
highlight the need to use advanced estimation techniques to obtain
fine-grained air pollution data, subsequently inform environmental and
justice-based decision-making.
1.4. Research gaps and objectives
Air pollution estimation modeling, particulary in relation to pollu-
tion exposure estimation accuracy and granularity, has presented the
V.O. Li et al.
critical challenges to air pollution related SD/EI studies (Bowen, 2002).
Previous environmental and public health studies have deployed var-
ious methodologies to estimate air pollution (see Section 1 of the
Supplementary Document for details). For example, Su et al. (2009)
develop a land-use regression model based on nearly 200 monitors to
predict traffic-related air pollution in Los Angeles, but they have not
taken into account PM2.5 pollution. While Beckerman et al. (2013) and
Ross et al. (2007) have considered PM2.5 based on 75 and 42 monitors
in North America, respectively, via land use regression and achieve
good predictive capacity, the focus is on health effects instead of EI.
There is a pressing need to use more accurate and fine-grained PM2.5
estimation models for EI study.
Previous air pollution related SD/EI and policy studies were based
on very limited emission sources. For example, studies undertaken by
Marshall et al. (2014) and Ji et al. (2015) on particulate matters and
PM2.5, respectively, have only examined vehicular emissions-induced,
instead of total air pollution-induced EI. In fact, few EI studies have
utilized sophisticated data-driven pollution estimation models to assess
city-wide air pollution exposure.
Our work aims to fill these two research gaps, by providing a
Granger causality model that estimates fine-grained PM2.5 concentra-
tion in HK, utilizing multi-source urban dynamics data and measured
air pollution data, and by conducting a fine-grained, CA-level air po-
lution induced environmental justice study. Our model is capable of
estimating PM2.5 data at a finer resolution of 100 m × 100 m,
achieving 82% accuracy. This allows us to couple air pollution data
with socio-economic data at the CA level. In addition, we conduct a
multivariate analysis to examine whether people residing in CAs of
different SD levels have experienced differential exposure to PM2.5. We
pose a key research question: Are the socially deprived exposed to a
higher level of PM2.5 pollution in HK? Finally, conclusions are drawn
and policy suggestions are put forward.
2. Data and methods
2.1. Pollution exposure
2.1.1. Unit of analysis: constituency area
Recent studies have emphasized the need to conduct fine-grained
analysis of air pollution exposure to capture the effects of spatial var-
iation of such exposure (Pearce et al., 2006). CA is selected as the
geographical unit of analysis. There are 412 CAs in HK, each containing
a population of 17,000 people.
2.1.2. Air quality estimation model
Currently, the most challenging problem for estimating citywide air
pollution is the sparsity of monitoring stations. One approach to over-
coming this problem is to increase the number of monitoring stations,
but installation costs would be prohibitively high. Other approaches are
covered in Section 1 of the Supplementary Document, but they may not
achieve highly accurate results, or may require excessive computation.
Since air pollution is highly spatio-temporal (S-T) dependent and is
considerably influenced by urban dynamics (e.g. meteorology and
traffic) (Zheng et al., 2013), we adopt a data-driven air pollution esti-
mation model, based on 10 types of readily available urban dynamics
data (including pressure, humidity, temperature, maximum and
minimum wind speeds, wind direction, traffic speed, traffic saturation,
layout and roadmap) and six categories of measured air pollution data,
collected from 15 monitoring stations in HK (see Table 1), to infer PM2.5
concentrations in areas not covered by these monitoring stations (Zhu
et al., 2015, 2017). Details of the air quality estimation model can be
found in Section 2 of the Supplementary Document.
2.1.3. Assessment of PM2.5 pollution exposure
Our study examines PM2.5 exposure due to two reasons. First, PM2.5
has been the subject of attention in global air-pollution public health
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Environmental Science and Policy 80 (2018) 53–61
