Proposed redefinition of SI base units

The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) has proposed[1]:23
revised definitions of the SI base units, for consideration at the 26th General
Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM). It is expected that the formal vote,
scheduled for 16 November 2018,[2] will be approved[3][4][5] and that the new
definitions will to come into force on 20 May 2019.[6][7] The metric system was
originally conceived as a system of measurement that was derivable from unchanging
phenomena.[8] However, when the metric system was first introduced in France in
1799, technical limitations necessitated the use of artefacts (the prototype metre and
prototype kilogram) instead. In 1960 the metre was redefined in terms of the
wavelength of light from a specified source, making it derivable from natural
phenomena, leaving the prototype kilogram as the only artefact upon which the SI
unit definitions depend. If the proposed redefinition is accepted, the metric system
(SI) will, for the first time, be wholly derivable from natural phenomena.

The proposal can be summarised as follows:

There will still be the same seven base units (second, metre, kilogram,
Current (2018) SI system: Dependence of base unit
ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela). Of these, the kilogram, ampere,
definitions on other base units (for example, the
kelvin and mole will be redefined by choosing exact numerical values
metre is defined in terms of the distance travelled
for the Planck constant, the elementary electric charge, the Boltzmann by light in a specific fraction of a second), with the
constant, and the Avogadro constant, respectively. The second, metre constants of nature and artefacts used to define
and candela are already defined by physical constants and it is only them (such as the mass of the IPK for the kilogram).
necessary to edit their present definitions. The new definitions will
improve the SI without changing the size of any units, thus ensuring
continuity with present measurements.[9]

Further details are found in the draft chapter of the Ninth SI Brochure.[10]

The last major overhaul of the metric system was in 1960 when the International
System of Units (SI) was formally published as a coherent set of units of measure. SI
is structured around seven base units whose definitions are unconstrained by that of
any other unit and another twenty-two named units derived from these base units.
Although the set of units forms a coherent system, the definitions do not. The
proposal before the CIPM seeks to remedy this by using the fundamental quantities
of nature as the basis for deriving the base units. This will mean, amongst other
things, that the prototype kilogram will cease to be used as the definitive replica of
the kilogram. The second and the metre are already defined in such a manner.

A number of authors have published criticisms of the revised definitions – including

that the proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the
definition of the dalton[11] and the definitions of the kilogram, the mole and the Proposed SI system: Dependence of base unit
definitions on physical constants with fixed
Avogadro constant.
numerical values and on other base units that are
derived from the same set of constants.

Contents
Background
Development of SI
Impetus for change
Proposal
Impact on base unit definitions
Second
Metre
Kilogram
Ampere
Kelvin
Mole
 Candela
Impact on reproducibility
Uncertainty of fundamental physical constants
Dalton
Acceptance
Comment
Explicit-unit and explicit-constant definitions
Mass and the Avogadro constant
Temperature
Luminous intensity
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Background
The basic structure of SI was developed over a period of about 170 years (1791 to 1960). Since 1960, technological advances have made it possible
to address various weaknesses in SI, such as the dependence on an artefact to define the kilogram.

Development of SI
During the early years of the French Revolution, the leaders of the French National Constituent Assembly decided to introduce a completely new
system of measurement based on the principles of logic and natural phenomena. Specifically, the metre was defined as one ten-millionth of the
distance from the North Pole to the Equator, and the kilogram as the mass of one thousandth of a cubic metre of pure water. Although these
definitions were chosen so that nobody would "own" the units, they could not be measured with sufficient convenience or precision for practical
use. Instead, realizations were created in the form of the mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives which were a "best attempt" at
fulfilling these principles.[12]

In 1875, by which time the use of the metric system had become widespread in Europe and in Latin America, twenty industrially developed
nations met for the Convention of the Metre. The result was the signing of the Treaty of the Metre under which three bodies were set up to take
custody of the international prototype kilogram and metre and to regulate comparisons with national prototypes.[13][14] They were:

