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AIRPORTS  
Intro  
There  are  over  5,100  public-­‐use  airports  in  the  United  States.    They  vary  in  size,  layout,  runway  surface  and  
usage.    They  range  from  quiet  grass  strips  to  large  international  airports  with  numerous  businesses  and  services  on  
property.    There  are  also  military  airports  and  water  landing  sites,  but  our  focus  will  be  on  public-­‐use,  paved  airports.  

Information  on  airports  can  be  found  in  the  FAA’s  Airport/Facility  Directory  and  in  commercial  publications  and  
web  sites  such  as  AOPA  Airports,  Jeppesen’s  J-­‐Aid,  and  AirNav.com  and  SkyVector.com.  These  publications  provide  
information  such  as:  

• Airport  location  and  elevation  

• Length,  width  and  strength  of  runways  
• Airport  lighting  and  approach  aids  
• ATC  and  private  communications  information  
• Aviation  services  and  information  about  airport  business    
• Airport  hazards  and  noise  abatement  procedures  

For  larger  airports,  the  FAA  publishes  an  Airport  Diagram  that  illustrates  all  runways,  taxiways,  ramp  areas  and  
other  features.  

Although  airports  are  different  in  size  and  layout,  airport  markings  and  procedures  have  been  standardized  for  
safety  and  efficiency  of  operations,  so  that  everyone  can  comfortably  and  safely  navigate  on  the  ground.  

This  lesson  will  cover:  

• Airport  Layout  
• Traffic  Patterns  
• Airport  Markings  
• Airport  Signage  
• Airport  Lighting  
• Runway  Incursion  Avoidance  

Airport  Layout  
We  will  begin  by  explaining  the  layout  of  a  typical  airport.    When  an  airport  is  built,  the  runways  are  laid  out  so  
that  the  approaches  to  the  runways  avoid  higher  terrain  and  obstructions,  and  the  primary  runway  is  aligned  as  much  as  
possible  with  the  commonly  prevailing  winds;  any  secondary  runways  are  for  when  winds  are  from  other  directions.  
Generally  pilots  try  to  utilize  the  runway  with  the  most  direct  headwind,  which  minimizes  the  runway  distance  required,  
and  also  reduces  their  workload.  

The  length,  width,  strength  and  number  of  runways  will  be  determined  by  the  amount  and  the  size  of  traffic  
expected.    Many  airports  started  out  small  and  were  expanded  as  use  increased.    Airport  landing  surfaces  can  be  
asphalt,  concrete,  grass,  gravel,  or,  for  seaplanes,  water.    Airports  will  also  have  taxiways  and  parking  areas,  known  as  
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ramps.    As  airports  increase  in  size  and  usage,  they  become  hosts  to  aviation  businesses  that  provide  fueling  service,  
maintenance,  flight  training,  passenger  and  freight  service,  manufacturing,  and  other  related  services.  

Towered  vs.  non-­‐towered  

Of  the  five-­‐thousand  plus  public-­‐use  airports  in  the  US,  about  540  of  them  have  enough  traffic  to  warrant  a  full-­‐
time  or  part-­‐time  control  tower.    Just  over  half  the  control  towers  in  the  US  are  operated  by  the  FAA;  the  other  46%  are  
operated  by  private  contractors.    When  operating  from  a  towered  airport,  Air  Traffic  Control,  or  ATC,  will  coordinate  
arrivals  and  departures  by  issuing  instructions  and  clearances  to  the  pilots.    When  operating  from  a  non-­‐towered  airport,  
the  pilots  coordinate  their  own  movements  and  use  recommended  patterns  and  procedures  for  safety  and  efficiency.  

At  towered  airports,  ATC  and  pilots  communicate  over  a  series  of  distinct  frequencies  known  as  “Ground  
Control”,  “Tower”  and  “Approach”  or  “Departure”.    At  non-­‐towered  airports,  pilots  communicate  over  a  Common  Traffic  
Advisory  Frequency,  or  CTAF,  issuing  traffic  advisories  and  coordinating  with  other  pilots  in  the  area.    Aircraft  without  
radios  rely  on  pattern  procedures  and  a  good  visual  look-­‐out  to  sequence  with  other  aircraft.  