studies due to its detrimental effect on human health. PM2.5 causes
greater serious human health risks than other particulate pollutants
(Pope and Dockery, 2006). Research has shown positive and statisti-
cally significant correlation between exposure to PM2.5 and excessive
health risks among most developed cities including China (Pui et al.,
2014). Second, previous research investigating the spatial variation of
PM2.5 in HK showed that average PM2.5 levels varied by up to 2.5 times
among sampling sites in three locations (Louie et al., 2005), suggesting
the potential evidence of unequal distribution of PM2.5 pollution across
the territory of HK.
We make two assumptions regarding the exposure assessment (see
Section 3 of the Supplementary Document for details). First, we assume
indoor PM2.5 exposure is proportional to outdoor PM2.5 counterpart.
Second, we assume the outdoor individual exposure is also proportional
to the outdoor ambient concentration. Hence, outdoor ambient con-
centration at the CA where an individual resides can be used as proxy to
individual pollution exposure. With reference to exposure assessment
methods in previous air pollution related environmental justice/EI
studies (Jerrett et al., 2001; Pearce et al., 2006), we adopt the average
exposure method for exposure calculation.2 First, we calculate the
average daily concentration at the grid level in January 2014 (as it is
the month with the highest PM2.5 concentration in 2014), which is the
average of the 24 one-hour mean concentrations per day, estimated by
the Granger-causality model. Second, given that there are two types of
monitoring stations in HK, roadside stations (there are 3 of these), and
general stations, each varying in distance from 11–31 m above ground
(there are 12 of these), we adjust the PM2.5 measurements so all of them
correspond to roadside measurements (see Section 3 of the Supple-
mentary Document for details). Moreover, cross-border grids are re-
moved to better characterize pollution exposure of a particular CA (i.e.,
only grids that are fully covered by the CA were taken into account).
Finally, we calculate the monthly mean concentration by averaging the
31 daily mean concentrations.
2.2. Socio-economic data
The census data at CA level is collected from the 2011 HK
Population Census. In correlating the pollution estimates from 2014
with the 2011 census data, we assume that the 2014 census data will
not deviate significantly from that of 2011. The average exposures at
the CA level are correlated with a set of SD indicators.
The indicators are selected based on the earlier works on SD and
environmental justice (Jerrett et al., 2001; Townsend, 1987; Wong
et al., 2008) (see Supplementary Document Table S2 for indicators
specification and descriptive statistics). First, percentage of households
with low income, percentage of low education, and percentage of non-
professional occupation are chosen as socio-economic deprivation in-
dicators because they are good predictors of environmental burdens
and health risks (Jerrett et al., 2001). Second, percentage of households
who are non-owner occupier, is chosen because of their association
with air pollution and social justice. Other known factors that may be
related to AQ inequality include ethnicity and race (Bullard, 2000).
While literature in the US suggest that race and ethnicity are important
determinants of pollution exposure, ethnicity and race have negligible
significance on pollution exposure, given that only 6.4% of the HK
population is ethnic minority (HKCSD, 2011)
2
Researchers also highlight the importance of peak data in exposure assessments. We
examined the relationship between extreme exposure events (represented by the total
number of days that exceeds the 75 μg/m3 daily exposure) and SES variables, and found
similar results.
3
Occupation is classified into to 9 categories in HK 2011 Population Census.
Professional occupation includes “Manager and administrators”, “Professionals”, and
“Associate professionals”. Non-professional occupation includes “Clerical support
workers”, “Service and sales workers”, “Craft and related workers”, “Plant and machine
operators and assemblers”, “Elementary occupations”, “Skilled agricultural and fishery
workers; and occupations not classifiable”.
V.O. Li et al. Environmental Science and Policy 80 (2018) 53–61