CGPM (General Conference on Weights and Measures / Conférence générale des poids et mesures) – The Conference meets every four
to six years and consists of delegates of the nations who had signed the convention. It discusses and examines the arrangements required
to ensure the propagation and improvement of the International System of Units and it endorses the results of new fundamental
metrological determinations.
CIPM (International Committee for Weights and Measures / Comité international des poids et mesures) – The Committee consists of
eighteen eminent scientists, each from a different country, nominated by the CGPM. The CIPM meets annually and is tasked to advise the
CGPM. The CIPM has set up a number of sub-committees, each charged with a particular area of interest. One of these, the Consultative
Committee for Units (CCU), amongst other things, advises the CIPM on matters concerning units of measurement.[15]
BIPM (International Bureau for Weights and Measures / Bureau international des poids et mesures) – The Bureau provides safe keeping of
the international prototype kilogram and metre, provides laboratory facilities for regular comparisons of the national prototypes with the
international prototype and is the secretariat for the CIPM and the CGPM.
The first CGPM (1889) formally approved the use of 40 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms from the British firm Johnson Matthey as
the standards mandated by the Convention of the Metre.[16] One of each of these was nominated by lot as the international prototypes, other
copies were retained by the CGPM as working copies and the rest were distributed to member nations for use as their national prototypes. At
regular intervals the national prototypes were compared with and recalibrated against the international prototype.[17] In 1921 the Convention of
the Metre was revised and the mandate of the CGPM was extended to provide standards for all units of measure, not just mass and length. In the
ensuing years the CGPM took on responsibility for providing standards of electric current (1946), luminosity (1946), temperature (1948), time
(1956) and molar mass (1971).[18]

The 9th CGPM (1948) instructed the CIPM "to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement, suitable for
adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention".[20] The recommendations based on this mandate were presented to the 11th CGPM
(1960) where they were formally accepted and given the name "Système International d'Unités" and its abbreviation "SI".[21]

Impetus for change

Changing the underlying principles behind the definition of the SI base units is not without precedent. The 11th CGPM (1960) defined the SI
metre in terms of the wavelength of krypton-86 radiation, replacing the pre-SI metre bar. The 13th CGPM (1967) replaced the original definition
of the second (which was based on a back-calculation of the Earth's rotation in the year 1900) with a definition based on the frequency of the
radiation emitted between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of
the caesium 133 atom. And the 17th CGPM (1983) replaced the 1960
definition of the metre with one based on the second, by giving an
exact definition of the speed of light in units of metres per second.[22]

Over the years, drifts of up to 2 × 10−8 kilograms per annum in the

national prototype kilograms relative to the international prototype
kilogram have been detected. There was no way of determining
whether the national prototypes were gaining mass or whether the IPK
was losing mass.[23] At the 21st meeting of the CGPM (1999), national
laboratories were urged to investigate ways of breaking the link
between the kilogram and a specific artefact. Newcastle University
metrologist Peter Cumpson has since identified mercury vapour
absorption or carbonaceous contamination as possible causes of this Mass drift over time of national prototypes K21–K40, plus two of
drift.[24][25] the International Prototype Kilogram's (IPK's) sister copies: K32
and K8(41).[Note 1] All mass changes are relative to the IPK.[19]
Independently of this drift having been identified, the Avogadro
project and development of the Kibble balance (known as a "watt
balance" before 2016) promised methods of indirectly measuring mass with a very high precision. These projects provided tools that would
enable alternative means of redefining the kilogram.[26]

A report published in 2007 by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry (CCT) to the CIPM noted that their current definition of
temperature has proved to be unsatisfactory for temperatures below 20 kelvins and for temperatures above 1300 kelvins. The committee was of
the view that the Boltzmann constant provided a better basis for temperature measurement than did the triple point of water, as it overcame
these difficulties.[27]

At its 23rd meeting (2007), the CGPM mandated the CIPM to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather
than the artefacts that were then in use. The following year this was endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics
(IUPAP).[28] At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading, United Kingdom, in September 2010, a resolution[29] and draft changes to the SI brochure
that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle.[30] The CIPM meeting of October 2010
found that "the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met.[Note 2] For this reason the CIPM does
not propose a revision of the SI at the present time";[32] however, the CIPM presented a resolution for consideration at the 24th CGPM (17–21
October 2011) to agree to the new definitions in principle, but not to implement them until the details have been finalised.[33] This resolution was
accepted by the conference,[34] and in addition the CGPM moved the date of the 25th meeting forward from 2015 to 2014.[35][36] At the 25th
meeting (18–20 November 2014), it was found that "despite [the progress in the necessary requirements] the data do not yet appear to be
sufficiently robust for the CGPM to adopt the revised SI at its 25th meeting",[37] thus postponing the revision to the next meeting in 2018. A
revised Draft Resolution A for consideration at the 26th meeting of the CGPM is available.[38]

