Table of Contents

TOPIC PAGE
SI Multiples..........................................................................................1

at
Basic Units (distance, area, volume, mass, density) ............................2

Mathematical Formulae .......................................................................5

cr
Applied Mechanics .............................................................................10

W
Thermodynamics.................................................................................21

Fluid Mechanics..................................................................................28
O
Electricity............................................................................................30
KN

Periodic Table .....................................................................................34

ch
te
 Names in the Metric System

VALUE EXPONENT SYMBOL PREFIX

1 000 000 000 000 1012 T tera

1 000 000 000 109 G giga
1 000 000 106 M mega
1 000 103 k kilo
100 102 h hecto
10 101 da deca
0.1 10-1 d deci
0.01 10-2 c centi
0.001 10-3 m milli
0.000 001 10-6 µ micro
0.000 000 001 10-9 n nano

at
0.000 000 000 001 10-12 p pico

cr
Conversion Chart for Metric Units
W To
To To To Metre, To To To
O
Milli- Centi- Deci- Gram, Deca- Hecto- Kilo-
Litre

Kilo- x 106 x 105 x 104 x 103 x 102 x 101

N

x 105 x 104 x 103 x 102 x 101 x 10-1

hK

Hecto-

Deca- x 104 x 103 x 102 x 101 x 10-1 x 10-2

c
To Convert

Metre,
te

Gram, x 103 x 102 x 101 x 10-1 x 10-2 x 10-3

Litre

Deci- x 102 x 101 x 10-1 x 10-2 x 10-3 x 10-4

Centi- x 101 x 10-1 x 10-2 x 10-3 x 10-4 x 10-5

Milli- x 10-1 x 10-2 x 10-3 x 10-4 x 10-5 x 10-6

Page 1
BASIC UNITS

SI IMPERIAL

at
DISTANCE
1 metre (1 m) = 10 decimetres (10 dm) 12 in. = 1 ft

cr
= 100 centimetres (100 cm) 3 ft = 1 yd
= 1000 millimetres (1000 mm) 5280 ft = 1 mile
1760 yd = 1 mile

W
1 decametre (1 dam) = 10 m
1 hectometre (1 hm) = 100 m
1 kilometre (1 km) = 1000 m

Conversions:
O
KN
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 30.48 cm
1 mile = 1.61 km
1 yd = 0.914 m
1m = 3.28 ft
ch

Area

1 sq metre (1 m2) = 10 000 cm2 1 ft2 = 144 in.2

te

= 1 000 000 mm2 1 yd2 = 9 ft2

1 sq mile = 640 acre = 1 section
1 sq hectometre (1 hm2) = 10 000 m2
= 1 hectare (1 ha)

1 sq km (1 km2) = 1 000 000 m2

Conversions:

1 in.2 = 6.45 cm2 = 645 mm2

1 m2 = 10.8 ft2
1 acre = 0.405 ha
1 sq mile = 2.59 km2

Page 2
 SI IMPERIAL

at
Volume

1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3 1 ft3 = 1728 in.3

cr
= 1 x 109 mm3 1 yd3 = 27 ft3

1 dm3 = 1 litre 1(liquid) U.S. gallon = 231 in.3

W
1 litre = 1000 cm3 = 4 (liquid) quarts
1 U.S. barrel (bbl) = 42 U.S. gal.
1 m3 = 1000 litres 1 imperial gallon = 1.2 U.S. gal.

O
Conversions:
KN
1 in.3 = 16.4 cm3
1 m3 = 35.3 ft3
1 litre = 61 in.3
1 U.S.gal = 3.78 litres
ch

1 U.S. bbl = 159 litres

1 litre/s = 15.9 U.S. gal/min
te

Mass and Weight

1 kilogram (1 kg) = 1000 grams 2000 lb = 1 ton (short)

1000 kg = 1 tonne 1 long ton = 2240 lb

Conversions:

1 kg (on Earth) results in a weight of 2.2 lb

Density

mass weight
mass density = weight density =
volume volume

m ⎛ kg ⎞ w ⎛ lb ⎞
ρ= ⎜ ⎟ ρ= ⎜ ⎟
V ⎝ m3 ⎠ V ⎝ ft 3 ⎠

Conversions:

kg
(on Earth) a mass density of 1 results in a weight density of 0.0623 lb3
m3 ft