Table 1
16 Urban dynamics for predicting PM2.5 concentration in Hong Kong.

Domain Category Urban dynamics Tuple format No. of tuples Source

Air pollution 1 AQHI (VALUE, S,T) 262800 Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (HKEPD)
2 PM2.5 (VALUE, S,T) 262800
3 PM10 (VALUE, S,T) 262800
4 NO2 (VALUE, S,T) 262800
5 O3 (VALUE, S,T) 262800
6 SO2 (VALUE, S,T) 262800

Meteorology 7 Pressure (VALUE, S,T) 1036800 Hong Kong Observatory (HKO)

8 Humidity (VALUE, S,T) 1036800
9 Temperature (VALUE, S,T) 1036800
10 Max wind speed (VALUE, S,T) 1036800
11 Min wind speed VALUE, S,T) 1036800
12 Wind direction (VALUE, S,T) 1036800

Traffic 13 Traffic speed (VALUE, S,T) 1245888 Data.gov.hk

14 Traffic saturation (VALUE, S,T) 1245888 Data.gov.hk

Urban Morphology 15 Layout (VALUE, S) 264000 Baidu Map

16 Road map (VALUE, S) 264000

Based on principal component analysis (PCA), four indicators above
are selected to produce a more compact representation of the indicators
without introducing co-linearity in subsequent regression analysis
(Buzzelli and Jerrett, 2004). The indicators are normalized and in-
cluded in the subsequent PCA analysis with varimax rotation; two
components (which capture 95% of the variation amongst all four
original variables) with eigenvalues greater than one are selected (see
Supplementary Document Table S3). The components are then classi-
fied based on their dominant loadings: component 1 (PC1) and com-
ponent 2 (PC2). Furthermore, a composite index is developed as the SDI
based on the two latent dimensions derived from the PCA (Nardo et al.,
2005) (see Section 4 of the Supplementary Document for more details
regarding how the SDI has been derived). Fig. S1 (right figure) of the
Supplementary Document showed the unequal distribution of SDI
across the city at the CA level. The values of SDI are categorized into
five levels of equal no. of counts, with darker colors representing higher
levels of SD in that CA. We can see higher levels of SDI not only in
suburban areas but also in areas near the city center. The values of SDI
at the CA level range from −1.75 to 1.88, with the mean being zero.
2.3. Analytical methods
We use two methods to examine whether there is any EI (inequity)
regarding PM2.5 exposure in HK. The first one employs statistical ana-
lysis to investigate the relationship between exposure and SD. In our
study, statistical analysis is not used for causality analysis, but for
testing the association between PM2.5 exposure and social deprivation
(Cutter, 1995; Jerrett et al., 2001). Results of our statistical analysis are
detailed in Section 3.2.
The second method focuses on graphical comparison to investigate
the potential inequality (Mitchell and Dorling, 2003; Pearce et al.,
2006). Mean PM2.5 exposure by different SES and SDI groups are cal-
culated and visualized. Given the possibility of large unexplained var-
iance (low R-squared value) and non-linear relationship in regression
models, visual representation is a relatively simple and robust method
for examining the relationship between a variety of indicators (Mitchell
and Dorling, 2003). Results of our visual representation and compar-
ison are detailed in Section 3.3.
3. Results
3.1. Pollution estimates and visualization
Our proposed air-pollution estimation model achieves an accuracy
of 82%. It outperforms the other five reference pollution estimation
methods (see Section 5 of the Supplementary Document for more de-
tails on the evaluations of pollution estimation). Fig. S1 (left figure) of
the Supplementary Document shows the unequal distribution of PM2.5
across the city at CA level. The values of average exposure are cate-
gorized into five levels of equal interval, with darker colors re-
presenting higher levels of PM2.5 pollution in that CA. We can identify
the highest levels of PM2.5 in urban areas with the highest population
densities, such as Sham Shui Po and Wong Tai Sin. Higher levels of
PM2.5 pollution can also be identified in suburban areas in the north-
west of HK. The pollution levels in these areas are highly affected by
cross-border pollution from Shenzhen, China. Pollution levels in the
city center (i.e., HK Island) are relatively lower. The values of the es-
timated pollution concentration at CA level range from 43.11 μg/m3 to
84.22 μg/m3, with a mean value of 61.17 μg/m3. Furthermore, CAs that
are in the highest quintile of both SDI and PM2.5 are highlighted in red
color in Fig. 1. The geographical visualization shows that these high-
socially-deprived-high-PM2.5-pollution CAs (32 in total) can be identi-
fied in suburban areas in the northwest of New Territories such as Tin
Shui Wai, and high-populated urban areas in Kowloon such as Sham
Shui Po and Kwun Tong. None of these CAs can be identified in HK
Island. The values of the estimated PM2.5 pollution concentrations of
these CAs are ranged from 68.11 μg/m3 to 84.22 μg/m3, with the mean
value of 72.16 μg/m3. The values of SDI at these CAs range from 0.98 to
1.88, with the mean value of 1.36.
3.2. Statistical analysis
To determine the strength of correlation between PM2.5 exposure
and SDI represented by the four indicators (as listed in Supplementary
Document Table S2), statistical tests with diagnostics have been con-
ducted. First, Spearman correlation analysis is used to examine the
statistical dependence between PM2.5 exposure and SD variables by
means of a non-parametric test. Results show: (1) correlation between
different SD variables (ρ > 0.6), and (2) correlation between SD
variables (SDI, low-income, low-education, and non-professional oc-
cupation) and PM2.5 exposure (0.15 < ρ < 0.20). Details of the cor-
relation analysis are listed in Supplementary Document Table S4.
Second, analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to examine if there is
significant difference in average exposure versus SDI. As SDI is a con-
tinuous variable, it is categorized into five levels (ranging from 1 to 5),
each with an equal number of CAs. SDI = 1 corresponds to the least
deprived CAs and SDI = 5 corresponds to the most deprived CAs.
Results (see Supplementary Document Table S5) show that the differ-
ences among groups of different SDIs are significant (F-value = 2.0772,
p-value < 0.1).