Proposal
Following a recommendation from its Consultative Committee for Units (CCU), the BIPM has proposed that, in addition to the speed of light,
four further constants of nature should be defined to have exact values. Using the values recommended for standardization in the CODATA 2017
adjustment,[39] these would be:

The Planck constant h is exactly 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 joule-second (J⋅s).

The elementary charge e is exactly 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 coulomb (C).
The Boltzmann constant k is exactly 1.380 649 × 10−23 joule per kelvin (J⋅K−1).
The Avogadro constant NA is exactly 6.022 140 76 × 1023 reciprocal mole (mol−1).

These constants were described in the 2006 version of the SI manual, but in that version the latter three were defined as "constants to be
obtained by experiment" rather than as "defining constants".

The CCU also proposed that the numerical values associated with the following constants of nature be retained unchanged:

The speed of light c is exactly 299 792 458 metres per second (m⋅s−1).
The ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium-133 atom Δν(133Cs)hfs is exactly 9 192 631 770 hertz (Hz).
The luminous efficacy Kcd of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz is exactly 683 lumens per watt (lm⋅W−1).

The seven definitions above are rewritten below after converting the derived units (joule, coulomb, hertz, lumen and watt) into the seven base
units (second, metre, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela), according to the updated draft of the 9th edition of the SI Brochure
(2016).[10] In the list that follows, the symbol sr stands for the dimensionless unit steradian.

ΔνCs = Δν(133Cs)hfs = 9 192 631 770 s−1

 c = 299 792 458 m⋅s−1
h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 kg⋅m2⋅s−1[Note 3]
e = 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 A⋅s[Note 3]
k = 1.380 649 × 10−23 kg⋅m2⋅K−1⋅s−2[Note 3]
NA = 6.022 140 76 × 1023 mol−1[Note 3]
Kcd = 683 cd⋅sr⋅s3⋅kg−1⋅m−2

In addition the CIPM proposes that

The international prototype kilogram be retired and that the current definition of the kilogram be abrogated,
The current definition of the ampere be abrogated,
The current definition of the kelvin be abrogated and
The current definition of the mole be revised.

These changes will have the effect of redefining the SI base units, though the definitions of the derived SI units in terms of the base units will
remain the same.

Impact on base unit definitions

The CCU proposal recommended that the text of the definitions of all the base units be either refined or rewritten changing the emphasis from
explicit-unit to explicit-constant type definitions.[40] Explicit-unit type definitions define a unit in terms of a specific example of that unit – for
example in 1324 Edward II defined the inch as being the length of three barleycorns[41] and since 1889 the kilogram has been defined as being
the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram. In explicit-constant definitions, a constant of nature is given a specified value and the
definition of the unit emerges as a consequence. For example, in 1983, the speed of light was defined to be exactly 299 792 458 metres per
second and, since the second had been independently defined, the length of the metre could thus be derived.

The current[22] (as of 2018) and proposed[10][39] (expected 2019) definitions are given below.

Second
The proposed definition of the second is effectively the same as the current definition, the only difference being that the conditions under which
the definition applies are more rigorously defined.

Current definition: The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
Proposed definition: The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value
of the caesium frequency ΔνCs, the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium 133
atom, to be 9 192 631 770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1.

Metre
The proposed definition of the metre is effectively the same as the current definition, the only difference being that the additional rigour in the
definition of the second will propagate to the metre.

Current definition: The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1
299 792 458
of a second.
Proposed definition: The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical
value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299 792 458 when expressed in the unit m⋅s−1, where the second is
defined in terms of the caesium frequency ΔνCs.

