1.

Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Heat Exchanger

A heat exchanger is an apparatus or an equipment in which the process of heating or cooling

occurs. The heat is transferred from one fluid being cooled to another fluid being heated. For
instance, boilers condensers, furnaces, evaporators, are all heat exchangers of some type
designed for some specific purpose but primarily to transfer heat from one fluid to another.
[1]

The transfer of heat in an exchanger between two fluids could be carried out either by direct
contact of fluids or by transmission through a wall separating the fluids. The former types are
called direct contact heat exchangers while the latter as regenerators, recuperators or surface
heat exchangers.

In direct contact heat exchangers the process of heat transfer occurs through direct contact
and mixing of the hot and cold fluids. The heat transfer is usually accompanied by mass
transfer in such cases .These heat exchangers are used in cases where mixing of two fluids is
either harmless or desirable. Water cooling-towers and jet condensers are the two examples
of such heat exchangers.

The regenerators are those devices in which hot and cold fluids alternately flow over the
surface. The heat carried by the hot fluid is accumulated in the walls of the equipment and is
then transferred to the cold fluid when it passes over the surface next.

More common exchangers are the recuperators in which both hot and cold fluids separated
from each other by wall, flow through the exchanger at the same time. The heat transfer
process consists of convection between the fluid and wall, conduction through the wall and
convection between the wall and the other fluid. In case the temperature difference between
the wall and convection between the wall and the other fluid. In case the temperature
difference between the wall and fluid is large, radiation heat exchange may also occur. Such
exchangers are used where the cooling and heating fluids cannot be allowed to mix. The
economizer and air- preheater of boiler plant, radiator of motor car, and evaporator of an ice
plant and milk chiller of a pasteurising plant all belong to this category

1.2 Introduction to Design

Design is a creative activity, and as such can be one of the most rewarding and satisfying
activities undertaken by an engineer. It is the synthesis, the putting together, of ideas to
achieve a desired purpose. The design does not exist at the commencement of the project.
The designer starts with a specific objective in mind, a need, and by developing and
evaluating possible designs, arrives at what he considers the best way of achieving that
objective; be it a better chair, a new bridge, or for the chemical engineer, a new chemical
product or a stage in the design of a production process. [2]

When considering possible ways of achieving the objective the designer will be constrained
by many factors, which will narrow down the number of possible designs; but, there will
rarely be just one possible solution to the problem, just one design. Several alternative ways

1
of meeting the objective will normally be possible, even several best designs, depending on
the nature of the constraints.

These constraints on the possible solutions to a problem in design arise in many ways. Some
constraints will be fixed, invariable, such as those that arise from physical laws, government
regulations, and standards. Others will be less rigid, and will be capable of relaxation by the
designer as part of his general strategy in seeking the best design. The constraints that are
outside the designer’s influence can be termed the external constraints. These set the outer
boundary of possible designs; as shown in Figure 1.1. Within this boundary there will be a
number of plausible designs bounded by the other constraints, the internal constraints, over
which the designer has some control; such as, choice of process, choice of process conditions,
materials, equipment.

Economic considerations are obviously a major constraint on any engineering design: plants
must make a profit.

Time will also be a constraint. The time available for completion of a design will usually
limit the number of alternative designs that can be considered.

Figure 1.1 Design Constraints [2]

2
 Figure 1.2 The Design Process [2]

The stages in the development of a design, from the initial identification of the objective to
the final design, are shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2 shows design as an
iterative procedure; as the design develops the designer will be aware of more possibilities
and more constraints, and will be constantly seeking new data and ideas, and evaluating
possible design solutions.

2. Classification of Heat Exchangers [3]

According to transfer process

Direct Contact type Indirect Contact type

Direct transfer type Storage type

According to Surface Compactness

Compact Non Compact

(Surface Area Density >= 700 m2/m3) (Surface Area Density < 700 m2/m3)

3
 According to Construction

Tubular Plate Extended Surface Regenerative

Plate fin Tube fin

Gasketed Spiral Lamella

Rotary Fixed Matrix

Double- Pipe Shell and Spiral
Tube Tube
Disk type Drum type

Plate Baffle Rod Baffle

According to Flow Arrangements

Single Pass Multiple Pass

Parallel Flow Counter Flow Cross Flow

Extended Surface H.E Extended Surface H.E Multiple Pass

Cross Counter Cross Parallel Parallel Counter Flow Split Flow Divided Flow
Flow Flow Shell and Fluid Mixed
M Shell Passes
N tube Passes N-Parallel Plate
Multiple Pass

According to Number of Fluids

Two Fluids Three Fluids N Fluids

(N >3)

4
3. Basic Design Procedure and Theory
The general equation for heat transfer across a surface is:

m
(3.1)

where Q = heat transferred per unit time, W,

U = the overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 0 C,
A = heat-transfer area, m2,
ΔTm = the mean temperature difference, the temperature driving force, 0C.

The prime objective in the design of an exchanger is to determine the surface area required
for the specified duty (rate of heat transfer) using the temperature differences available. The
overall coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall resistance to heat transfer, which is the sum
of several individual resistances. For heat exchange across a typical heat exchanger tube the
relationship between the overall coefficient and the individual coefficients, which are the
reciprocals of the individual resistances, is given by:

( ) (3.2)

where Uo = the overall coefficient based on the outside area of the tube, W/m2 0C,
ho = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2 0C,
hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2 0C,
hod = outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), W/m2 0C,
hid = inside dirt coefficient, W/m2 0C,
kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/m 0C,
di = tube inside diameter, m,
do = tube outside diameter, m.

The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on the nature of the heat transfer
process (conduction, convection, condensation, boiling or radiation), on the physical
properties of the fluids, on the fluid flow-rates, and on the physical arrangement of the heat-
transfer surface. As the physical layout of the exchanger cannot be determined until the area
is known the design of an exchanger is of necessity a trial and error procedure. The steps in a
typical design procedure [2] are given below:

1. Define the duty: heat-transfer rate, fluid flow-rates, and temperatures.

2. Collect together the fluid physical properties required: density, viscosity, thermal
conductivity
3. Decide on the type of exchanger to be used
4. Select a trial value for the overall coefficient, U.
5. Calculate the mean temperature difference, ΔTm.
6. Calculate the area required from equation 3.1
7. Decide the exchanger layout.
8. Calculate the individual coefficients.
9. Calculate the overall coefficient and compare with the trial value. If the calculated
value differs significantly from the estimated value, substitute the calculated for
the estimated value and return to step 6.

5
 10. Calculate the exchanger pressure drop; if unsatisfactory return to steps 7 or 4 or 3, in
that order of preference.
11. Optimise the design: repeat steps 4 to 10, as necessary, to determine the cheapest
exchanger that will satisfy the duty. Usually this will be the one with the smallest
area.