Traffic  Patterns  
When  taking  off  or  landing  at  airports,  pilots  use  a  standardized  traffic  pattern.    The  traffic  pattern’s  main  
purpose  is  to  ensure  that  air  traffic  flows  into  and  out  of  the  airport  in  an  orderly  manner.  This  makes  the  airport  
environment  safer  since  all  aircraft  should  be  following  the  same  procedures.    

The  basic  traffic  pattern  is  similar  at  all  airports  whether  it  is  controlled  by  a  control  tower,  or  a  non-­‐towered  
airport.  The  traffic  pattern  consists  of  a  rectangular  shape  made  up  of  5  different  legs:  departure,  crosswind,  downwind,  
base,  and  final.  The  standard  traffic  pattern  is  referred  to  as  left  traffic.  This  means  that  all  turns  in  the  pattern  are  made  
to  the  left.  A  runway  could  also  have  a  non-­‐standard,  or  right  traffic,  where  all  turns  are  made  to  the  right.  At  most  
airports,  the  traffic  pattern  is  typically  flown  1000  feet  above  the  elevation  of  the  airport.  

The  pilot  should  enter  the  pattern  on  a  45  degree  angle  to  the  downwind  leg,  flying  towards  the  approach  end  
of  the  runway.  When  within  about  a  mile  of  the  runway,  a  turn  should  be  made  to  enter  the  downwind  leg,  flying  
parallel  to  the  runway,  and  in  the  opposite  direction  of  landing.    The  pilot  should  then  fly  two  ninety-­‐degree  turns  (one  
to  turn  base,  and  the  other  to  turn  final)  while  descending  to  his  touchdown  point  on  the  runway.  This  allows  them  to  
properly  set  up  for  landing  and  to  sequence  themselves  with  other  air  traffic.  

An  airplane  that  has  taken  off  and  is  climbing  out  on  runway  heading  is  on  the  Departure  Leg.  When  at  a  
sufficient  altitude,  the  pilot  can  either  depart  the  pattern,  or  stay  in  the  pattern  by  turning  onto  the  Crosswind  Leg.  If  
they  decide  to  stay  in  the  pattern,  the  pilot  can  turn  back  onto  the  Downwind  Leg,  once  they  have  spaced  themselves  
out  sufficiently,  and  setup  to  practice  another  landing.  

There  is  one  additional  leg  of  the  pattern  which  has  not  been  mentioned  yet.  This  leg  is  called  the  Upwind  Leg,  
and  is  also  parallel  with  the  runway,  but  located  on  the  side  opposite  the  downwind.  This  leg  is  typically  only  used  if  a  
pilot  has  to  abort  their  landing  so  they  can  safely  space  themselves  out  from  other  traffic.  

Pilots  in  the  pattern  announce  their  positions  in  reference  to  these  legs.  If  a  pilot  announces  that  they’re  on  the  
base  leg,  and  about  to  turn  final,  another  pilot  on  the  ground  would  then  know  it’s  probably  not  safe  for  them  to  take  
off  at  that  time.  They’ll  then  wait  for  the  approaching  traffic  to  land  before  they  take  off.  
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At  tower-­‐controlled  airports,  ATC  may  instruct  pilots  to  fly  straight-­‐in  approaches,  or  have  pilots  enter  on  base  
leg;  ATC  may  even  run  left  and  right  patterns  simultaneously.    At  non-­‐towered  airports  these  procedures  are  not  
recommended.    Flying  the  approved  full  pattern  is  the  best  way  to  avoid  traffic  conflicts  when  ATC  is  not  there  to  
coordinate  non-­‐standard  arrivals  and  departures.  

Segmented  Circle  
As  previously  stated,  standard  patterns  are  flown  with  all  turns  to  the  left.    For  reasons  of  terrain,  noise  
abatement  or  to  prevent  conflict  with  other  operations,  some  airports  have  right-­‐hand  patterns  for  some  of  their  
runways.    Right  hand  patterns  are  depicted  on  aeronautical  charts,  noted  in  Airport/Facility  Directories,  and  shown  by  
indicators  on  the  surface  of  the  airport,  referred  to  as  segmented  circles.  