Kilogram
The definition of the kilogram is due to change fundamentally – the current definition defines the kilogram as being the mass of the
international prototype kilogram, which is an artefact and not a constant of nature,[43] whereas the new definition relates it to the equivalent
mass of the energy of a photon given its frequency, via the Planck constant.

Current definition: The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram.
Proposed definition: The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical
value of the Planck constant h to be 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 when expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to
kg⋅m2⋅s−1, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and ΔνCs.

A consequence of this change is that the new definition of the kilogram is dependent on the definitions of the second and the metre.
Ampere
The definition of the ampere is due to undergo a major revision – the current definition, which is
difficult to realise with high precision in practice, will be replaced by a definition that is more
intuitive and easier to realise.

Current definition: The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained

in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-
section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length.
Proposed definition: The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current.
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to A Kibble balance, which is being
be 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A⋅s, used to measure the Planck
where the second is defined in terms of ΔνCs. constant in terms of the international
prototype kilogram.[42]
Since the current definition contains a reference to force, which has the dimensions MLT−2, it follows
that in SI the kilogram, metre and second, the base units representing these dimensions, must be
defined before the ampere can be defined. Other consequences of the current definition are that in SI the value of vacuum permeability (μ0) is
fixed at exactly 4π × 10−7 H⋅m−1.[44] Since the speed of light in vacuum (c) is also fixed, it follows from the relationship

that the vacuum permittivity (ε0) has a fixed value, and from

that the impedance of free space (Z0) likewise has a fixed value.[45]

A consequence of the proposed changes to the definition of the ampere is that the definition will no longer depend on the definitions of the
kilogram and the metre, but will still depend on the definition of the second. In addition, the numerical values of the vacuum permeability,
vacuum permittivity and impedance of free space, which, in the current definition are exact, will be subject to experimental error.[46]

Kelvin
The definition of the kelvin is due to undergo a fundamental change. Rather than using the triple point of water to fix the temperature scale, the
proposal recommends that the energy equivalent as given by Boltzmann's equation be used.

1
Current definition: The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is 273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of
the triple point of water.
Proposed definition: The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is defined by taking
the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380 649 × 10−23 when expressed in the unit J⋅K−1,
which is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−2⋅K−1, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ΔνCs.

One consequence of this change is that the new definition makes the definition of the kelvin depend on the definitions of the second, the metre,
and the kilogram.

Mole
The current definition of the mole links it to the kilogram. The proposed definition will break that link by making a mole a specific number of
entities of the substance in question.

Current definition: The mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities
as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be
specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.
Proposed definition:[1]:22 The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains
exactly 6.022 140 76 × 1023 elementary entities. This number is the fixed numerical value of the Avogadro
constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol−1 and is called the Avogadro number.
The amount of substance, symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified elementary entities. An
elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle or specified group of
particles.

One consequence of this change is that the current defined relationship between the mass of the 12C atom, the dalton, the kilogram, and the
Avogadro number will no longer be valid. One of the following must change:
 The mass of a 12C atom is exactly 12 dalton.
The number of dalton in a gram is exactly the numerical value of the Avogadro number.
The wording of the Draft of the ninth SI Brochure implies the first, which would mean that the second will no
longer be true. The molar mass constant, while still with great accuracy remaining equal to 1 g/mol, will no
longer be exactly equal to that.

Candela
The proposed definition of the candela is effectively the same as the current definition, with the only
difference being that the additional rigour in the definition of the second and metre will propagate to the
candela.

Current definition: The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a A near-perfect sphere of
source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz and that has a ultra-pure silicon – part of
1 the Avogadro project, an
radiant intensity in that direction of 683 watt per steradian.
International Avogadro
Proposed definition: The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a Coordination project to
given direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous determine the Avogadro
efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when number[42]
expressed in the unit lm⋅W−1, which is equal to cd⋅sr⋅W−1, or cd⋅sr⋅kg−1⋅m−2⋅s3,
where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ΔνCs.

Impact on reproducibility
Apart from the candela,[Note 4][47] all the base units will be defined in terms of universal physical constants, but without a direct one-to-one
correspondence between the constants and the base units. Thus six physical constants will be needed to define the six base units.