3.1 Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

In a heat exchanger the temperatures of the hot and cold fluids keep on changing from point
to point along the length of the exchanger. The question arises what value of the temperature
difference should be used to compute the rate of heat flow. In other words, we have to find a
mean temperature difference which, when multiplied by the overall coefficient of heat
transfer and appropriate will give the correct heat flow rate. Expressions for this mean
temperature difference for parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers are as follows.[1]

(a) (b)

Figure 3.1 Temperature Profiles of (a) Parallel Flow and (b) Counter Flow Heat
Exchanger

For Parallel Flow

( ) ( ) (3.3)
( )

where th1, th2 = temperature of hot fluid at exchanger and exit respectively, 0C
tc1, tc2 = temperature of cold fluid at exchanger and exit respectively, 0C

6
For Counter Flow

( ) ( ) (3.4)
( )

( ) ( ) (3.5)
( )
( )
( )

where (Δt)2 represent the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids at exit and
entrance of the cold fluid respectively.

3.1.2 L.M.T.D Correction Factors

Expression given by Eq. (3.5) for the mean temperature difference is strictly applicable only
to parallel flow and counter flow exchangers in which the two fluids flow only once across
the exchanger length, that is, single pass heat exchanger. If we are dealing with multi–pass
parallel and counter flow exchangers or with cross flow exchangers, we cannot apply Eq.(3.5)

The expressions giving the mean temperature difference for these exchangers are quite
complicated. The L.M.T.D is first calculated for single – pass counter flow exchanger using
Eq.(3.5). The (ΔTm) so obtained is then multiplied by a correction factor Ft which takes into
account the actual flow arrangement of the exchanger.[1,2]

(3.6)
The correction factors for different flow arrangements can be obtained from charts. In these
charts the factor F is given as function of two dimensionless variables called the capacity
ratio R and the temperature ratio, θ.

The capacity ratio, R is defined as the ratio of the heat capacity of the fluid stream flowing
through tube to the heat capacity of the fluid stream flowing through the shell.

(3.7)

where the suffixes t and s denote the fluid flowing through the tube or shell respectively.

Since
( ) ( ) (3.8)

(3.9)

The temperature ratio, θ is defined as

(3.10)

7
3.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis: The Effectiveness –NTU (Number of
Transfer Units) Method

The effectiveness of heat exchanger, or temperature effectiveness ε, is defined as the ratio of

the actual heat transfer rate to the maximum possible heat transfer rate. Theoretically, the
maximum heat transfer rate will occur with a counter flow heat exchanger of very large area
when either one or the other of the following condition is attained: [1]

(a) The exit temperature of the cold fluid equals the entry temperature of hot fluid, i.e. tc2
= th1.
(b) The exit temperature of the hot fluid equals the entry temperature of the cold fluid,
i.e. th2 = tc1.

Whether condition (a) or (b) is attained depends on the heat capacities of the two streams.
Since the following equality must be satisfied,

( ) ( )

where Wh = mass flow rate of hot fluid , kg/hr

Wc = mass flow rate of cold fluid, kg/hr
ch = specific heat capacity of hot fluid ,kJ/kg 0C
cc = specific heat capacity of cold fluid, kJ/kg 0C
th1,th2 = temperature of hot fluid at exchanger entrance and exit respectively,0C
tc1,tc2 = temperature of cold fluid at exchanger entrance and exit respectively,0C

It follows that if Whch > Wccc then;

( ) ( )

Hence tc2 will reach th1 earlier and condition (a) will prevail as can be seen in Figure 3.1

cc < ch cc > ch th1

th1
tc2
tc2 t
th2 th2
tc1 tc1
.

x x
Figure 3.2 Conditions for Evaluation of Heat Exchanger Effectiveness

Further If Whch < Wccc then;

( ) ( )

8
Hence th2 will reach tc1 earlier as shown if Figure 3.1

If Whch > Wccc

( ) ( ) (3.11)

If Whch < Wccc

( ) ( ) (3.12)

[Wccc = Cc and Whch = Ch]

But the actual heat transfer for both cases is given by;

( ) ( ) (3.13)

Hence,(i)

( ) ( )
(3.14)
( ) ( )

(if Cc< Ch)

and (ii)
( ) ( ) (3.15)
( ) ( )

(if Ch< Cc)

The above expression for the effectiveness can also be put in a slightly different manner
form. Let Cmin represent the lower of the two heat capacities Cc and Ch. Then it follows from
Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) that;

( ) (3.16)

Combining Eq. (3.3) and Eq. (3.6) we get;

( ) (3.17)
( )

and
( ) (3.18)
( )
For Counter flow exchanger

Case I: Ch < Cc or Ch = Cmin

( )( )
(3.19)
( ) ( )( )

9
Case II: Ch > Cc

( )( )
(3.20)
( ) ( )( )

Inspection of Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) shows that both results can be expressed by a single
expression if we write;

( )( )
(3.21)
( ) ( )( )

where Cmin represents the smaller and Cmax the larger of the two heat capacities Cc and Ch

The dimensionless ratio UA/Cmin is called the number of transfer units, NTU. Thus, for a
counter flow exchanger.

( )( )
(3.22)
( ) ( )( )

For Parallel flow exchanger

( )( )
(3.23)
( )

3.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Typical values of the overall heat-transfer coefficient for various types of heat exchanger are
found in the books by Perry et al. (1997), TEMA (1999), and Ludwig (2001) .

Figure 3.3, which is adapted from a similar nomograph given by Frank (1974) can be used to
estimate the overall coefficient for tubular exchangers (Shell and Tube). The film coefficients
given in Figure 3.3 include and allowance for fouling.

The values given in tables and Figure can be used for the preliminary sizing of equipment for
process evaluation and as trial values for starting a detailed thermal design.

10
11
Figure 3.3 Overall coefficients (join process side duty to service side and read U from centre scale)[2]
3.4 Fouling Factors (Dirt Factors)

Most process and service fluids will foul the heat-transfer surfaces in an exchanger to a
greater or lesser extent. The deposited material will normally have a relatively low thermal
conductivity and will reduce the overall coefficient. It is therefore necessary to oversize an
exchanger to allow for the reduction in performance during operation. The effect of fouling is
allowed for in design by including the inside and outside fouling coefficients in equation 3.2.
Fouling factors are usually quoted as heat-transfer resistances, rather than coefficients. They
are difficult to predict and are usually based on past experience. Estimating fouling factors
introduces a considerable uncertainty into exchanger design; the value assumed for the
fouling factor can overwhelm the accuracy of the predicted values of the other coefficients.
Fouling factors are often wrongly used as factors of safety in exchanger design. [2, 4]

Typical values for the fouling coefficients and factors for common process and service fluids
are given in Table 3.1. These values are for shell and tube exchangers with plain (not finned)
tubes. More extensive data on fouling factors are given in the TEMA standards (1999), and
by Ludwig (2001).