Page 3
 SI
RELATIVE DENSITY
In SI R.D. is a comparison of mass density
to a standard. For solids and liquids the
standard is fresh water.
water.
Conversions:
In both systems the same numbers
hold for R.D. as for S.G. since
these are equivalent ratios.
RELATIVE DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY) OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
Water (fresh)...............1.00
O
Water (sea average) ....1.03
Aluminum...................2.56
N
Antimony....................6.70
Bismuth....................... 9.80
Brass ...........................8.40
K
Brick ...........................2.1
Calcium.......................1.58
ch
Carbon (diamond).......3.4
Carbon (graphite)........2.3
Carbon (charcoal) .......1.8
Chromium...................6.5
te
Clay.............................1.9
Coal.............................1.36-1.4
Cobalt .........................8.6
Copper ........................8.77
Cork ............................0.24
Glass (crown)..............2.5
Glass (flint).................3.5
Gold ..........................19.3
Iron (cast)....................7.21
Iron (wrought) ............7.78
Lead ..........................11.4
Magnesium .................1.74
Manganese..................8.0
Mercury ....................13.6
Imperial
In Imperial the corresponding quantity is
specific gravity; for solids and liquids a
comparison of weight density to that of
at
cr
W
Mica............................2.9
Nickel .........................8.6
Oil (linseed) ................0.94
Oil (olive) ...................0.92
Oil (petroleum) ........... 0.76-0.86
Oil (turpentine) ...........0.87
Paraffin .......................0.86
Platinum....................21.5
Sand (dry) ...................1.42
Silicon.........................2.6
Silver.........................10.57
Slate ............................2.1-2.8
Sodium........................0.97
Steel (mild) .................7.87
Sulphur .......................2.07
Tin...............................7.3
Tungsten ...................19.1
Wood (ash) .................0.75
Wood (beech) .............0.7-0.8
Wood (ebony).............1.1-1.2
Wood (elm).................0.66
Wood (lignum-vitae) ..1.3
Wood (oak).................0.7-1.0
Wood (pine)................0.56
Wood (teak) ................0.8
Zinc.............................7.0
Page 4
Greek Alphabet

Alpha α Iota ι Rho ρ

Beta β Kappa κ Sigma Σ, σ
Gamma γ Lambda λ Tau τ
Delta ∆ Mu µ Upsilon υ
Epsilon ε Nu ν Phi Φ, φ
Zeta ζ Xi ξ Kai χ
Eta η Omicron Ο Psi ψ
Theta θ Pi π Omega Ω, ω

at
cr
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

Algebra

1. Expansion Formulae

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
W
O
(x - y)2 = x2 - 2xy + y2
N

x2 - y2 = (x - y) (x + y)
hK

(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3

x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2)

(x - y)3 = x3 - 3x2y + 3xy2 - y3

c
te

x3 - y3 = (x - y) (x2 + xy + y2)

2. Quadratic Equation

If ax2 + bx + c = 0,

- b ± b 2 − 4ac
Then x =
2a

Page 5
Trigonometry

1. Basic Ratios

y x y
Sin A = , cos A = , tan A =
h h x

2. Pythagoras' Law

x2 + y2 = h2

at
3. Trigonometric Function Values

cr
Sin is positive from 0° to 90° and positive from 90° to 180°

Cos is positive from 0° to 90° and negative from 90° to 180°

W
Tan is positive from 0° to 90° and negative from 90° to 180°
O
4. Solution of Triangles
N

a. Sine Law
K

a b c
= =
Sin A Sin B Sin C
ch

b. Cosine Law
te

c2 = a2 + b2 - 2 ab Cos C

a2 = b2 + c2 - 2 bc Cos A

b2 = a2 + c2 - 2 ac Cos B

Page 6
Geometry

1. Areas of Triangles

a. All Triangles

base x perpendicular height

Area =
2

bc Sin A ab Sin C ac Sin B

Area = = =
2 2 2
and,

at
Area = s (s - a) (s - b) (s - c)