A  segmented  circle  consists  of  a  series  of  panels  arranged  in  a  circle,  usually  in  the  center  of  the  airport,  with  
extensions  to  show  the  runways  and  the  direction  of  the  patterns  if  non-­‐standard.  In  this  example,  the  extension  on  the  
left  shows  left  traffic  when  landing  to  the  East,  and  right  traffic  when  landing  to  the  West.    These  panels  surround  the  
primary  wind  indicator  so  that  it  can  be  located  more  easily  from  the  air.  Airports  with  runway  lights  will  usually  mount  a  
floodlight  above  the  wind  indicator  in  the  segmented  circle  so  that  pilots  can  see  the  wind  direction  at  night.  

Wind  Indicators  
A  pilot  can  get  wind  information  by  radio,  from  observers  on  the  ground,  or  from  automated  systems,  such  as  
ASOS,  or  AWOS,  that  broadcast  the  information.  

A  pilot  can  also  use  wind  socks,  wind  tees  or  tetrahedrons  to  judge  the  wind  direction  and  speed.    Most  airports  
use  one  or  more  of  these  indicators.    Wind  Tees  and  tetrahedrons  are  large  structures  that  are  free  to  pivot  on  their  
mounts,  so  that  they  weathervane  into  the  wind.  

Wind  socks  are  orange  conical  flags  that  not  only  pivot  on  their  mast,  indicating  wind  direction,  but  will  sag  or  
straighten  with  changing  wind  velocity,  allowing  pilots  to  visually  estimate  the  wind  speed.    Small  airports  may  have  only  
one  wind  sock,  but  larger  airports  usually  have  multiple  windsocks,  with  one  centrally  located,  and  the  others  near  the  
ends  of  the  runways,  where  they  are  easily  visible  to  pilots  on  take-­‐off  or  landing.  

Noise  Abatement  Procedures  

As  airports  become  encroached  by  homes  and  developments,  the  pilots  and  airport  operators  may  have  to  deal  
with  noise  complaints.    At  some  airports,  the  pattern  procedures  may  be  amended  to  minimize  the  over-­‐flight  of  the  
more-­‐noise-­‐sensitive  areas.    Nighttime  curfews  or  restrictions  to  training  activities,  such  as  touch-­‐and-­‐go  landings  during  
certain  hours,  may  also  be  in  effect.    To  find  if  noise  abatement  procedures  exist  at  an  airport  you  can  consult  the  A/FD  
or  similar  publications.  

When  noise  abatement  procedures  exist,  informational  signs  outlining  recommended  procedures  are  often  
posted  near  the  departure  ends  of  runways.  

Flight  Schools,  and  other  businesses  on  airports,  known  as  Fixed-­‐Base  Operators,  or  FBOs,  often  have  
information  on  noise-­‐sensitive  areas  and  noise  abatement  procedures  posted  on  bulletin  boards  or  on  their  websites.    It  
is  also  recommended  to  consult  with  local  pilots  and  operators  to  learn  about  noise-­‐sensitive  areas.  
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Airport  Markings  
Just  as  you  have  street  signs  and  painted  lines  on  the  roadways  to  help  you  whilst  driving,  airports  have  painted  
markings  and  signs  to  provide  information,  aid  operations,  and  identify  the  various  runways,  taxiways  and  ramps.  

Runway  Markings  
Each  runway  is  identified  with  large  white  numbers  painted  on  each  end.  These  numbers  may  seem  arbitrary,  
but  in  fact,  they  correspond  with  the  magnetic  direction  they  face.  These  become  the  runway’s  “name”.      For  example,  a  
runway  laid  out  east-­‐west  would  have  a  “9”  painted  on  one  end  of  the  runway,  and  a  “27”  [twenty  seven]  painted  on  
the  other  end.  These  numbers  denote  the  magnetic  headings  of  90  [ninety]  degrees  and  270  [two  hundred  seventy]  
degrees  that  an  airplane  would  be  flying  when  taking  off  or  landing  on  that  runway.  When  labeling  the  runways,  the  
magnetic  heading  of  the  runway  is  rounded  off  to  the  nearest  10  degrees  and  the  last  digit  and  any  preceding  zeros  are  
dropped.    For  example,  a  runway  with  a  magnetic  heading  of  068  degrees  becomes  runway  “7”.  Additionally,  the  runway  
name  is  pronounced  with  each  digit  separately.  For  example,  Runway  27  [twenty  seven]  is  actually  called  “Runway  two-­‐
seven”.  