The selection of the design fouling coefficient will often be an economic decision. The
optimum design will be obtained by balancing the extra capital cost of a larger exchanger
against the savings in operating cost obtained from the longer operating time between
cleaning that the larger area will give. Duplicate exchangers should be considered for
severely fouling systems.

When the designer adds area to allow for fouling, care must be taken to ensure that the
velocity of the fluid is not reduced, otherwise the fouling could be accelerated. For Example,
if more tubes are added to a shell and tube heat exchanger, then the tube- side flow rate per
tube is reduced. Lower tube side velocity reduces the shear inside the tubes and increases the
rate of tube side fouling. An alternative method of increasing area would be to increase tube
length, which comes at the expense of higher pressure drop.

Table 3.1 Fouling Factors (Coefficients), Typical Values

12
 4. Compact Heat Exchangers

Specific characteristics of compact heat exchangers are as following [3, 5]:

1. Usually with extended surfaces.

2. A high heat-transfer surface area per unit volume of the core, usually in excess of 700
m2/m3 on at least one of the fluid sides, which usually has gas flow.
3. Small hydraulic diameter.
4. Usually at least one of the fluids is a gas.
5. Fluids must be clean and relatively non-fouling because of small hydraulic diameter
(Dh) flow passages and difficulty in cleaning; plain uninterrupted fins are used when
“moderate” fouling is expected.
6. The fluid pumping power (i.e., pressure drop) consideration is as important as the heat
transfer rate.
7. Operating pressures and temperatures are limited to a certain extent compared to shell
and tube exchangers due to thin fins and/or joining of the fins to plates or tubes by
brazing, mechanical expansion, etc.
8. The use of highly compact surfaces results in an exchanger with a large frontal area
and a short flow length; therefore, the header design of a compact heat exchanger is
important for a uniform flow distribution.
9. Fluid contamination is generally not a problem.
10. Variety of surfaces are available having different order of magnitudes of surface area
density.

Other features of compact heat exchangers are:

1. Materials for the manufacture of fins are limited by the operating temperature of
certain applications. For low- to moderate-temperature applications, fins can be made
from aluminum, copper, or brass and thus maintain high fin efficiency.
2. For high-temperature applications, stainless steel and heat-resistant alloys may be
used with possibly a reduction in the fin efficiency.
3. Consequently, suitable high-performance surfaces may be selected to offset the
reduction in fin efficiency or the fin thickness should be reduced.
4. Manufacture is by brazing or welding.
5. For low- or moderate-temperature applications, the fins can be mechanically bonded.
6. Low-fin tubes are extruded.
7. Flow arrangements: Compact exchangers are mostly used as single-pass crossflow or
multi pass cross-counter flow exchangers

4.1 Types of Compact Heat Exchangers

Basic construction types of compact heat exchangers are

 Plate Type Heat Exchangers

 Finned Heat Exchanger/Extended Surface Heat Exchanger
 Spiral Heat Exchanger

13
4.2 Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers [2]
A gasketed plate heat exchanger consists of a stack of closely spaced thin plates clamped
together in a frame. A thin gasket seals the plates round their edges. The plates are normally
between 0.5 and 3 mm thick and the gap between them 1.5 to 5 mm. Plate surface areas range
from 0.03 to 1.5 m2, with a plate width: length ratio from 2.0 to 3.0. The size of plate heat
exchangers can vary from very small, 0.03 m2, to very large, 1500 m2. The maximum flow-
rate of fluid is limited to around 2500 m3/h. The basic layout and flow arrangement for a
gasketed plate heat exchanger is shown in Figure 4.1. Corner ports in the plates direct the
flow from plate to plate. The plates are embossed with a pattern of ridges, which increase the
rigidity of the plate and improve the heat transfer performance. Plates are available in a wide
range of metals and alloys; including stainless steel, aluminium and titanium. A variety of
gasket materials is also used.

Figure 4.1 Gasketed Plate Heat Exchanger [2]

4.2.1 Selection

The advantages and disadvantages of plate heat exchangers, compared with conventional
shell and tube exchangers are listed below:

Advantages
1. Plates are attractive when material costs are high.
2. Plate heat exchangers are easier to maintain.
3. Low approach temps can be used, as low as 1 0C, compared with 5 to 10 0C for
shell and tube exchangers.
4. Plate heat exchangers are more flexible, it is easy to add extra plates.
14
 5. Plate heat exchangers are more suitable for highly viscous materials.
6. The temperature correction factor, Ft, will normally be higher with plate heat
exchangers, as the flow is closer to true counter-current flow.
7. Fouling tends to be significantly less in plate heat exchangers.

Disadvantages

1. A plate is not a good shape to resist pressure and plate heat exchangers are not
suitable for pressures greater than about 30 bar.
2. The selection of a suitable gasket is critical.
3. The maximum operating temperature is limited to about 250 0C, due to the
performance of the available gasket materials.

Plate heat exchangers are used extensively in the food and beverage industries, as they can be
readily taken apart for cleaning and inspection. Their use in the chemical industry will
depend on the relative cost for the particular application compared with a conventional shell
and tube exchanger.

Table 4.1 Fouling Factors (coefficients), typical values for Plate Heat Exchanger

4.3 Plate Heat Exchanger Design

It is not possible to give exact design methods for plate heat exchangers. They are proprietary
designs, and will normally be specified in consultation with the manufacturers. Information
on the performance of the various patterns of plate used is not generally available. Emerson
(1967) gives performance data for some proprietary designs, and Kumar (1984) and Bond
(1980) have published design data for APV chevron patterned plates.

The approximate method given below can be used to size an exchanger for comparison with a
shell and tube exchanger, and to check performance of an existing exchanger for new duties.
More detailed design methods are given by Hewitt et al. (1994) and Cooper and Usher
(1983).

Procedure

1. Calculate duty, the rate of heat transfer required.

2. If the specification is incomplete, determine the unknown fluid temperature or fluid
flow-rate from a heat balance.
3. Calculate the log mean temperature difference, Tlm.
4. Determine the log mean temperature correction factor, Ft; see method given below.
5. Calculate the corrected mean temperature difference ∆Tm = Ft × ∆Tlm.

15
 6. Estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient.
7. Calculate the surface area required.
8. Determine the number of plates required = total surface area/area of one plate.
9. Decide the flow arrangement and number of passes.
10. Calculate the film heat transfer coefficients for each stream; see method given below.
11. Calculate the overall coefficient, allowing for fouling factors.
12. Compare the calculated with the assumed overall coefficient. If satisfactory, say -0%
to + 10% error proceed. If unsatisfactory return to step 8 and increase or decrease the
number of plates.
13. Check the pressure drop for each stream; see method given below.