When the New SI was first designed, there were more than six suitable physical constants from which the designers could choose. For example,
once length and time had been established, the universal gravitational constant G could, from a dimensional point of view, be used to define
mass.[Note 5] It should be noted that in practice G can only be measured with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10−5,[Note 6] which would have
resulted in upper limit of the kilogram's reproducibility being around 10−5 whereas the current international prototype kilogram can be
measured with a reproducibility of 1.2 × 10−8.[46] The choice of physical constants was made on the basis of minimal uncertainty associated with
measuring the constant and the degree of independence of the constant in respect of other constants that were being used. Although the BIPM
has developed a standard mise en pratique (practical technique)[48] for each type of measurement, the mise en pratique used to make the
measurement is not part of the measurement's definition – it is merely an assurance that the measurement can be done without exceeding the
specified maximum uncertainty.

Uncertainty of fundamental physical constants

Fundamental physical constants are often highly dependent upon each other. This implies that the best value of a fundamental physical
constant, one with the least uncertainty, often can be determined by directly measuring other fundamental physical constants, from which the
value can be calculated. The uncertainty in these constants is then determined from the uncertainty of the others by the propagation of
uncertainty. Constants whose value is fixed, for determining the units in which they are expressed, don't have an uncertainty associated with
them, so they do not account for any extra uncertainty in the value of the calculated constant. One of the reasons the SI unit system will be
changed is that determination of values can often be greatly improved if expressed in these new units. This is due to the dependence of these
values on physical constants.

The following table catalogues the notable changes in determination of fundamental physical constants. The constants are expressed in direct
measurements and fixed constants to minimize and determine the uncertainty. Some constants in that expression do not contribute significantly
to the uncertainty; only the significant factors are noted. The value of the relative uncertainty by the data of CODATA of 2014 is given, and is
expressed in the relative uncertainty of the significant factors, noted with ur(constant). An approximately equals sign (≈) is used if an
uncertainty is only approximated by the expression. This is due to unsignificant factors or rounding errors.
 Current definition Proposed defin

Constant Symbol Relation to directly Significant Relation to directly Significant

measured and fixed factor(s) in Relative uncertainty measured and fixed factor(s) in
constants uncertainty constants uncertainty
Mass of
1 kg none exact
IPK[Note 7]

Planck 6.626 070 15 × 10−34

none
constant  kg⋅m2⋅s−1

Josephson
none
constant

Von Klitzing
none
constant

Elementary 1.602 176 634 × 10−19

none
charge  A⋅s

Magnetic
4π × 10−7 m⋅kg⋅s−2⋅A−2 none exact
constant

Vacuum
none exact
permittivity

Impedance
of free none exact
space

Electron
mass

Electron
molar mass

Unified
atomic mass
unit or
dalton

Molar mass
0.001 kg⋅mol−1 none exact
constant

Avogadro 6.022 140 76 × 1023

none
constant  mol−1

Atomic
mass of
carbon-12

Molar mass
0.012 kg⋅mol−1 none exact
of carbon-12

Faraday
none
constant [Note 8]

Temperature
of triple
273.16 K none exact
point of
water
Molar gas
none
constant

Boltzmann 1.380 649 × 10−23

none
constant  kg⋅m2⋅K−1⋅s−2

Stefan–
Boltzmann none
constant

( = speed of light, = fine-structure constant, = Rydberg constant.)

It should be noted that the relative atomic mass of the electron Ar(e) is measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom (divided by 12). When
the Avogadro constant is set in the new SI, atomic masses might be measured in dalton (by fixing the Avogadro constant), instead of atomic
mass units (by fixing the mass of carbon-12), thus resulting in a difference between the values of the relative atomic mass and the atomic mass in
units of dalton.