a+b+c

cr
where, s is half the sum of the sides, or s =
2

b. Equilateral Triangles

Area = 0.433 x side2

W
O
2. Circumference of a Circle

C = πd
KN

3. Area of a Circle

circumference x r π
A = πr2 = = d 2 = 0.7854d2
2 4
ch

4. Area of a Sector of a Circle

te

arc x r
A=
2

θ°
A= x π r2 (θ = angle in degrees)
360

θ°r 2
A= (θ = angle in radians)
2

Page 7
5. Area of a Segment of a Circle

A = area of sector – area of triangle

4 2 d
Also approximate area = h - 0.608
3 h

6. Ellipse

π
A= Dd
4

Approx. circumference = π
(D + d )
2

7. Area of Trapezoid

at
⎛a + b⎞
A= ⎜ ⎟h
⎝ 2 ⎠

8. Area of Hexagon
cr
W
A = 2.6s2 where s is the length of one side
O

9. Area of Octagon

A = 4.83s2 where s is the length of one side

KN

10. Sphere

Total surface area A =4πr2

ch

Surface area of segment As = πdh

te

4 3
Volume V = πr
3

Volume of segment
Vs = πh (3r – h)
2

3
πh
Vs = (h 2 + 3a 2) where a = radius of segment base
6

Page 8
11. Volume of a Cylinder

π 2
V= d L where L is cylinder length
4

at
12. Pyramid

cr
Volume

1
V= base area x perpendicular height

W
3

Volume of frustum

VF =
h
3
O
(A + a + Aa ) where h is the perpendicular height, A and a are areas as shown
KN
13. Cone

Area of curved surface of cone:

ch

π DL
A=
2
te

Area of curved surface of frustum

π (D + d)L
AF =
2

Volume of cone:

base area × perpendicular height

V=
3

Volume of frustum:

perpendicular height × π (R 2 + r 2 + Rr)

VF =
3

Page 9
APPLIED MECHANICS

Scalar - a property described by a magnitude only

Vector - a property described by a magnitude and a direction

displacement
Velocity - vector property equal to

at
time

The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed

cr
In SI the basic unit is m ft
s , in Imperial s

W
Other common units are km , mi
h h

m ft
Conversions: 1 = 3.28
O
s s

km mi
N
1 = 0.621
h h
hK

Speed of sound in dry air is 331 m m

s at 0°C and increases by about 0.61 s for each °C
rise

Speed of light in vacuum equals 3 x 108 m

s
c

change in velocity
Acceleration - vector property equal to
te

time

m ft
In SI the basic unit is 2
, in Imperial 2
s s

m ft
Conversion: 1 = 3.28
s2 s2

m ft
Acceleration due to gravity, symbol "g", is 9.81 2
or 32.2 2
s s

Page 10
LINEAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

at
u initial velocity v = u + at
v final velocity
s= v+u t
t elapsed time 2

cr
s displacement s = ut + 1 at 2
a acceleration 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2 as

W
Angular Velocity and Acceleration

O
θ angular displacement (radians)
ω angular velocity (radians/s); ω1 = initial, ω2 = final
α angular acceleration (radians/s2)
KN
ω2 = ω1 + α t

θ = ω1 + ω2 x t
ch

θ = ω1 t + ½ α t2
te

ω2 2 = ω1 2 + 2 α θ

linear displacement, s = r θ
linear velocity, v = r ω
linear, or tangential acceleration, aT = r α

Page 11
 at
Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration

cr
Tangential acceleration aT is due to angular acceleration α

a T = rα

W
Centripetal (Centrifugal) acceleration ac is due to change in direction only

O
ac = v2/r = r ω2

KN
Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing angular acceleration is the vector sum
of aT and ac

a = aT + ac
ch
FORCE
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object
te

kg m
In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a
s2

In Imperial the unit of force is the pound lb

Conversion: 9.81 N = 2.2 lb

Weight

The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth

In SI weight can be calculated from

Weight = F = mg , where g = 9.81 m/s2

In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known
weight in pounds

Weight
m= g g = 32.2 ft2
s

Page 12
Newton's Second Law of Motion

at
An unbalanced force F will cause an object of mass m to accelerate a, according to:

F = ma (Imperial F = w
g a, where w is weight)

cr
Torque Equation

W
T=Iα where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m2
and α is the angular acceleration in radians/s2

O
Momentum

Vector quantity, symbol p,

KN
p = mv (Imperial p = w
g v, where w is weight)

kg m
in SI unit is s
ch

Work

Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an object. In
te

simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance

W = Fs

In SI the unit of work is the joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ

1 J = 1 Nm

In Imperial the unit of work is the ft-lb

Energy

Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb

Page 13
Kinetic Energy

Energy due to motion

E k = 1 mv 2
2

In Imperial this is usually expressed as E k = w v 2 where w is weight

2g

Kinetic Energy of Rotation

1
E R = mk 2 ω 2 where k is radius of gyration, ω is angular velocity in rad/s
2

or

at
1
E R = Iω 2 where I = mk2 is the moment of inertia
2

cr
CENTRIPETAL (CENTRIFUGAL) FORCE
W
mv 2
FC = where r is the radius
r
O
or

FC = m ω2 r where ω is angular velocity in rad/s

KN

Potential Energy

Energy due to position in a force field, such as gravity

ch

Ep = m g h

In Imperial this is usually expressed Ep = w h where w is weight, and h is height above some
specified datum
te

Page 14
Thermal Energy

In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific quantities)

at
In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)

cr
Conversions: 1 Btu = 1055 J
1 Btu = 778 ft-lb

W
Electrical Energy

In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit of

O
electrical energy is the kWh

Conversions: 1 kWh = 3600 kJ

KN
1 kWh = 3412 Btu = 2.66 x 106 ft-lb

Power

A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work

ch

In SI the unit is the Watt W (or kW)

1 W = 1 Js
te

In Imperial, the units are:

Mechanical Power - ft – lb , horsepower h.p.

s

Thermal Power - Btu

s

Electrical Power - W, kW, or h.p.

Conversions: 746 W = 1 h.p.

1 h.p. = 550 ft –s lb

1 kW = 0.948 Btu
s

Page 15
Pressure

A vector quantity, force per unit area

In SI the basic units of pressure are pascals Pa and kPa

1 Pa = 1 N2
m

at
In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi

Atmospheric Pressure

cr
At sea level atmospheric pressure equals 101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi

W
Pressure Conversions

1 psi = 6.895 kPa O

Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI and
Imperial systems
KN

Common equivalencies are:

1 kPa = 0.294 in. mercury = 7.5 mm mercury

1 kPa = 4.02 in. water = 102 mm water
1 psi = 2.03 in. mercury = 51.7 mm mercury
ch

1 psi = 27.7 in. water = 703 mm water

1 m H2O = 9.81 kPa

Other pressure unit conversions:

te

1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa

1 kg/cm2 = 98.1 kPa = 14.2 psi = 0.981 bar
1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi

Page 16
Simple Harmonic Motion

m
Velocity of P = ω R 2 - x 2
s

Acceleration of P = ω2 x m/s2

at
2π
The period or time of a complete oscillation = seconds
ω

cr
General formula for the period of S.H.M.

displacement

W
T = 2π
acceleration

Simple Pendulum

T = 2π
L
O
T = period or time in seconds for a double swing
KN
g
L = length in metres

The Conical Pendulum

ch
te

R/H = tan θ= Fc/W = ω2 R/g

Page 17
Lifting Machines

W = load lifted, F = force applied

at
load W
M.A. = =
effort F

cr
effort distance
V.R. (velocity ratio) =
load distance

W
M.A.
η = efficiency =
V.R.

1. Lifting Blocks

O
V.R. = number of rope strands supporting the load block
KN
2. Wheel & Differential Axle

2 πR
Velocity ratio =
2 π(r - r1 )
ch

2R
te

= 2R
r - r1

Or, using diameters instead of radii,

2D
Velocity ratio =
(d - d 1 )

3. Inclined Plane

length
V.R. =
height

4. Screw Jack

circumference of leverage
V.R. =
pitch of thread

Page 18
Indicated Power

I.P. = Pm A L N where I.P. is power in W, Pm is mean or "average" effective pressure in

Pa, A is piston area in m2, L is length of stroke in m and N is number of
power strokes per second

Brake Power

B.P. = Tω where B.P. is brake power in W, T is torque in Nm and ω is angular

velocity in radian/second

STRESS, STRAIN and MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

at
load P
Direct stress = =
area A

cr
extension ∆A
Direct strain = =
original length L

Modulus of elasticity
W
direct stress P/A PL
= =
O
E=
direct strain ∆A / L A∆A

force
N

Shear stress τ =
area under shear
K

x
Shear strain =
L
ch

Modulus of rigidity

shear stress
te

G=
shear strain

Page 19
General Torsion Equation (Shafts of circular cross-section)