4.3.1 Flow Arrangements

The stream flows can be arranged in series or parallel, or a combination of series and parallel,
see Figure 4.2. Each stream can be sub-divided into a number of passes

4.3.2 Estimation of the Temperature Correction Factor

For plate heat exchangers it is convenient to express the log mean temperature difference
correction factor, Ft, as a function of the number of transfer units, NTU, and the flow
arrangement (number of passes); see figure 4.2. The correction will normally be higher for a
plate heat exchanger than for a shell and tube exchanger operating with the same
temperatures. For rough sizing purposes, the factor can be taken as 0.95 for series flow.[2]

The number of transfer units is given by:

( ) (4.1)

where ti = stream inlet temperature,0C,

t0 = stream outlet temperature,0C,
ΔTlm = log mean temperature difference ,0C.

Typically, the NTU will range from 0.5 to 4.0, and for most applications will lie between
2.0 to 3.0.

16
17
Figure 4.2 Log Mean Temperature correction Factor for plate heat exchangers [2]
Figure 4.3 Plate Heat Exchangers Flow Arrangement

18
4.3.3 Heat Transfer Coefficient.

The equation for forced-convective heat transfer in conduits can be used for plate heat
Exchangers.

The values for the constant C and the indices a,b,c will depend on the particular type of plate
being used. Typical values for turbulent flow are given in the equation below, which can be
used to make a preliminary estimate of the area required.

( ) (4.2)

where hp = plate film coefficient,

Re = Reynold number
Gp = mass flow rate per unit cross-sectional area = w/Aff, kgm-2s-1,
w = mass flow rate per channel, kg/s,
Aff = cross-sectional area for flow,m2,
up = channel velocity, m/s,
De = equivalent (hydraulic) diameter, taken as twice the gap between
the plates, m.

The corrugations on the plates will increase the projected plate area, and reduce the effective
gap between the plates. For rough sizing, where the actual plate design is not known, this
increase can be neglected. The channel width equals the plate pitch minus the plate thickness.
There is no heat transfer across the end plates, so the number of effective plates will be the
total number of plates less two.

4.3.4 Pressure Drop

The plate pressure drop can be estimated using a form of the equation for flow in a conduit.

( ) (4.3)

where LP = the path length and up = Gp/ρ.

The value of the friction factor, jf, will depend on the design of plate used. For preliminary
calculations the following relationship can be used for turbulent flow:

= 0.6 Re-0.3 (4.4)

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow will normally occur at a Reynolds number of
100 to 400, depending on the plate design. With some designs, turbulence can be achieved at
very low Reynolds numbers, which makes plate heat exchangers very suitable for use with
viscous fluids.

The pressure drop due the contraction and expansion losses through the ports in the plates
must be added to the friction loss. Kumar (1984) suggests adding 1.3 velocity heads per pass,
based on the velocity through the ports.

19
 (4.5)

where upt = the velocity through the ports w/Ap, m/s,

w = mass flow through the ports, kg/s,
Ap = area of the port = Πdpt2
dpt = port diameter, m,
Np = number of passes.

4.3.5 Design Problem

Design a gasketed exchanger to sub-cool condensate from methanol condenser from 950C to
400C. The flow rate of methanol is 100,000 kg/h. Brackish water will be used as the coolant,
with temperature rise from 250C to 400C .Titanium plates are to be specified, to resist
corrosion by the saline water.[2]

Solution

Physical Properties Methanol Water

Density kg/m3 750 995
Viscosity mNm-2s 3.4 0.8
Prandtl number 5.1 5.7

( ) ( )

( )

( )

( ) ( )
( )
( )

NTU based on maximum temperature difference

Try a 1:1 pass arrangement

20
From the Figure 4.2, Ft = 0.96

From data tables take the overall coefficient, light organic – water, to be 2000 W/m2 0C.

Select an effective plate area of 0.75 m2, effective length 1.5 m and width 0.5 m; these are
typical plate dimensions. The actual plate size will be larger to accommodate the gasket area
and ports.

Number of plates = Total heat transfer area / effective area of one plate

No need to adjust this, 97 will give an even number of channels per pass, allowing for an end
plate.
Number of channels per pass = (97 – 1)/2 = 48
Take plate spacing as 3 mm, a typical value, then:
Channel cross-sectional area = 3 × 10-3 × 0.5 = 0.0015 m2
and hydraulic mean diameter = 2 × 3 ×10-3 = 6 × 10-3 m

Methanol

( )

( )

( )

Brackish Water

( )

( )

( )

21
Overall Coefficient

From Table 4.1, take the fouling factors (coefficients) as: brackish water (seawater) 6000
Wm-2 0C-1 and methanol (light organic) 10,000 Wm-2 0C-1. Take the plate thickness as 0.75
mm. Thermal conductivity of titanium 21 Wm-1 0C-1.

U = 1759 W/m2 0C, too low

Increase the number of channels per pass to 60; giving (2 × 60) + 1 = 121 plates. Then,
methanol channel velocity = 0.51 × (48/60) = 0.41 m/s, and Re = 5400. Cooling water
channel velocity = 0.96 × (48/60) = 0.77 m/s, and Re = 5501. Giving, hp = 4215 Wm-2 0C-1
for methanol, and 13,846 Wm-2 0C-1 for water which gives an overall coefficient of 1634
Wm-2 0C-1. Overall coefficient required 2000 × 48/60 = 1600 Wm-2 0C-1, so 60 plates per pass
should be satisfactory.

Overall coefficient required 2000 × 48/60 = 1600 Wm-2 0C-1, so 60 plates per pass should be
satisfactory.

Pressure Drops

Methanol
( )

( )

Port pressure loss, take port diameter as 100 mm, area = 0.00785 m2. Velocity through port =
(27.8/750)/0.00785 = 4.72 m/s.

( )

Total pressure drop = 5799 + 10,860 = 16,659 N/m2, 0.16 bar.

Water

( )

( )

. Velocity through port = (68..9/750)/0.00785 = 8.88 m/s.(rather high)

22
 ( )

Total pressure drop = 26,547 + 50,999 = 77,546 N/m2, 0.78 bar

Could increase the port diameter to reduce the pressure drop. The trial design should be
satisfactory, so a plate heat exchanger could be considered for this duty.