Dalton
In 1993, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) approved the use of the dalton as an alternative to the unified atomic
mass unit with the qualification that the CGPM had not given its approval.[49] This approval has since been given.[50] Following the proposal to
redefine the mole by fixing the value of the Avogadro constant, Brian Leonard of the University of Akron, writing in Metrologia proposed that
the dalton (Da) be redefined such that NA = (g/Da) mol−1, but that the unified atomic mass unit (mu) retain its current definition based on the
mass of 12C, ceasing to exactly equal to the dalton. This would result in the dalton and the atomic mass unit potentially differing from each other
with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10−10.[51]

Acceptance
Much of the work done by the CIPM is delegated to consultative committees. The CIPM Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) has made the
proposed changes while other committees have examined the proposal in detail and have made recommendations regarding their acceptance by
the CGPM in 2014. The various consultative committees have laid down a number of criteria that must be met before they will support the CCU's
proposal, including:

For the redefinition of the kilogram, at least three separate experiments be carried out yielding values for the Planck constant having a
relative expanded (95%) uncertainty of no more than 5 × 10−8 and at least one of these values should be better than 2 × 10−8. Both the
Kibble balance and the Avogadro project should be included in the experiments and any differences between these be reconciled.[52][53]
For the redefinition of the kelvin, the relative uncertainty of Boltzmann constant derived from two fundamentally different methods such as
acoustic gas thermometry and dielectric constant gas thermometry be better than one part in 10−6 and that these values be corroborated by
other measurements.[54]
As at March 2011, the International Avogadro Coordination (IAC) group had obtained an uncertainty of 3.0 × 10−8 and NIST had obtained an
uncertainty of 3.6 × 10−8 in their measurements.[26]

On 1 September 2012 the European Association of National Metrology Institutes (EURAMET) launched a formal project to reduce the relative
difference between the Kibble balance and the silicon sphere approach to measuring the kilogram from (17 ± 5) × 10−8 to within 2 × 10−8.[55]

As of March 2013 the proposed redefinition is known as the "New SI",[9] but Mohr, in a paper following the CGPM proposal but predating the
formal CCU proposal, suggested that since the proposed system makes use of atomic scale phenomena rather than macroscopic phenomena, it
should be called the "Quantum SI System".[56]

As of the 2014 CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants (published in 2016, using data collected through the end of
2014), all measurements meet the CGPM's requirements and the way is clear to proceed with the redefinition and the next CGPM quadrennial
meeting in late 2018.[4][3]

On 20 October 2017, the 106th meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) formally accepted a revised Draft
Resolution A calling for the redefinition of the SI, to be voted on at the 26th CGPM,[1]:17–23 The same day, in response to the CIPM's
endorsement of the final values[1]:22, the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants published its 2017 recommended values for the four
constants (with uncertainties) and proposed numerical values for the redefinition (without uncertainty).[39]

Comment
In 2010 Marcus Foster of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation published a wide-ranging critique of SI in which
he raised numerous issues ranging from basic issues such as the absence of the symbol "Ω" from most Western keyboards to the abstract issues
such as inadequate formalism in the metrological concepts on which SI is based. The changes proposed in the New SI only addressed issues
regarding the definition of the base units including new definitions of the candela and the mole – units that Foster argued were not true base
units. Other issues raised by Foster fell outside the scope of the proposal.[57]

Explicit-unit and explicit-constant definitions

Concerns have been expressed that the use of explicit-constant definitions of the unit being defined that are not related to an example of its
quantity will have many adverse effects.[58] Although this criticism applies to the proposed linking of the kilogram to the Planck constant via a
route that requires a knowledge of both special relativity and quantum mechanics,[59] it does not apply to the proposed definition of the ampere,
which is closer to an example of its quantity than is the current definition.[60] Some observers have welcomed the proposal to base the definition
of electric current on the charge of the electron rather than the current definition of a force between two parallel current-carrying wires – since
the nature of the electromagnetic interaction between two bodies at the quantum electrodynamics level is somewhat different from the nature at
classical electrodynamic levels, it is considered inappropriate to use classical electrodynamics to define quantities that exist at quantum
electrodynamic levels.[46]
Mass and the Avogadro constant
When the scale of the divergence between the IPK and national kilogram prototypes was reported in 2005, a debate arose on how best to
redefine the kilogram – should the kilogram be defined in terms of the mass of the silicon-28 atom or should it be determined using the Kibble
balance? The mass of a silicon atom could be determined using the Avogadro project and using the Avogadro number be linked directly to the
kilogram.[61]