T = τ = Gθ
J r L

1. For Solid Shaft T = torque or twisting moment in newton metres

π 4 πd 4 J = polar second moment of area of cross-section
J= r = about shaft axis.
2 32 τ = shear stress at outer fibres in pascals
r = radius of shaft in metres
2. For Hollow Shaft G = modulus of rigidity in pascals
π 4 4 θ = angle of twist in radians
J= (r1 - r2 ) L = length of shaft in metres
2
d = diameter of shaft in metres
π
= (d 14 − d 42 )
32

at
Relationship Between Bending Stress and External Bending Moment

M=σ=E

cr
I y R

1. For Rectangle
W
M = external bending moment in newton metres
I = second moment of area in m4
σ = bending stress at outer fibres in pascals
O

y = distance from centroid to outer fibres in metres

E = modulus of elasticity in pascals
R = radius of currative in metres
KN

BD 3
I=
12
ch

2. For Solid Shaft

I = πD
4

64
te

Page 20
THERMODYNAMICS

at
Temperature Scales

5 9
° C = (° F − 32) °C + 32

cr
°F =
9 5

°R = °F + 460 (R Rankine) K = °C + 273 (K Kelvin)

W
Sensible Heat Equation

O
Q = mc∆T

m is mass
KN
c is specific heat
∆T is temperature change

Latent Heat
ch

Latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg

Latent heat of steam from and at 100°C = 2257 kJ/kg
1 tonne of refrigeration = 335 000 kJ/day
= 233 kJ/min
te

Gas Laws

1. Boyle’s Law

When gas temperature is constant

PV = constant or

P1V1 = P2V2

where P is absolute pressure and V is volume

2. Charles’ Law

V
When gas pressure is constant, = constant
T

V1 V2
or = , where V is volume and T is absolute temperature
T1 T2

Page 21
3. Gay-Lussac's Law

P
When gas volume is constant, = constant
T

P1 P2
Or = , where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
T1 T2

at
4. General Gas Law

P1V1 P2V2
= = constant

cr
T1 T2

PV=mRT where P = absolute pressure (kPa)

volume (m3)

W
V =
T = absolute temp (K)
m = mass (kg)
R = characteristic constant (kJ/kgK)
O
Also
KN

PV = nRoT where P = absolute pressure (kPa)

V = volume (m3)
T = absolute temperature K
N = the number of kmoles of gas
Ro the universal gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol/K
ch

SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES

te

Specific Heat at Specific Heat at Ratio of Specific

Constant Pressure Constant Volume Heats
kJ/kgK kJ/kgK γ = cp / cv
GAS or or
kJ/kg oC kJ/kg oC

Air 1.005 0.718 1.40

Ammonia 2.060 1.561 1.32
Carbon Dioxide 0.825 0.630 1.31
Carbon Monoxide 1.051 0.751 1.40
Helium 5.234 3.153 1.66
Hydrogen 14.235 10.096 1.41
Hydrogen Sulphide 1.105 0.85 1.30
Methane 2.177 1.675 1.30
Nitrogen 1.043 0.745 1.40
Oxygen 0.913 0.652 1.40
Sulphur Dioxide 0.632 0.451 1.40

Page 22
Efficiency of Heat Engines

T1 – T2
Carnot Cycle η = where T1 and T2 are absolute temperatures of heat source and
T1
sink

Air Standard Efficiencies

at
1. Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle or Otto Cycle)

cr
1 cylinder volume
η =1- (γ - 1)
where rv = compression ratio =
rv clearance volume

W
specific heat (constant pressure)
γ =
specific heat (constant volume)

2. Diesel Cycle O
(R γ − 1)
KN
η = 1 - γ -1 where r = ratio of compression
rv γ(R - 1)
R = ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume

3. High Speed Diesel (Dual-Combustion) Cycle

ch

kβ γ - 1
η =1-
rvγ - 1 [(k - 1) + γk(β - 1)]
te

cylinder volume
where rv =
clearance volume

absolute pressue at end of constant V heating (combustion)

k=
absolute pressue at beginning of constant V combustion

volume at end of constant P heating (combustion)

β=
clearance volume

4. Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle)

1
η =1- ⎛ γ −1 ⎞
⎜⎜ γ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
r
p

Page 23
 compressor discharge pressure
where rp = pressure ratio =
compressor intake pressure

at
cr
W
O
KN
ch
te

Page 24
Heat Transfer by Conduction

Q = λAt∆T
d
where Q = heat transferred in joules
λ = thermal conductivity or coeficient of heat
transfer in 2J × m or W
m × s × °C m × °C
2
A = area in m
t = time in seconds

at
∆T = temperature difference between surfaces in °C
d = thickness of layer in m

cr
COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Material
W Coefficient of
Thermal Conductivity
O
W/m °C