Sometimes,  however,  one  or  more  other  runways  may  also  be  oriented  to  the  same  heading.  So,  to  differentiate  
between  the  runways,  the  suffixes  “Left”,  “Center”,  and  “Right”  are  also  used.  Two  parallel  7  runways  would  be  labeled  
as  7  Left  and  7  Right.  If  there  are  more  than  3  parallel  runways,  some  of  the  runways  would  be  assigned  a  different  
number.  

Dashed  center  stripes  are  painted  on  runways  to  aid  pilots  with  alignment  when  taking  off  and  landing.  The  
most  basic  of  runways  will  only  include  the  numbers  and  centerline  stripes.  However,  more  sophisticated  runways  will  
have  additional  markings.  These  markings  can  identify  the  runway  edges,  the  threshold,  the  touchdown  zone,  and  the  
pilot’s  aiming  point.  Finally,  additional  stripes  are  used  as  distance  markers  each  500  feet.  

Not  all  runways  are  usable.    To  mark  runways  that  are  undergoing  maintenance,  are  currently  unsafe  or  have  
been  permanently  closed,  yellow  Xs  are  placed  on  the  ends.    These  markings  can  be  painted  on  the  runway  or  may  be  
temporary  structures.    Additional  Xs  may  also  be  placed  at  intervals  along  the  rest  of  the  runway.  

Runway  markings  are  also  used  to  indicate  when  certain  portions  of  a  runway  are  not  usable  for  landing  or  take-­‐
off.  

If  part  of  the  approach  end  of  a  runway  is  usable  for  taxi  and  take-­‐off,  but  not  landing,  it  will  be  labeled  as  a  
displaced  threshold,  and  marked  with  white  arrows.    Landing  on  this  portion  of  the  runway  is  not  permitted  because  
terrain  or  man-­‐made  obstructions  require  an  airplane’s  approach  path  to  be  relocated  farther  down  the  runway  to  
provide  adequate  clearance.  You  can,  however,  use  this  portion  of  the  runway  to  slow  the  aircraft  to  a  stop  after  
touching  down  during  a  landing,  but  only  when  that  landing  is  from  the  opposite  end  of  the  runway.  

Runway  pavement  that  cannot  be  used  for  taxi,  take-­‐off,  or  landing  is  marked  with  yellow  chevrons.    This  area  
can  only  be  used  for  emergency  overrun,  or  has  been  placed  there  to  limit  ground  erosion  from  jet  blast.  

Taxiway  Markings  
To  travel  between  the  runways  and  the  parking  ramps,  most  airports  have  taxiways.    Since  runways  are  labeled  
with  numbers,  taxiways  are  given  letter  designators.  Also,  while  painted  runway  markings  are  white,  taxiway  markings  
are  yellow.    At  larger  airports,  taxiways  will  have  a  solid  single  yellow  stripe  to  mark  the  center  of  the  taxiway,  and  solid  
double  yellow  lines  to  mark  the  edge  of  the  taxiways.  
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When  a  taxiway  comes  in  contact  with  a  runway,  Runway  Holding  Position  Markings  are  used.  These  markings  
identify  where  an  aircraft  is  supposed  to  stop  when  approaching  a  runway.  They  consist  of  four  yellow  lines,  two  solid,  
and  two  dashed,  extending  across  the  width  of  the  taxiway.  The  solid  lines  are  always  on  the  side  where  the  aircraft  is  
supposed  to  hold.  This  means  that  the  solid  lines  are  on  the  taxiway  side,  and  the  dashed  lines  are  on  the  runway  side.  
When  approaching  these  markings,  if  you  are  on  the  side  with  solid  lines,  you  must  have  permission  to  cross  the  
boundary.  If  you  are  instead  on  the  side  with  the  dashed  lines,  no  permission  is  needed  to  cross.  

To  coincide  with  these  “hold  lines”,  larger  airports  may  additionally  use  an  enhanced  taxiway  centerline.  This  
“enhanced”  centerline  consists  of  a  parallel  dashed  yellow  line  painted  on  both  sides  of  the  centerline  and  is  used  up  to  
150  feet  prior  to  a  runway.  This  warns  the  pilot  that  they  are  approaching  a  Runway  Holding  Position  Marking,  and  may  
need  to  stop.  