4.4 Welded plate

Welded plate heat exchangers use plates similar to those in gasketed plate exchangers but the
plate edges are sealed by welding. This increases the pressure and temperature rating to up to
80 bar and temperatures in excess of 500oC. They retain the advantages of plate heat
exchangers (compact size and good rates of heat transfer) whilst giving security against
leakage. An obvious disadvantage is that the exchangers cannot be dismantled for cleaning.
So, their use is restricted to specialised applications where fouling is not a problem. The
plates are fabricated in a variety of materials. A combination of gasketed and welded plate
construction is also used. An aggressive process fluid flowing between welded plates and a
benign process stream, or service stream, between gasketed plates. [2]

4.5 Plate Fin Heat Exchangers

Plate-fin exchangers consist essentially of plates separated by corrugated sheets, which form
the fins. They are made up in a block and are often referred to as matrix exchangers; Figure
4.2. They are usually constructed of aluminum and joined and sealed by brazing. The main
application of plate-fin exchangers has been in the cryogenics industries, such as air
separation plants, where large heat transfer surface areas are needed. They are now finding
wider applications in the chemical processes industry, where large surface area, compact,
exchangers are required. Their compact size and low weight have led to some use in off-shore
applications. The brazed aluminum construction is limited to pressures up to around 60 bar
and temperatures up to 150C. The units cannot be mechanically cleaned, so their use is
restricted to clean process and service steams. [2, 6, 7]

Figure 4.4 Plate Fin Heat Exchanger

23
4.5.1 Selection

The advantages and disadvantages of plate fin heat exchangers, compared with other heat
exchangers are listed below [6, 7]:

Advantages

1. Large heat transfer surface area per unit volume (typically 1000 m 2/m3), is usually
provided by plate fin heat exchangers. Small passage size produces a high overall heat
transfer coefficient because of the heat transfer associated with the narrow passages
and corrugated surfaces.
2. Very high thermal effectiveness more than 95% can be obtained.
3. The plate fin heat exchanger can operate with small temperature differences. A close
temperature approach (temperature approach as low as 3K) is obtained for a heat
exchanger exchanging heat with single phase fluid streams. This is an advantage
when high temperatures need be avoided. Local overheating and possibility of
stagnant zones can also be reduced by the form of the flow passage.
4. Changes can be made to heat exchanger performance by utilizing a wide range of
fluids and conditions that can be modified to adapt to various design specifications.
Multi stream operation is possible up to 10 streams.
5. True counter-flow operation (Unlike the shell and tube heat exchanger, where the
shell side flow is usually a mixture of cross and counter flow) is possible in a plate fin
heat exchanger

Disadvantages

1. The rectangular geometry used puts a limit on operating range of pressure and
temperatures
2. Difficulty in cleaning of passages, which limits its application to clean and relatively
non-corrosive fluids.
3. Difficulty of repair in case of failure or leakage between passages.
4. Relatively high pressure drop due to narrow and constricted passages.

4.5.2 Flow Arrangements

A plate fin heat exchanger accepts two or more streams, which may flow in directions
parallel or perpendicular to one another. When the flow directions are parallel, the streams
may flow in the same or in opposite sense. Thus we can think of three primary flow
arrangements – (i) parallel flow, (ii) counter flow and (iii) cross flow. Thermodynamically,
the counter flow arrangement provides the highest heat (or cold) recovery, while the parallel
flow geometry gives the lowest. The cross flow arrangement, while giving intermediate
thermodynamic performance, offers superior heat transfer properties and easier mechanical
layout. Under certain circumstances, a hybrid cross – counter flow geometry provides greater
heat (or cold) recovery with superior heat transfer performance. Thus in general engineering
practice, plate fin heat exchangers are used in three configurations: (a) cross flow, (b) counter
flow and (c) cross-counter flow. [6]

24
1. Cross Flow (Figure 4.5(a) )
In a cross flow heat exchanger, usually only two streams are handled, thus eliminating
the need for distributors. The header tanks are located on all four sides of the heat
exchanger core, making this arrangement simple and cheap. If high effectiveness is
not necessary, if the two streams have widely differing volume flow rates, or if either
one or both streams are nearly isothermal (as in single component condensing or
boiling), the cross flow arrangement is preferred. Typical applications include
automobile radiators and some aircraft heat exchangers.

2. Counter flow (Figure 4.5 (b))

In a counter flows heat exchanger the two fluids flow parallel to each other but in
opposite directions. The counter-flow heat exchanger provides the most thermally
effective arrangement for recovery of heat or cold from process streams. A counter
flow arrangement is thermodynamically superior to any other flow arrangement. It is
the most efficient flow arrangement, producing the highest temperature change in
each fluid compared to any other two-fluid arrangement for a given overall thermal
conductance (UA), fluid flow rates and fluid inlet temperatures. Cryogenic
refrigeration and liquefaction equipment use this geometry almost exclusively. But
these type of heat exchangers demand proper design because of the complex geometry
of headers.

3. Cross-Current Flow (Figure 4.5 (c))

The cross-counter flow geometry is a hybrid of counter-flow and cross flow
arrangements, delivering the thermal effectiveness of counter-flow heat exchanger
with the superior heat transfer characteristics of the cross flow configuration. In this
arrangement, one of the streams flows in a straight path, whereas the second stream
follows a zigzag path normal to that of the first stream. While moving along the
zigzag path, the second fluid stream covers the length of the heat exchanger in a
direction opposite to that of the direct stream. Thus the flow pattern can be assumed to
be globally counter flow while remaining locally cross flow. Cross-counter flow
PFHEs are used in applications similar to those of simple cross flow exchangers, but
they allow more flexibility in design and fabrication. They are particularly suited for
the applications where the two streams have considerably different volume flow rates,
or permit significantly different pressure drops. The fluid with the larger volume flow
rate or that with the smaller value of allowable pressure drop is made to flow through
the straight channel, while the other stream follows the zigzag path. For example, in a
liquid-to-gas heat exchanger, the gas stream with a large volume flow rate and low
allowable pressure drop is assigned the straight path, while the liquid stream with a
high allowable pressure drop flows normal to it over a zigzag path. This arrangement
optimizes the overall geometry.

25
Figure 4.5 Flow Arrangements in Plate Fin Heat Exchanger

26
4.5.3 Fin Geometries

The plate fin exchangers are mainly employed for liquid-to-gas and gas-to-gas applications.
Due to the low heat transfer coefficients in gas flows, extended surfaces are commonly
employed in plate-fin heat exchangers. By using specially configured extended surfaces, heat
transfer coefficients can also be enhanced. While such special surface geometries provide
much higher heat transfer coefficients than plain extended surfaces, but at the same time, the
pressure drop penalties are also high, though they may not be severe enough to negate the
thermal benefits. The most common fin configurations are – (1) plain (straight and
uninterrupted) fins with rectangular, trapezoidal or triangular passages, (2) uninterrupted
wavy fins and (3) interrupted fins such as offset strip, louvered, perforated and pin fins. The
details of each fin type are given below.[6,7]

1. Plain Fins
These are straight fins that are continuous in the fluid flow direction (Figure 4.6(a,
b)). Although passages of triangular and rectangular cross section are more common,
any desired shape can be given to the fins, considering only manufacturing
constraints. Straight fins in triangular arrangement can be manufactured at high
speeds and hence are less expensive than rectangular fins. But generally they are
structurally weaker than rectangular fins for the same passage size and fin thickness.
They also have lower heat transfer performance compared to rectangular fins,
particularly in laminar flow

Plain fins are used in those applications where core pressure drop is critical. An
exchanger with plain fins requires a smaller flow frontal area than that with
interrupted fins for specified pressure drop, heat transfer and mass flow rate. Of
course, the required passage length is higher leading to a larger overall volume.

