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The p-n junction diode forms the basis for nearly all- Universally, all diode current-voltage 共I-V兲 characteris-
modern semiconductor electronics.1 As such, the quality of tics are compared to the diode equation1
the diode is often a good predictor of the performance of a
semiconductor device. A diode is degraded by impurities and IDS = Io共eqVDS/nkBT − 1兲, 共1兲
structural defects in the semiconductor, forming defect states
in the energy band gap. Commensurate with defect states are where Io is the saturation current, q is the electronic charge,
deviations from the theoretical ideal behavior of a diode.1 VDS is the voltage across the junction, n is the ideality factor,
Nowhere is the quality and performance relation more inti- kB is Boltzman’s constant, T is the absolute temperature. n is
mate than in the photovoltaic 共PV兲 application.1–4 This is precisely equal to 1 for an ideal diode but approaches 2 for
because two charge carriers, electrons and holes, are created materials with defects. The ideality factor is intimately re-
when photons of sufficient energy are absorbed in a semicon- lated to the performance of a PV diode. The larger the n, the
ductor. Together, they probe a wider range of defect energy lower the power conversion efficiency through reduced
levels through recombination than a unipolar device involv- open-circuit voltage as described below.2,4
Previously, we reported on a new method to form p-n
ing only one of the carriers. Here, we demonstrate that indi-
junction diodes along a single SWNT using electrostatic
vidual single-walled carbon nanotubes 共SWNTs兲 can form
doping15 but with nonideal behavior. The principle of elec-
ideal p-n junction diodes, providing direct evidence for their
trostatic doping was demonstrated using a device structure
structural purity. We further elaborate on the ideal behavior
similar to that shown in the inset of Fig. 1, but with SWNTs
by examining PV effects, an application where the conver-
resting completely on SiO2. Different bias polarities on the
sion efficiency of photon energy to electrical power is di-
rectly related to the quality of the diode.1–4
Additionally, SWNTs may provide unique advantages
for PV. They offer a wide range of band gaps5 to match the
solar spectrum, enhanced optical absorption,6,7 and reduced
carrier scattering for hot carrier transport.8,9
A necessary component in a PV device is a built-in elec-
tric field that separates the photogenerated electron-hole
共e-h兲 pairs. Early bulk semiconductor devices utilized metal/
semiconductor Schottky diodes where the difference in the
work function between these two materials resulted in the
built-in electric field.3 However, these make inefficient PV
devices because the full band-gap of the semiconductor is
never utilized, resulting in poor device performance from
reduced photovoltage and high leakage currents. The p-n
junction diode overcomes these issues and serves as the
model system with the highest-power conversion
efficiencies.3,4 Previous results dealing with photocurrents in
SWNTs were either Schottky or ohmic contacted
devices,10–12 or possibly thermoelectric devices13 with no de-
tails on the relation between photogenerated current and
voltage. PV devices utilizing small amounts of SWNTs in a
conjugated polymer blend have been reported with poor
efficiencies.14 Here, we examine the fundamental properties FIG. 1. 共Color兲 The inset shows the split gate device where VG1 and VG2
of nanotubes by examining individual ideal SWNT diodes. are biased with opposite polarities 共VG1 = −VG2 = + 10 V兲 to form an ideal
p-n junction diode along a SWNT. Data are typical dark current-voltage
共I-V兲 curve at T = 300 K with a fit to Eq. 共1兲 using I0 = 8.0⫻ 10−13 A, n
a兲
Electronic mail: leeji@research.ge.com = 1.0 with a series resistance Rs = 18⫻ 106 ohms.
冋 册
R. Martel, and P. Avouris, Nano Lett. 4, 1063 共2004兲.
k BT ISC 9
J. Guo, C. Yang, Z. M. Li, M. Bai, H. J. Liu, G. D. Li, E. G. Wang, C. T.
VOC = ln +1 . 共3兲 Chan, Z. K. Tang, W. K. Ge, and X. Xiao, Phys. Rev. Lett. 93, 017402
q Io
共2004兲.
10
Equation 共3兲 is simply the ideal diode equation expressed in M. Freitag, Y. Martin, J. A. Misewich, R. Martel, and P. Avouris, Nano
terms of the new diode parameters under illumination and Lett. 3, 1067 共2003兲.
11
K. Balasubramanian, Y. Fan, M. Burghard, K. Kern, M. Friedrich, U.
represents the highest VOC achievable for any diode.4 For Wannek, and A. Mews, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2400 共2004兲.
SWNTs, a wide range of ISC / Io can be examined due to 12
Y. Ohno, S. Kishimoto, T. Mizutani, T. Okazaki, and H. Shinohara, Appl.
different band-gap semiconductors with varying saturation Phys. Lett. 84, 1368 共2004兲.
13
currents, Io. By also varying the illumination intensity, ISC / Io Y. Zhang and S. Iijima, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 3472 共1999兲.
14
E. Kymakis and G. A. J. Amaratunga, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 112 共2002兲.
was examined from 0.1⬍ ISC / Io ⬍ 104. Figure 4 shows a plot 15
J. U. Lee, P. P. Gipp, and C. M. Heller, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 145 共2004兲.
of measured VOC for several diodes as a function of ISC / Io, 16
S. Heinze, J. Tersoff, R. Martel, V. Derycke, J. Appenzeller, and P.
along with Eq. 共3兲. The inset shows the measured Io. For an Avouris, Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 106801 共2002兲.
ideal diode Io ⬃ e−qEG/kBT, where EG is the band gap1,2 and, 17
J. Kong, H. T. Soh, A. M. Cassell, C. F. Quate, and H. Dai, Nature
therefore, a measure of the activation energy. Based on the 共London兲 395, 878 共1998兲.
18
R. H. Fowler, Phys. Rev. 38, 45 共1931兲.
activation energy of the examined diodes 共data not shown兲, 19
G. Y. Guo, K. C. Chu, D. Wang, and C. Duan, Phys. Rev. B 69, 205416
the Io shown in the inset corresponds to EG in the rage of 共2004兲.
0.6– 0.8 eV.17 Based on these energies, the incident light ex- 20
D. A. Stewart and F. Leonard, Nano Lett. 5, 219 共2005兲.
21
cites the first subbands of SWNTs suggesting strong quasi- S. M. Bachilo, M. Strano, C. Kittrell, R. H. Hauge, R. E. Smalley, and R.
particle excited state in nanotubes. ISC measured at the maxi- B. Weisman, Science 298, 2361 共2002兲.
22
M. Y. Sfeir, F. Wang, L. Huang, C. C. Chuang, J. Hone, S. P. O’Brien, T.
mum intensity 共highest VOC in each data set兲 ranged from F. Heinze, and L. E. Brus, Science 306, 1540 共2004兲.
2 – 5 pA. It can be seen that the maximum VOC increases with 23
F. J. Garica-Vidal, J. M. Pitarke, and J. B. Pendry, Phys. Rev. Lett. 78,
decreasing Io as expected. The excellent agreement with Eq. 4289 共1997兲.