56
V.O. Li et al. Environmental Science and Policy 80 (2018) 53–61

Fig. 1. Constituency Areas (CAs) with both the highest level of PM2.5 pollution concentration and the highest level of Social Deprivation Index (SDI).

Given the low R-squared value (R2 = 1.4%, p < 0.01) in the re-
gression model with ordinary least squares (OLS) method, a large
proportion of variance of exposure is left unexplained in the regression
models (see Supplementary Document Table S6), and inferences
through the OLS method can be biased due to the under-fitting of
models (Bowen, 2002), we run diagnostic tests to examine the validity
of the regression model (Fox and Weisberg, 2010). Residual plots show
that no particular pattern is apparent for the model. Moreover, stu-
dentized residuals plots suggest that the assumption of constant var-
iance in error terms does not hold exactly in the model. Hence, the t
statistics are not valid in terms of inferring the statistically significant
variables.
Next, we use heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix esti-
mator to derive the coefficient estimates in the regression models,
which are robust standard error estimators of cross-sectional data
(White, 1980). Results are consistent with previous conclusions. Fur-
ther, the results of Moran’s I test suggest the high potential of spatial
autocorrelation in error terms. Finally, in order to meet the assumption
that error terms are independent, we also adopt a simultaneous auto-
regressive (SAR) model with a first-order nearest-neighbor weighting
matrix. Supplementary Document Table S6 also shows the strength of
the relationship between SDI and average PM2.5 exposure in the SAR
model (R2 = 1.0%, p < 0.05). Although the pseudo R-squared value
decreases after taking spatial dependence into consideration, SDI re- Fig. 2. Mean PM2.5 pollution concentration by SDI quintiles.

mains a statistically significant variable.

Based on our statistical analysis, SDI is a significant predictor of
PM2.5 exposure.
3.3. PM2.5 concentration by social deprivation indicators
Fig. 2 shows the patterns of mean PM2.5 pollution by SDI groups.
The mean PM2.5 pollution increases from the lowest SDI quintile to the
highest SDI quintile. Fig. 3 shows the patterns of mean PM2.5 pollution
by household income groups. For the low-income household group
(whose monthly household income is below the lowest tertile), the
mean PM2.5 pollution increases from the lowest quintile to the highest
quintile. This means that low-income households are likely to be ex-
posed to higher mean PM2.5 exposures. On the other hand, for the high-
income groups (whose monthly household income is above the highest