2. Wavy Fins
Wavy fins are uninterrupted fin surfaces with cross-sectional shapes similar to those
of plain fins, but with cyclic lateral shifts perpendicular to the flow direction (Figure
4.6 (c)). The resulting wave form provides effective interruptions and induces a
complex flow field. Heat transfer is enhanced due to creation of Goertler vortices.
These counter-rotating vortices form while the fluid passes over the concave wave
surfaces, and produce a corkscrew-like flow pattern.

The heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of a wavy fin surface lie between
those of plain and offset strip fins. The friction factor continues to fall with increasing
Reynolds number. Wavy fins are common in the hydrocarbon industry where
exchangers are designed with high mass velocities and moderate thermal duties.
Unlike offset strip fins, the thickness of wavy fins is not limited at high fin densities.
Therefore, wavy fins are often used for streams at high pressure, particularly those
which can tolerate somewhat poor heat transfer coefficient.

3. Offset Fins
This is the most widely used fin geometry in high performance plate fin heat
exchangers. It consists of a type of interrupted surface, which may be visualised as a
set of plain fins cut normal to the flow direction at regular intervals, each segment
being offset laterally by half the fin spacing (Figure 4.6 (d)). Surface interruption

27
enhances heat transfer by two independent mechanisms. First, it prevents the
continuous growth of thermal boundary layer by periodically interrupting it. The
thinner boundary layer offers lower thermal resistance compared to continuous fin
types. Above a critical Reynolds number, interrupted surfaces offer an additional
mechanism of heat transfer enhancement. Oscillations in the flow field in the form of
vortices shed from the trailing edges of the interrupted fins enhance local heat transfer
by continuously bringing in fresh fluid towards the heat transfer surfaces. This
enhancement is accompanied by an increase in pressure drop.

The heat transfer performance of offset strip fin is often as much as 5 times that of a
plain fin surface of comparable geometry, but at the expense of higher pressure drop.
For specified heat transfer and pressure drop requirements, the offset strip fin surface
demands a somewhat higher frontal area compared to those with plain fin, but results
in a shorter flow length and lower overall volume. An undesirable characteristic of
this type of fin is that at high Reynolds numbers the friction factor remains nearly
constant (because of the higher contribution of form drag), while the heat transfer
performance goes down. Therefore, offset strip fins are used less frequently in very
high Reynolds number applications. On the other hand, they are extensively used in
air separation and other cryogenic applications where mass velocities are low and
high thermal effectiveness is essential

The louvered fin geometry shown in Figure 4.6 (e) bears a similarity to the offset strip
fin. Instead of shifting the slit strips laterally, small segments of the fin are slit and
rotated 20 to 45 degrees relative to the flow direction. The base surface of the
louvered fin geometry can be of triangular or rectangular shape, and louvers can be
cut in many different forms.

The multi louvered fin has the highest heat transfer enhancement relative to pressure
drop in comparison with most other fin types. Flow over louvered fin surfaces is
similar in nature to that through the offset strip fin geometry, with boundary layer
interruption and vortex shedding playing major roles. An important aspect of louvered
fin performance is the degree to which the flow follows the louver. At low Reynolds
number the flow is nearly parallel to the axial direction (duct flow), whereas at high
Reynolds number the flow is in the direction of the louvers (boundary layer flow).
Louvered fins are extensively used in automotive heat exchangers.

Perforated fins shown in Figure 4.6 (f) are made by punching a pattern of spaced
holes in the fin material before it is folded to form the flow channels. The channels
may be triangular or rectangular in shape with either round or rectangular
perforations. While this geometry, with boundary layer interruptions, is a definite
improvement over plain fins, its performance is generally poorer than that of a good
offset strip fin. Furthermore, the perforated fin represents a wasteful way of making
an enhanced surface, since the material removed in creating the perforations is thrown
out as scrap. Perforated fins are now used only in limited number of applications such
as turbulators in oil coolers.

28
 Figure 4.6 Types of plate fin surfaces (a) Plain rectangular (b) Plain trapezoidal
(c) Wavy (d) Serrated or Offset Strip fin (e) louvered (f) perforated

4.5.4 Heat Transfer and Flow Friction Characteristics

The heat transfer and flow friction characteristics of a heat exchanger surfaces are commonly
expressed in non-dimensional form and are simply referred to as the basic characteristic or
basic data of the surface. Various correlations are available in literatures which express the
Colburn factor, jh and friction factor, jf as functions of Reynolds number and other
geometrical properties. The Colburn and friction factors are defined by the relations:

( ) (4.6)

(4.7)

Where h= heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K

Gp= Mass velocity (kg/s-m2) [on the basis of minimum free flow area]
L= Length of flow passage (m)
Dh= Hydraulic diameter (m)
= Mean density of fluid (kg/m3)

4.5.6 Fabrication of Plate Fin Heat Exchanger

The basic approach to fabricate plate fin heat exchangers is to assemble the parting sheets,
fins, side bars and top plates together in a fixture and to braze the assembly to form the heat
exchanger core. While the side bars and the parting sheets are cut to size by milling and
shearing, electro discharge machining(EDM) is employed for cutting the performed thin
walled fins (thickness of 0.1mm) to the required shape and size.[6,7]

29
Typical materials include alloys of aluminum or stainless steel. Manganese based 3000-series
aluminium alloy (e.g. Al 3003) can be easily brazed using 7 % Silicon based aluminium filler
metal (e.g.4004).For stainless steel the material of construction is SS-304 and the filler
material is a low melting nickel-iron alloy.

The brazing of fins to parting sheets is done either by dip brazing or, more commonly, by
vacuum brazing technique. Most metals, such as stainless steel, copper and nickel alloys, can
be brazed satisfactorily in a vacuum brazing furnace. Aluminium, because of the tenacious
oxide layer that forms quickly on the surface, requires either a molten salt bath to dissolve the
oxide or a very high vacuum

In the dip brazing technique, the stacked assembly is heated in a furnace to a temperature few
tens of degrees below the melting point of the brazing alloy. The preheated assembly is then
dipped into a bath of fused salt mainly composed of fluorides and chlorides of alkaline
metals. The molten salt bath, with its temperature carefully controlled, acts both as a flux and
as the heating agent. On entry into the salt bath, the brazing alloy melts and flows by surface
tension along the joints between the separating sheets, fins and sidebars. On completion of
salt-bath brazing, the unit is washed with clean water, followed by a wash with dilute nitric
acid. Finally the unit is washed thoroughly with dematerialized water to remove traces of the
acid.