If  an  aircraft  is  trying  to  land  at  an  airport  during  inclement  weather  where  fog  or  clouds  are  preventing  a  pilot  
from  being  able  to  land  visually,  that  pilot  can  potentially  utilize  that  airport’s  Instrument  Landing  System,  or  ILS,  
assuming  the  airport  has  one,  and  the  pilot  is  qualified  to  use  it.  In  simplified  terms,  this  system  transmits  radio  waves  
from  stations  on  the  airport  up  to  the  aircraft  and  guides  the  pilot  down  to  the  runway.  An  aircraft  taxiing  on  the  ground  
can  potentially  block  these  radio  waves,  and  prevent  the  approaching  aircraft  from  successfully  landing.  Because  of  that,  
additional  holding  areas  may  also  exist  to  denote  these  ILS  Critical  Areas,  and  prevent  any  stationary  aircraft  from  
blocking  the  signal.  Holding  Markings  for  ILS  Critical  Areas  consist  of  two  parallel  lines  stretching  the  width  of  the  
taxiway,  connected  together  with  pairs  of  perpendicular  lines.  The  marking  resembles  that  of  a  ladder.  Please  note,  you  
do  not  have  to  hold  short  of  this  marking  unless  specifically  instructed  by  ATC  to  do  so.  

Airport  parking  areas  are  called  ramp.    They  are  also  known  as  “non-­‐movement  areas”  (a  curious  designation  
since  you  are  allowed  to  move  about  on  these  ramps  without  ATC  permission).  However,  this  name  actually  makes  
sense,  because  the  taxiways  and  runways  are  considered  Movement  Areas,  where  permission  IS  necessary  to  move  
about.  The  border  between  ramps  and  taxiways  is  marked  with  yellow  stripes,  a  single  solid  line  on  the  ramp  side  and  a  
single  dashed  line  on  the  taxiway  side.  Just  like  with  runway  hold  lines,  permission  is  required  to  cross  the  line  when  on  
the  solid  side,  but  not  when  on  the  dashed  side.  

The  final  markings  we’ll  discuss  are  lead-­‐in  and  lead-­‐off  lines.  These  lines  are  painted  on  the  runway  to  guide  
aircraft  onto  and  off  of  the  runway.  

Airport  Signage  
Good  airport  signage  helps  pilots  navigate  their  way  around  an  unfamiliar  airport,  and  is  important  for  safety,  by  
helping  to  identify  crucial  intersections  and  runway  crossings.    Taxiway  striping  and  signs  work  just  like  roadway  stop-­‐
signs  and  traffic  lights  to  help  prevent  traffic  conflicts.        

There  are  six  types  of  airport  signs:  mandatory  instruction  signs,  location  signs,  direction  signs,  destination  signs,  
information  signs,  and  runway  distance  remaining  signs.  

Mandatory  Instruction  Signs  have  a  red  background  with  white  text.  They  are  used  to  identify:  an  entrance  to  a  
runway  or  critical  area,  or  an  area  where  an  aircraft  is  prohibited  from  entering.  These  signs  are  most  prominently  used  
as  Runway  Holding  Position  Signs,  and  are  located  at  the  same  locations  as  Runway  Holding  Position  Markings,  alerting  
the  pilot  where  the  runway  environment  begins.    
 6  

The  runway  numbers  on  the  sign  are  arranged  to  indicate  which  direction  the  beginning  of  each  runway  is.  In  
this  example  “15-­‐33”  indicates  that  the  beginning  of  Runway  15  is  to  the  left,  and  the  beginning  of  Runway  33  is  to  the  
right.  This  is  not  to  be  confused  with  which  direction  you  need  to  turn  to  take  off  on  a  specific  runway.  If  you  were  
assigned  to  take  off  on  runway  33  from  your  current  location,  you  would  need  to  turn  left,  even  though  the  number  33  
is  on  the  right  side  of  the  sign.  

Keep  in  mind  that  these  signs  can  also  exist  on  runways,  when  the  runway  you  are  on  intersects  another  
runway.  If  the  intersection  is  not  at  a  ninety  degree  angle,  than  arrows  indicating  the  direction  of  the  runway  are  also  
used.  

Also,  if  you  are  at  a  taxiway  that  intersects  with  the  beginning  of  the  takeoff  runway,  then  only  that  runway  
name  will  be  listed  on  the  sign.  