Air 0.025
N
Aluminum 206
Brass 104
Brick 0.6
K

Concrete 0.85
Copper 380
ch

Cork 0.043
Felt 0.038
Glass 1.0
Glass, fibre 0.04
te

Iron, cast 70
Plastic, cellular 0.04
Steel 60
Wood 0.15
Wallboard, paper 0.076

Page 25
Thermal Expansion of Solids

Increase in length = L α (T2 – T1 )

where L = original length

at
α = coefficient of linear expansion
(T2 – T1 ) = rise in temperature

cr
Increase in volume = V β (T2 – T1 )
Where V = original volume
β = coefficient of volumetric expansion

W
(T2 – T1 ) = rise in temperature

coefficient of volumetric expansion = coefficient of linear expansion x 3

β = 3α

O
KN
ch
te

Page 26
Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel

Chemical Heating Value MJ per kg of fuel = 33.7 C + 144 H 2 - ( O2

8
) + 9.3 S
C is the mass of carbon per kg of fuel
H2 is the mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel
O2 is the mass of oxygen per kg of fuel
S is the mass of sulphur per kg of fuel

Theoretical Air Required to Burn Fuel

Air (kg per kg of fuel) = [83 C + 8 (H 2 -

O2
8
) + S] 100
23

Air Supplied from Analysis of Flue Gases

N2
Air in kg per kg of fuel = ×C
33 (CO 2 + CO)

at
C is the percentage of carbon in fuel by mass
N2 is the percentage of nitrogen in flue gas by volume
CO2
CO
is the percentage of carbon dioxide in flue gas by volume
is the percentage of carbon monoxide in flue gas by volume cr
W
Boiler Formulae

 s (h 1 - h 2 )
m
Equivalent evaporation =
O

2257 kJ/kg

(h 1 - h 2 )
N

Factor of evaporation =
2257 kJ/kg
hK

 s (h 1 - h 2 )
m
Boiler efficiency =
 f x calorific value of fuel
m

s
where m = mass flow rate of steam
c

h1 = enthalpy of steam produced in boiler

te

h2 = enthalpy of feedwater to boiler

mf = mass flow rate of fuel

Page 27
FLUID MECHANICS

Discharge from an Orifice

Let A = cross-sectional area of the orifice = (π/4)d2

and Ac = cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena conrtacta = ((π/4) d c2
then Ac = CcA
2
Ac ⎛ dc ⎞
or Cc = =⎜ ⎟
A ⎝ d ⎠

where Cc is the coefficient of contraction

at
cr
At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by
W
Q = area of the jet at the vena contracta × actual velocity
= A cv
O
or Q = C cAC v 2gh
KN

The coefficients of contraction and velocity are combined to give the coefficient of discharge,
Cd

i.e. C d = C cC v
and Q = C dA 2gh
ch

Typically, values for Cd vary between 0.6 and 0.65

Circular orifice: Q = 0.62 A 2gh

te

Where Q = flow (m3/s) A = area (m2) h = head (m)

Rectangular notch: Q = 0.62 (B x H) 2 2gh

3

Where B = breadth (m) H = head (m above sill)

Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q = 2.635 H5/2

Where H = head (m above sill)

Page 28
Bernoulli’s Theory

P v2
H = h+ +
w 2g
H = total head (metres) w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N)
h = height above datum level (metres) v = velocity of water (metres per second)
P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa)

Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction

2
Loss of head in metres = f L v
d 2g

L = length in metres v = velocity of flow in metres per second

d = diameter in metres f = constant value of 0.01 in large pipes to 0.02 in small
pipes

at
Note: This equation is expressed in some textbooks as
2
Loss = 4f L v where the f values range from 0.0025 to 0.005
d 2g

cr
Actual Pipe Dimensions W
O
KN
ch
te

Page 29
ELECTRICITY

Ohm's Law

at
I =
R

or E = IR

cr
where I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force (volts)

W
R = resistance (ohms)

Conductor Resistivity

O
L
R = ρ
a
KN
where ρ = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm metres, Ω·m)
L = length (metres)
a = area of cross-section (square metres)