In the vacuum brazing process, the stacked assembly is heated up to the brazing temperature
by radiation heating in a vacuum furnace. High vacuum (10-6 torr) ensures a very low partial
pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere, and facilitates chemical splitting of the oxides).The
size of the exchanger determines the temperature ramp and the soaking time to be employed.
In case of vacuum brazing of aluminium, the narrow margin between the melting point of the
brazing alloy and the parent metal (about 50 K) makes it mandatory to employ close
temperature control in the furnace. For small heat exchangers, an independent six-zone
control with 1 K variation is adopted, while large units demand still more specialized control
strategy. It is done to ensure complete and uniform heating and chemical decomposition of
the oxide layer. The system temperature is raised quickly to the melting temperature of the
brazing alloy, held for one or two minutes, and brought down to a temperature 50 K below
the brazing temperature. This is done to avoid creeping deformation of the assembly under its
own weight. In stainless steel exchangers, because of the large difference in the melting
temperature of the braze alloy and the parent metal, such care is not strictly necessary.

The headers and the nozzle are welded to the heat exchanger core by TIG welding. Care must
be taken to ensure that re-melting of the already brazed joints does not take place. This is a
serious problem in stainless steel exchangers where the difference in melting temperatures of
the parent metal and brazing alloy can exceed 50 K. The heat exchanger thus fabricated is
then subjected to a series of tests viz. leak test, pressure test etc before final acceptance for
service.

30
4.5.7 Estimation of Heat Transfer factor and friction factor

The prediction of non-dimensional heat transfer coefficient, jh and friction factor, jf by

numerical solution has not yielded accurate results because of the limitation of the computing
resources and the simplifying assumptions made. Empirical relations for the jh and jf factors
can be successfully used in less critical designs but for the more critical design such as
application in cryogenic systems, experimental determination of the non-dimensional heat
transfer coefficient, jh and the friction factor, jf remains the only choice. The experimental
work can be conducted to check whether a given heat exchanger meets the prescribed thermal
performance and pressure drop requirement, and to analyze the various causes of degradation
and malfunctioning. [7]

The experimental methods can be broadly classified as follows:

1. Steady state technique where heat is transferred from one fluid to another through a
separating wall (recuperative heat exchanger).
2. Transient technique where heat is exchanged with a solid matrix (regenerative heat
exchanger). This technique is further classified as
a. Single blow method, and
b. Periodic test methods.

1. Steady State Technique

In the steady state method, a cross flow type heat exchanger is usually employed as
the test exchanger. One channel of the cross flow heat exchanger is made of the
surface to be characterised. The fluid flowing over this test surface should preferably
be one which is likely to be used in service. Because a majority of plate fin heat
exchangers are used in gas to gas applications, and because most gases have
comparable physical properties, air is conventionally used as the testing medium. The
fluid flowing over the second channel must provide high heat transfer rate and low
pressure drop to improve accuracy.

In a steady state experiment, measurement of temperatures and mass flow rates in the
two sides provides the required information to compute the heat exchanger
effectiveness. An relation, appropriate to the cross flow arrangement, is applied to
determine the NTU and hence the overall heat transfer coefficient (U), the inverse of
which is related to the resistances of individual sides and that of the separating wall.
Assuming that the fouling resistances are negligible; the overall thermal resistance
(1/UA) is expressed by the following relation:

1 1 1
+ +R (4.8)
( oh )unknown ( oh )known wall

where
(4.9)
o 1-(af /as) (1- f)

31
Where (af /as) is the ratio of fins to the total surface area, and f, fin efficiency

The fin efficiency f is calculated by the formula

f tanh(ML)/ML (4.10)

where
2 h (4.11)
M √
kf t

Once the surface area and the geometry are known for the extended surfaces, h and are 0
computed iteratively from equations (4.8) to (4.11), the jh factor is then calculated from
Equation 4.6

The plate-fin heat exchangers are commonly used for gas-to gas heat exchange, and the
pressure drop for each stream is an important design factor. The overall pressure drop
through the plate fin heat exchanger involves four components: (1) the pressure drop at the
inlet, as the fluid leaves the inlet header and enters the finned section (heat exchanger core),
(2) the frictional pressure drop in the finned section or core, (3) the pressure drop (or possibly
a pressure rise) at the outlet, as the fluid leaves the core and enters the outlet header, and (4)
the momentum pressure drop ( or rise ) due to the velocity changes in the heat exchanger core
resulting from changes in density of the fluid. Fanning friction factor jf is obtained from the
following:

j [ ( ) { ( )}] (4.12)

Where Kc and Ke are the contraction and expansion coefficients respectively.

2. Transient Method
The single blow transient method is an alternative method of characterizing heat
transfer surfaces. This technique is used for calculating average heat transfer
coefficient of packed bed regenerator and matrix type high NTU heat exchange
surfaces. In this method, a compact heat exchanger matrix, or a packed bed, is first
allowed to come in equilibrium with the process fluid temperature. Another cooler
fluid is then allowed to flow through the matrix. The fluid exchanges heat with the
matrix. A three way valve is used to switch from one fluid stream to another flowing
through the matrix. Another alternative is to employ a low thermal capacity electric
heater upstream of the matrix.

Heating is continued until the core reaches a uniform temperature manifested by a

negligible difference between the temperature of air stream at inlet and exit. The
electricity supply is switched off instantly to generate the step change. The fluid outlet
temperature is recorded during the cooling period up to the new equilibrated
temperature. This measured temperature response is matched with exit fluid
temperature history derived from a mathematical model of the system. From the
parameters of the mathematical model and the operating condition it is possible to
determine the heat transfer coefficient.

32
 There are several computational methods to analyse the measured data for
determination of NTU. The most prominent among them are:(1)The maximum slope
method,(2) the zero intercept method,(3) the direct curve matching method, and (4)
the first moment of area method. Typical uncertainties in the final values of Colburn jf
factor has been reported to be 13% with overall NTU of 3.5 for the test core.

4.5.8 Correlations for Heat transfer factor jh and Friction factor jf [7]

Wieting [67] developed an empirical correlation from experimental heat transfer and flow
friction data on offset strip fin surfaces over two Reynolds number ranges: Re< 1000 and Re
>2000.

For Re ≤ 1000
-0.162
jh 0.483(l/ h) ( )-0.184 (Re)-0.536 (4.13)

-0.384 (4.14)
jf 7.661(l/ h) ( )-0.092 (Re)-0.712

For Re ≤ 2000

0.322 0.08
jh 0.242(l/ h) ( h) (Re)-0.368 (4.15)
-0.384
jf 7.661(l/ h) ( )-0.092 (Re)-0.712 (4.16)

Joshi and Webb conducted flow visualization experiments to identify the transition from
laminar flow. As the flow rate increases, oscillating velocities develop in the wakes, leading
to vortex shedding with further increase in Re. The onset of oscillating flow and the
consequent change in the wake structure were found to correspond approximately to the
departure from the laminar log linear behaviour of jh and jf. A wake width based equation was
devolved to determine the critical Reynolds number. They developed an analytical model in
the laminar zone based on the numerical solution done by Sparrow and Liu and a semi
empirical method has been used for the turbulent region.