Concern has also been expressed that the authors of the proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the mole,
kilogram, the dalton (Da) and the Avogadro constant (NA).[Note 9] This direct link has caused many to argue that the mole is not a true physical
unit, but, in the words of the Swedish philosopher Johansson, the mole is a "scaling factor".[57][62]

The SI Brochure (8th edition) (http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8_en.pdf) defines the dalton in terms of the mass of an
atom of 12C. It defines the Avogadro constant in terms of this mass and the kilogram, making it determined by experiment. The proposal fixes
the Avogadro constant, and the draft of the Ninth SI Brochure[10] retains the definition of dalton in terms of 12C, with the effect that the link
between the dalton and the kilogram will be broken.[63][64]

Temperature
Temperature is somewhat of an enigma – room temperature can be measured by means of expansion and contraction of a liquid in a
thermometer, but high temperatures are often associated with a colour. Wojciech T. Chyla, approaching the structure of SI from a philosophical
point of view in the Journal of the Polish Physical Society, argued that temperature is not a real base unit but is rather an average of the thermal
energies of the individual particles that make up the body concerned.[46] He noted that in many theoretical papers, temperature is represented
by the quantities Θ or β where

and k is the Boltzmann constant.

Chyla acknowledged however that in the macroscopic world temperature plays the role of a base unit as much of the theory of thermodynamics
is based on temperature.

The Consultative Committee for Thermometry, part of the International Committee for Weights and Measures publishes a mise en pratique
(practical technique), last updated in 1990, for measuring temperature which, at very low and at very high temperatures, makes great use of
linking energy to temperature via the Boltzmann constant.[65][66]

Luminous intensity
Foster argued that "luminous intensity [the candela] is not a physical quantity, but a photobiological quantity that exists in human perception",
thereby questioning whether the candela should be a base unit.[57]

See also
International System of Units
International Vocabulary of Metrology
Physical constant
SI base unit

Notes
1. Prototype No. 8(41) was accidentally stamped with the number 41, but its accessories carry the proper number 8. Since there is no
prototype marked 8, this prototype is referred to as 8(41).
2. In particular the CIPM was to prepare a detailed mise en pratique for each the new definitions of the kilogram, ampere, kelvin and mole set
by the 23rd CGPM[31]
3. These are the final values proposed for standardization, but have not been formally accepted yet.
4. Translating physical measurements of spectral intensity into units of candela also requires a model of the response of the human eye to
different wavelengths of light known as the luminosity function and denoted by V(λ), a function that is determined by the International
Commission on Illumination (CIE).
5. The dimensions of G are L3M−1T−2, so once standards have been established for length and for time, mass can in theory be deduced from
G. Also, when fundamental constants as relations between these three units are set, the units can be deduced by a combination of these
constants, for example as a linear combination of Planck units.
 6. The following terms are defined in International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (http://www.bip
m.org/utils/common/documents/jcgm/JCGM_200_2012.pdf):
measurement reproducibility – definition 2.25
standard measurement uncertainty – definition 2.30
relative standard measurement uncertainty – definition 2.32
7. Technically, the mass of International Prototype Kilogram would no longer be a "fundamental physical constant" when the artefact is
abandoned in the new SI.
8. Although the calculation of the uncertainty implies that the fine structure constant isn't a significant factor, because of rounding errors, the
uncertainty in fine structure constant does have an effect on the determined value.
9. The two quantities of the Avogadro constant NA and the Avogadro number NN are numerically the same, but while NA has the unit mol−1,
NN is a pure number.

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Further reading
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2016-11-10), SI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI) (http://www.bipm.org/utils/
common/pdf/si-brochure-draft-2016b.pdf) (PDF) (Draft to be finalized in 2018) (Preliminary 9th ed.), archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0170113133953/http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si-brochure-draft-2016b.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2017-01-13
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) (2017-08-10). "Input data for the special CODATA-2017 adjustment" (http://iopscienc
e.iop.org/journal/0026-1394/page/CODATA-2017_adjustment). Metrologia (Updated ed.). Retrieved 2017-08-14.

External links
BIPM website on the New SI (http://www.bipm.org/en/si/new_si/), including a FAQ page (http://www.bipm.org/en/si/new_si/faqs.html).
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