Temperature correction
ch

Rt = Ro (1 + αt)

where Ro = resistance at 0ºC (Ω)

te

Rt = resistance at tºC (Ω)

α = temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004 28
(Ω/ΩºC)

(1 + αt 2 )
R2 = R1
(1 + αt 1 )

where R1 = resistance at t1 (Ω)

R2 = resistance at t2 (Ω)

α Values Ω/ΩºC

copper 0.00428
platinum 0.00385
nickel 0.00672
tungsten 0.0045
aluminum 0.0040

Page 30
Dynamo Formulae

2Φ NpZ
Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor =
60c

where Z = total number of armature conductors

c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes
where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding)
Φ = useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature
p = number of pairs of poles
N = speed (revolutions per minute)

at
Generator Terminal volts = EG – IaRa

Motor Terminal volts = EB + IaRa

cr
where EG = generated e.m.f.
EB = generated back e.m.f.
Ia
Ra
=
=
armature current
armature resistance W
O
Alternating Current

R.M.S. value of sine curve = 0.707 maximum value

KN

Mean value of sine curve = 0.637 maximum value

R.M.S. value 0.707
Form factor of sinusoidal = = = 1.11
Mean value 0.637

pN
ch

Frequency of alternator = cycles per second

60

Where p = number of pairs of poles

te

N = rotational speed in r/min

Page 31
Slip of Induction Motor

Slip speed of field - speed of rotor

x 100
Speed of field

Inductive Reactance

Reactance of AC circuit (X) = 2πfL ohms

at
where L = inductance of circuit (henries)

1.256T 2 µA

cr
Inductance of an iron cored solenoid = henries
L x 10 8

W
where T = turns on coil
µ = magnetic permeablility of core
A = area of core (square centimetres)
L = length (centimetres)
O
Capacitance Reactance
N
1
Capacitance reactance of AC circuit = ohms
2πfC
hK

where C = capacitance (farads)

⎛ 1 ⎞
Total reactance = ⎜ 2πfL - ⎟ohms
c

⎝ 2π fC ⎠
te

Impedence (Z) = (resistance) 2 + (reactance) 2

1 2
= R 2 + (2π fL - ) ohms
2 π fC

Current in AC Circuit

impressed volts
Current =
impedance

Page 32
Power Factor

true watts
p.f. =

at
volts x amperes

also p.f. = cos Φ, where Φ is the angle of lag or lead

cr
Three Phase Alternators

W
Star connected
Line voltage = 3 x phase voltage
Line current = phase current

Delta connected
Line voltage = phase voltage
O
KN
Line current = 3 x phase current

Three phase power

P = 3 EL IL cos Φ
ch

EL = line voltage
IL = line current
cos Φ = power factor
te

Page 33
 te
ch
KN
O
W
cr
at

Page 34
ION NAMES AND FORMULAE

MONATOMIC POLYATOMIC

Ag+ silver ion BO33- borate ion

Al3+ aluminum ion C2H3O2- acetate ion
Au+ and Au2+ gold ion ClO- hypochlorite ion
Be2+ beryllium ion ClO2- chlorite ion
Ca2+ calcium ion ClO3- chlorate ion
Co2+ and Co3+ cobalt ion ClO4- perchlorate ion
Cr2+ and Cr3+ chromium ion CN- cyanide ion

at
Cu+ and Cu2+ copper ion CO32- carbonate ion
Fe2+ and Fe3+ iron ion C2O42- oxalate ion
K+ potassium ion CrO42- chromate ion

cr
Li+ lithium ion Cr2O72- dichromate ion
Mg2+ magnesium ion HCO3- hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate ion
Na+ sodium ion H3O+ hydronium ion
Zn2+ zinc ion
W
HPO42-
H2PO4-
HSO3-
hydrogen phosphate ion
dihydrogen phosphate ion
hydrogen sulphite or bisulphite ion
O
HSO4- hydrogen sulphate or bisulphate ion
MnO4- permanganate ion
N3- azide ion
N
NH4+ ammonium ion
NO2- nitrite ion
NO3- nitrate ion
hK

O22- peroxide ion

OCN- cyanate ion
OH- hydroxide ion
PO33- phosphite ion
c

PO43- phosphate ion

SCN- thiocyanate ion
te

SO32- sulphite ion

SO42- sulphate ion
S2O32- thiosulphate ion

Page 35