57
V.O. Li et al.
Fig. 3. Mean PM2.5 pollution concentration by household income quintiles.
Fig. 4. Mean PM2.5 pollution concentration by education quintiles.
tertile), the mean PM2.5 pollution decreases dramatically. This means
that PM2.5 exposure is lower in CAs with a larger ratio of high-income
households. The other two SES indicators, namely, education and oc-
cupation, show similar trends as that of household income groups (see
Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 for education and occupation, respectively). However,
we also notice some irregularities in the linear pattern, e.g. quintile 3
and 4 for high-income groups. Moreover, people residing in CAs with
either higher proportion of owner-occupiers or non-owner occupiers are
likely to be exposed to a similar level of PM2.5 pollution (see Fig. S3 for
tenure of accommodation). This implies that a portion of less socially
deprived are likely to live in CAs of higher levels of PM2.5 pollution, and
vice versa. Given that HK has high population density, there is not
much choice on where to reside for the rich, even that they can afford
better quality housing.
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Environmental Science and Policy 80 (2018) 53–61
Fig. 5. Mean PM2.5 pollution concentration by occupation3 quintiles.
4. Policy implications and recommendations
We have identified five prominent features with regard to the dif-
ferential exposure to air pollution of citizens residing in CAs of different
SD levels in HK, each carrying significant policy implications.
First, HK citizens residing in the more socially deprived CAs are
more likely to be exposed to a higher level of pollution than those re-
siding in the less socially deprived CAs (see Fig. 2). To a certain extent,
our study echoes the conclusions made on the relationship between SD,
pollution exposure and environmental injustice, in both the Western
and the Asian context (Lung et al., 2014; Morello-Frosch et al., 2011).
However, our study deviates from relevant former studies by exploring
such relationship at a spatial level of CA. In addition, we examine the
association between SD and PM2.5 exposure, rather than the association
between pollution exposure and personal health (Morello-Frosch et al.,
2011). Given that pollution is the direct cause of poorer health for the
socially deprived, policies that target to end the vicious health cycle
will need to tackle air pollution in the first place. One possible way to
tackle the PM2.5 induced social inequality can be done via economic
programmes, complemented by voluntary measures.
Environmental compensation offered by polluting corporations or
governments are considered the basic rights under the environmental
justice framework (Čapek, 1993). Given the evidence of distribution-
based EI in relation to PM2.5 exposure in HK, it is important that justice-
based compensation be granted to the socially deprived CAs to redress
EI. Creative air pollution regulatory frameworks and instruments, si-
milar to the Carl Moyer Program in California, US, which funds clean
engines and equipment which essentially reduce emissions of pollutants
(California Environmental Protection Agency, 2008), can be instituted
in HK. In HK, environmental compensation can be determined by ac-
counting for the environmental costs or health risks of our citizens in
the socially deprived areas.
For instance, people residing in the socially deprived CAs can put
forward effective clean air proposals via smart air pollution monitoring
followed by effective clean air programmes, such as pedestrianisation
or tree-planting. Grants can be awarded to proponents based on their
potential to reduce air pollution or to improve AQ in the CAs they re-
side. In addition, communities impacted by differential exposure will
gain a stronger sense of ownership by taking part in the remedial
process via public participation (Pirk, 2002). However, it must be noted
that the socially deprived communities vulnerable to bad air require
V.O. Li et al.
capacity-building and grassroots mobilization, as direct participation in
clean air programmes cannot be directly envisaged due to their lack of
ability, knowledge and experience. Voluntary programmes to equip the
vulnerable parties are necessary to enhance their capacity and cap-
ability to participate and propose meaningful and effective solutions to
clean up their own backyards (Lung et al., 2014). Similar measures to
remedy EI can be adopted in HK. The combined economic instrument
with participatory and capacity-building programmes, may reduce EI,
while enhancing the capacity of the community to propose clean air
solutions, eventually improving the air quality of the CAs where ma-
jority of the socially deprived resides, thus closing the vicious EI cycle.
Second, our results have shown that among all four key SES vari-
ables of social deprivation, three variables, namely, low-income, low-
education, and non-professional occupation, can be grouped via PCA
into one component to partially represent the SDI. This implies that the
three SES variables that represent SD are closely related to each other