Just  like  runway  hold  signs,  these  mandatory  instruction  signs  are  also  used  with  the  ILS  Critical  Area.  This  time  
the  sign  will  contain  the  letters  I-­‐L-­‐S.  

The  final  mandatory  instruction  sign  we’ll  discuss  is  the  sign  prohibiting  aircraft  entry  into  an  area.  This  sign  is  
typically  used  on  a  taxiway  intended  to  be  used  for  one-­‐way  traffic,  or  on  a  vehicle  road,  so  aircraft  don’t  mistaken  it  as  a  
taxiway.  

The  next  type  of  sign  we’ll  discuss  is  the  Location  Sign.  Location  Signs  are  used  to  identify  either  a  taxiway  or  
runway  on  which  the  aircraft  is  located.  This  sign  consists  of  a  black  background  with  yellow  text,  and  a  yellow  border.  
The  text  will  either  be  the  runway  or  taxiway  name,  as  appropriate.  

To  go  along  with  location  signs,  there  are  direction  signs.  Unlike  location  signs,  these  signs  have  a  yellow  
background  with  black  text,  and  are  accompanied  with  an  arrow.  With  these  signs  placed  just  prior  to  intersections,  
pilots  can  know  what  the  names  of  the  intersecting  taxiways  are.  In  this  example,  a  pilot  seeing  this  would  be  on  taxiway  
Alpha.  Taxiway  Echo  is  at  a  ninety  degree  angle,  both  left  and  right.  Taxiway  Foxtrot  is  to  the  left  at  a  forty-­‐five  degree  
angle,  and  Taxiway  Tango  is  to  the  right  at  a  forty-­‐five  degree  angle.  

Where  did  the  words  for  these  taxiway  letters  come  from?  That  will  be  discussed  in  a  future  lesson.  

Similar  to  direction  signs,  destination  signs  look  identical  to  direction  signs,  but  instead  instruct  a  pilot  how  to  
get  to  a  certain  location.  These  signs  can  indicate  directions  to  FBOs,  terminals,  customs,  fueling  areas,  and  other  
locations.  

Next  comes  information  signs.  These  signs  use  the  same  black  text  on  yellow  background  as  the  previous  types  
of  signs.  However,  these  signs  are  used  to  provide  pilots  with  information  on  such  things  as  applicable  radio  frequencies,  
and  noise  abatement  procedures.  

Finally,  the  last  sign  we’ll  cover  is  the  Runway  Distance  Remaining  sign.  These  signs  consist  of  white  text  on  a  
black  background,  and  are  located  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  runway  to  indicate  the  distance  of  runway  remaining,  in  
thousands  of  feet.  A  sign  with  the  number  3  indicates  that,  at  that  location,  there  are  3,000  more  feet  of  runway  
remaining.  
 7  

Airport  Lighting  
Specialized  lighting  helps  pilots  find  the  airport  and  runways  at  night  and  assists  with  altitude  control  during  
landings.    At  towered  airports,  the  lighting  is  usually  controlled  by  the  air  traffic  controllers.    At  non-­‐towered  airports,  
the  lighting  can  be  controlled  by  timers,  photo-­‐sensors  or  by  the  pilots  over  the  common  traffic  advisory  frequency.      

Pilot-­‐controlled  lighting  is  activated  by  keying  your  microphone  for  a  certain  number  of  “clicks”  within  five  
seconds.    The  number  of  clicks  determines  the  intensity  of  the  lighting.    Most  pilot-­‐controlled  lighting  will  turn  off  after  
15  minutes.    Information  on  airport  lighting  is  found  on  aviation  charts  and  in  the  Airport/Facility  Directory.  

Rotating  Beacons  
Lighted  civilian  land  airports  have  a  rotating  or  flashing  beacon  that  flashes  alternately  white  and  green.    This  
beacon  is  usually  installed  at  the  top  of  a  metal  tower,  on  a  hangar  roof  or  at  most  controlled  airports  on  the  top  of  the  
control  tower.    These  beacons  flash  24  to  30  times  per  minute  and  are  aimed  at  an  angle  of  1  to  10  degrees  above  the  
horizon  so  they  are  best  seen  when  you  are  at  a  distance  from  the  airport  and  may  be  difficult  to  see  if  directly  
overhead.    Rotating  beacons  are  illuminated  dusk  to  dawn,  and  at  controlled  airports,  are  often  turned  on  in  the  
daytime  whenever  the  weather  is  not  sufficient  for  visual  navigation.  