(see Table S3). Given that SDI is a significant factor that explains PM2.5
exposure, the more socially deprived the CAs, the poorer the air quality
(see Table S6), and the higher the pollution exposure inequality. It
would thus be effective for the three inter-related SD factors that cor-
relate with pollution exposure to be addressed in parallel, when tack-
ling pollution-induced EI. This means that the issues of low income, low
education or low skill job cannot be looked into separately when
tackling EI in HK. Rather, an integrated policy strategy targeting at the
socially deprived, by providing citizens residing in the socially deprived
CAs with better financial, educational and vocational support, should
appear to be more productive in reducing air pollution induced EI.
Third, unlike the previous study on SD or EI and air pollution in
Asia, which is based on subjective perception rating of social depriva-
tion/EI (Lung et al., 2014), and most may not be able to give an ac-
curate estimation of air pollution exposure at fine-grained level at the
city-wide level (Fan et al., 2012; Morello-Frosch et al., 2011; Stern,
2003; Wong et al., 2008), our work provides an objective measurement
of SD at the CA level, by calculating a composite index based on the two
latent factors derived from four SD indicators via PCA. In parallel, our
study utilizes a spatial-temporal Granger Causality model to provide air
pollution estimation for each CA. By correlating the social deprivation
and PM2.5 reading for each CA, we are able to identify “high-SDI-high-
pollution-concentration” areas, in which CAs of highest SDI overlap
those of highest PM2.5 exposure (see Fig. 1). This information can serve
as the reference/evidence to justify and advance future location- and
justice-based policy-decision making, by designing and introducing new
environmental/planning policies targeting specifically at those “high-
SDI-high-pollution-concentration” areas (see Fig. 1). This opens new
opportunities and advancement in environmental and planning policy
decision-making for HK and the rest of the world. In the past, en-
vironmental policies, including those in HK, are pollution-centric, fo-
cused narrowly on purely the pollutants and their sources, rather than
human- or health- centric. With the scientific and SDI evidence, future
environmental policy-making can be broadened to take into account the
integrated, and location-based impact of pollution exposures and SD
truly experienced by citizens who live in neighborhoods consisting
largely of the most socially deprived (Pastor et al., 2005). In future,
with more sophisticated models that track the source of pollution, the
government can go one step further to identify the accountable parties
for air pollution, and the additional health costs inflicted on the socially
deprived citizens/areas due to air pollution. This provides the valuable
social function and incentives for appropriate behaviors of air quality
improvement, as well as imperatives for the government to reduce the
risks of exposure of the socially deprived to poor air, thus exercising
environmental justice (Institute of Medicine Committee on
Environmental Justice, 1999).
Fourth, our result reveals that in some cases, different SES groups in
HK are exposed to similar poor air quality, for instance, the rich and the
poor (see Fig. 3, CAs accounting for 60 percentile of the low income
groups and CAs for 60 percentile of the high income groups) have both
59
Environmental Science and Policy 80 (2018) 53–61
been exposed to 61–62 μg/m3 PM2.5 pollution concentration on
average. Due to the high population density, as evidenced in many parts
of Asia, such as Taiwan and Singapore, etc., the rich and the poor may
live in close proximity of each other, thus equally susceptible to the bad
air. In addition, both owners of accommodation/non-owners of ac-
commodation in upper quintiles are exposed to similar high PM2.5
pollution concentration, with the owners exposed to relatively higher
pollution concentration than the non-owners (see Fig. S3). The irregular
pattern again suggests that a proportion of more affluent citizens in HK,
who own their own flats, are also susceptible to poor air quality. Similar
pattern can be found in Taiwan, where the spatial heterogeneity of EI
has also been noted (Lung et al., 2014), with the rich being exposed to
more air pollution than the poor. Such phenomenon serves as a re-
minder to the policy-makers that pollution respects no boundaries. If air
pollution is not properly addressed, the government may be susceptible
to increasing political pressure, when the rich find themselves seriously
affected by air pollution and will no longer tolerate such a situation.
Based on the HKEPD figures in 2015 (HKEPD, 2015), the three main
sources of air pollution are coal-fired power plants, vessels and road
transports, which have not been tackled properly over the last two
decades. The local air pollution has persisted for over four decades, and
should be tackled by tightening regulations that control coal-fired
power plant emissions, or phasing them out and replacing them with