Military  airports  flash  two  whites  between  each  green,  while  seaplane  airports  flash  alternating  yellow  and  
white.    Heliports  flash  green-­‐yellow-­‐white.      

ALS  
Runways  with  an  instrument  landing  systems,  or  ILS,  also  have  approach  lighting  systems,  or  ALSes.    There  are  
many  different  configurations  of  lights  used,  depending  on  the  environment,  but  they  generally  consist  of  long  rows  of  
steady  lights,  with  lateral  bars,  and  sometimes  include  a  central  set  of  sequential  flashing  lights.    This  light  system  is  
designed  to  help  a  pilot  rapidly  transition  from  flying  by  their  cockpit  instruments  to  flying  by  outside  visual  references.    
The  ALS  helps  the  pilot  identify  the  runway  environment  and  orients  him  for  the  visual  landing.  

Another  light  system  that  can  be  used  is  Runway  End  Identifier  Lights,  or  REILs.  This  system  consists  of  a  pair  of  
synchronized  flashing  lights  on  each  side  of  the  end  of  the  runway,  and  allows  airports  to  provide  rapid  positive  
identification  of  the  approach  end  of  a  particular  runway.  

Visual  Approach  Aids  

To  assist  pilots  on  their  visual  landing  approach,  especially  at  night  or  in  poor  visibility,  VASI  and  PAPI  lights  can  
be  installed  alongside  selected  runways.    These  aids  are  usually  set  to  show  a  3-­‐degree  approach  path,  but  at  some  
airports  with  higher  obstructions  the  projected  angle  may  be  as  steep  as  5  degrees.    

VASI,  or  Visual  Approach  Slope  Indicator  lights  are  installed  alongside  the  runway,  both  slightly  before  and  
slightly  past  the  desired  touchdown  point.    When  above  the  desired  approach  path,  the  pilot  sees  white  lights;  and  when  
below  it,  they  see  red.    By  keeping  the  near  lights  white  and  the  far  lights  red,  they  know  they  are  on  glide  path.  

PAPI,  or  Precision  Approach  Path  Indicator  lights  work  similarly  to  VASIs  but  with  four  lights  installed  in  a  single  
row  with  each  light  angled  slightly  higher  than  the  previous.  Here,  the  task  for  the  pilot  is  to  keep  the  outboard  lights  
white  and  the  lights  closest  to  the  runway  red.  Four  white  lights  would  indicate  that  you  are  too  high.  Three  white  and  
one  red  indicate  that  you  are  only  slightly  high.  Two  whites  and  two  reds  mean  that  you  are  on  the  correct  angle.  As  you  
can  now  guess,  three  reds  and  one  white  mean  you  are  slightly  low,  and  four  reds  mean  you  are  too  low.  PAPIs  are  most  
commonly  installed  at  larger  airports  with  instrument  approaches.  
 8  

Runway  Lighting  
Runway  edge  lighting  consists  of  white  lights  mounted  on  short  posts  about  every  90  to  180  feet  along  the  
runway  edge.    A  row  of  end  lights  can  be  installed  with  split  lenses,  green  facing  the  approach  end  to  mark  the  beginning  
of  the  runway,  or  if  approached  from  the  opposite  end  would  identify  the  end  of  the  runway.    Runway  lights  are  
classified  as  high,  medium  or  low  intensity.    Some  airport  runway  light  intensities  are  fixed,  while  at  other  airports  the  
brightness  can  be  changed  by  the  controllers  or  pilots.    On  more  sophisticated  runways,  yellow  lights  are  instead  used  
on  the  last  2,000  feet  of  the  runway  or  half  the  runway  length,  whichever  is  less.  This  marks  the  caution  zone  for  
landings.  

Runway  centerline  lighting  is  flush-­‐mounted  in  the  runway  itself,  with  lights  about  every  50  feet.    White  lights  
begin  at  the  approach  end,  transitioning  to  alternating  red  and  white  lights  when  at  3000  feet  from  the  end  of  the  
runway,  and  then  becoming  all  red  lights  for  the  last  1000  feet  of  the  runway.    Alternating  green  and  yellow  lead-­‐off  
lights  can  be  installed  to  direct  pilots  to  the  taxiway  exits.  