cleaner alternatives, such as natural gas, and reducing vehicular and
vessel emissions by alternative cleaner vehicles and vessels.
Finally, our study finds that unlike overseas studies on air pollution
exposure and social deprivation/EI, race/ethnicity has no influence on
air pollution exposure and is not a factor of EI. In future, local social/
environmental/planning policies should be examined together with
other social-deprivation variables, such as low income, non-profes-
sional occupation, low-education and non-owners of accommodations,
which are significant attributes to air pollution-induced EI.
5. Limitation of the study
Our study aims to integrate a data-driven approach to estimate fine-
grained AQ data, with a social science methodology to conduct quan-
titative research on the statistical relationship between PM2.5 exposure
and social deprivation. However, our data-driven methodology may
suffer from over-smoothing due to the relatively small number of air
quality stations, even with our sophisticated air pollution estimation
model. As part of our future work, our data-driven air pollution esti-
mation model will attempt to overcome issues of over-smoothing and
measurement sparsity.
6. Conclusion
EI has been documented in many countries. Previous literature
showed that the socially deprived are more vulnerable to higher po-
tential exposure. In HK, the issue of EI has been overlooked. Few
methodological, sophisticated air pollution studies have been con-
ducted to explore the issue of EI of PM2.5 exposure among different SES
groups.
HK is a metropolitan city characterized by high population density
and high mean PM2.5 pollution. In this study, deviating from existing air
pollution estimation models, we have adopted a sophisticated data-
driven air pollution model, utilizing ubiquitous, multi-source urban
dynamics, which are of high relevance to air pollution, including air
pollutant concentrations, traffic, meteorology and urban morphology,
to estimate PM2.5 exposure. We have examined the statistical re-
lationship between PM2.5 exposure and the SD in HK, and have pre-
sented an easily comprehensible SDI and PM2.5 pollution concentration
interaction map at the CA level to facilitate evidence- and justice-based
environmental policy decision-making for HK.
Our research fills the current research gap by addressing PM2.5 in-
duced EI at the fine-grained geographical scale in Asia. In addition, we
V.O. Li et al.
highlight the significance of evidence-based decision-making, showing
how future environmental policy decision-making in Asia can be de-
signed with the help of evidence generated via sophisticated en-
gineering that integrates with statistical modeling and visualization.
We pose a key research question: Are the socially deprived exposed
to a higher level of PM2.5 pollution in HK? Our main finding concludes
that citizens residing in the most socially deprived areas are prone to be
exposed to a higher mean PM2.5 pollution concentration than those
residing in the least socially deprived areas of HK. Our study reinforces
the corresponding findings in Western countries concerning air pollu-
tion and SD/EI. We conclude that distribution-based PM2.5-induced EI
exists in HK. Although the relationship between PM2.5 exposure and SD
is not too strong, given that most of the people in HK resides in close
proximity, such relationship remains statistically significant.
In view of the existence of CA-level EI, we provide policy implica-
tions and recommend ways to remedy the PM2.5 pollution-induced EI in
HK, recommending the government to substantially modify the current
practice of environmental decision-making, which is more pollution-
control-centric instead of human/health-centric. In particular, it is time
for the government to comprehensively review the environmental and
planning policy-design process, gradually transform itself from com-
mand-and-control environmental policy-making to more integrated
policy decision-making, couple environmental policies more closely
with social or health policies, align economic policy instruments with
voluntary counterparts, and build capacities for more evidence-based,
location-based, justice-based and people-oriented decision-making, in
order to facilitate problem-solving and the development of more fea-
sible, effective, and just solutions to air pollution.
Acknowledgements
This research is supported in part by the University Development
Fund of the University of Hong Kong, which supports research colla-
boration between HKU and Cambridge, undertaken by the HKU-
Cambridge Clean Energy and Environment Research Platform. Special
thanks go to Prof. Peter Mathieson (HKU), Prof. Paul Tam (HKU), Prof.
David Newbery (Cambridge), Prof. Michael Pollitt (Cambridge), Dr.
David Reiner (Cambridge), Prof. Ian Leslie (Cambridge), Prof. Douglas
Crawford-Brown (Cambridge), Prof. Michael Jerrett (UCLA), and Prof.
Martin Beniston (University of Geneva), who share our vision that in-
terdisciplinary research in clean energy and environment has a sus-
tainable future.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.10.014.
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