Taxiway  Lights  
Taxiway  lights  are  used  to  outline  the  edges  of  the  taxiways  and  are  blue  in  color.  Some  airports  may  also  install  
taxiway  centerline  lights,  which  are  green  in  color.  Just  like  runway  centerline  lights,  these  lights  are  embedded  into  the  
ground.  

Runway  Incursion  Avoidance  

Just  as  good  habits  and  constant  scan  are  important  for  in-­‐flight  collision  avoidance,  good  taxi  practices  can  
prevent  traffic  conflicts  on  the  ground.      

• A  constant  look-­‐out  is  first  priority.    Look  where  you  are  going  and  double  check  that  it’s  clear  before  crossing  
any  taxiway  or  runway  intersection.    Just  because  you  have  been  cleared  through  an  intersection  does  not  mean  
there  is  no  conflicting  traffic.    Controllers  and  other  pilots  can  make  mistakes  too.  
• Read  back  all  taxi  instructions  from  ground  control,  especially  all  hold-­‐short  instructions,  so  that  ATC  can  confirm  
you  understood  your  taxi  instructions.    When  at  a  non-­‐towered  airport,  broadcast  your  taxi  intentions  on  the  
CTAF  frequency  so  that  other  aircraft  at  the  airport  know  what  you  are  doing.  
• Know  where  you  are  and  where  you  are  going.    Use  an  Airport  Diagram  to  map  your  route.    When  taxiing  at  an  
unfamiliar  airport,  be  sure  of  your  route  before  proceeding.    If  you  are  unsure  at  any  time,  ask  ground  control  
for  clarification.    A  good  practice  if  unsure  of  the  taxi  route  is  to  ask  for  “progressive  taxi”;  the  ground  controller  
will  then  issue  you  step-­‐by-­‐step  instructions  monitoring  your  taxiing  as  you  go.  
• Familiarize  yourself  with  any  “Hot  Spots”  on  the  airport.    These  are  locations  that  are  confusing  or  have  a  history  
of  traffic  conflicts.  

LAHSO  
Many  airports  have  runways  that  cross  each  other.    To  be  able  to  handle  more  traffic,  or  to  accommodate  the  needs  of  
different  aircraft,  control  towers  may  route  aircraft  to  more  than  one  runway  at  a  time.    Imagine  a  light  plane  that  wants  
to  land  on  the  runway  best  aligned  with  the  wind,  while  a  landing  jet  wants  the  longest  runway  in  spite  of  any  crosswind.    
To  be  able  to  use  both  runways  simultaneously  the  tower  may  issue  the  light  plane  a  “Land  and  Hold  Short”  clearance.    
This  means  the  pilot  can  land  on  the  designated  runway  but  must  stop  before  a  specified  intersection.    With  Land  and  
Hold  Short  Operations  the  pilot  has  the  right  to  accept  or  refuse  the  clearance  (except  for  solo  student  pilots,  who  are  
prohibited  from  accepting  Land  and  Hold  Short  clearances.  
 9  

NOTAMs  
While  Airport/Facility  Directories  and  Airport  Diagrams  include  a  great  deal  of  information,  sometimes  there  are  
important  changes  regarding  airports  and  their  immediate  environment  that  occur  after  publication.    This  new  
information  is  published  in  NOTAMs,  or  NOTices  to  AirMen.    NOTAMs  may  include  changes  and  temporary  closures  of  
runways  and  taxiways,  lighting  and  navigation  equipment  outages,  airport  maintenance  and  construction  and  other  
hazards.    These  NOTAMs  are  available  on  the  internet  from  the  FAA,  and  from  other  pilot  briefing  websites  such  as  
DUATS,  AOPA  and  even  as  an  App  for  your  tablet  or  smart  phone.  You  can  also  get  pertinent  NOTAMs  from  Flight  
Service  Stations  when  obtaining  a  telephone  briefing.  

Conclusion  
While  every  airport  in  the  United  States  is  unique  to  navigate  around,  these  standardized  markings,  signs,  and  
lights  should  allow  you  to  feel  confident  and  comfortable  taxiing  around  an  airport  without  any  hassle,  and  without  
incident.