For laminar range (Re ≤ Re*)

( ) ( ) ( ) (4.17)

-0.15 (4.18)
jf 8.12(l/ e) ( )-0.14 (Re)-0.74

For turbulent range (Re ≥ Re* + 1000)

-0.24 -0.14
jh 0.21(l/ e) ( h) (Re)-0.4 (4.19)

-0.65 (4.20)
jf 1.12(l/ e) ( )-0.14 (Re)-0.36

33
The critical Reynolds number for heat transfer and pressure drop considerations is given by

Re 257(l/s)1.23 (t/l).58 e(t +1.328 (Re/l e)0.5)-1 (4.21)

Manglik and Bergles examined the heat transfer and friction data for 18 offset strip fin
surfaces and analysed the effect of various geometrical attributes of offset strip fins. The
equations that describe the asymptotic behaviour of the data in the deep laminar and fully
turbulent zones have been developed. These asymptotes have been combined to give the
single predictive equation for jh and jf which are valid for laminar, turbulent and transition
zones.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (4.22)
- ( ) ( )- ( ) ( )-

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (4.23)
- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0.1

Maiti and Sarangi used CFD as numerical tool for computing velocity, pressure and
temperature fields in plate and fin passages. They obtained correlations for the non-
dimensional heat transfer coefficient jh and pressure drop characteristic, jf in terms of
Reynolds number and other geometrical parameters using both computed and experimental
results. Some of the constants in the correlation are found by multiple regression from the
numerically computed results and the rest of the constants from experimental data on the
same geometry by another worker in the laboratory. They thus combined both the
experimental and computational methods. They also obtained the expression for the transition
Reynolds number.

For laminar range (Re ≤ Re*)

jh 0.36(l/s)-0.27 ( ) (( )0.275 (Re)-0.5 (4.24)

(4.25)
jf 4.6 (l/s)-0.181 ( ) (( )0..196 (Re)-0.70

Turbulent Range (Re ≥ Re*)

jh 0.18(l/s)-0.184 ( ) (( )0.288 (Re)-0.42 (4.26)

(4.27)
jf 0.32(l/s)-0.185 ( ) (( )0.221 (Re)-0.286

The critical Reynolds number for heat transfer coefficient is given by

156 58(l/s)-1.433( ) (( )-0.217 (4.28)

The critical Reynolds number for pressure drop is given by

6 23(l/s)0.1( ) (( )-0.06 (4.29)

34
4.5.9 Estimation of Hydraulic Diameter

Hydraulic diameter is given by the following definition:

(4.30)
( )

The terms Ac, P and A have been evaluated differently by various investigators; so there are
different expressions for hydraulic diameter in the literature. At least three different
expressions can be identified in the literature, which are as given below [6, 7]:

1. Manglik and Bergles

Free flow area is taken Ac = sh. In evaluating the heat transfer area A; the blunt fin
edges, both vertical and lateral, have been included in the channel surface area. Heat
transfer area is given by the expression:

2(sl+hl+ht)+ ts

Therefore hydraulic diameter is given by the formula:

4shl (4.31)
h
2(sl+hl+ht)+ts

2. Joshi and Webb , and Maiti and Sarangi

Free flow area and heat transfer area are given as

Free flow area, Ac = (s-t) h
Heat Transfer area A = 2(sl+hl+ht)

Therefore hydraulic diameter is given by the formula:

4s(t-h)l
h
(4.32)
2(sl+hl+ht)

3. Wieting and Kays and London

Considering a rectangular channel of cross section, sh, hydraulic diameter is defined

as:

(4.33)

35
 4sh sh
h
2(s+h) (s+h)

4.5.10 Performance of Heat Exchanger

The performance of heat exchangers is adversely affected by the following physical factors:

1. Longitudinal heat conduction along the separating wall of the two fluids in the
heat exchanger.
2. Heat transfer from or to the ambient,
3. Flow misdistribution at the headers and due to manufacturing errors.
4. Fluid property variation at low temperatures.

4.6 Plate Fin Heat Exchanger Design

The main steps involved in the design procedure are as follows [6, 7]

i) Determination of the optimum mass velocity.

The optimum mass velocity for the specified pressure drop p, is calculated by the
relation:

(4.34)
[ ( )]
( ) ( )

Value of goodness factor, jh/jf is assumed to be 0.25 for the Reynolds number ranging
from 300 to 5000 for the specified geometry to calculate the initial approximate value
of G. The overall surface effectiveness of fins, is assumed to be 80 % for the first
iteration unless a better value is known from the past experience. From the initial
value of G calculated, individual and are calculated .After a number of iterations, the
core mass velocity G is obtained. It is also found that change in Reynolds number has
a very little effect on the ratio of j/f for the fin of particular geometry.

ii) Assumptions on free flow area and frontal area.

The frontal area or the free flow area is assumed so that core mass velocity is below
the optimum value calculated as above. The length of the heat exchanger is assumed.

iii) Heat transfer areas

The surface areas, Ah and Ac of both the sides are then computed from the geometry.

iv) Fluid mean temperatures and fluid thermo physical properties on each fluid side
are calculated.

36
 v) Calculation of heat transfer coefficient, jh and friction factor, jf
The Reynolds number and j and f factors on each side are calculated by using
available correlations.

vi) Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient.

The heat transfer coefficients on both hot and cold sides are computed. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is calculated by the formula:
(4.35)
( ) ( )

o
1-(af /as) (1- f)
The fin efficiency f is calculated by the formula

f tanh(ML )/ML (4.36)

where M is fin parameter and is defined as

2 h (4.37)
M √
kf t

vii) Number of transfer units are calculated.

viii) Effectiveness considering longitudinal heat conduction loss.

Longitudinal heat conduction along the separating surfaces of hot and cold fluids
causes serious performance deterioration. The decrease in the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger is found out by using Kroeger’s equation.

For the case of balanced operation, Cr=1, Kroeger has presented the solution for the
ineffectiveness as:

(4.38)
( ) ( )

1
NT 2 NT (4.39)
[ ] tanh 1
1+ NT
NT 2
[ *1+ NT + ]

37
 For the case of NTU >3, the argument of the hyperbolic tangent is greater than 3, and
tanh (3) = 0.995 or almost unity. For this case, the ineffectiveness given by equation
(4.) becomes
1
1-ε 1
NT 2
(4.40)
1+ * +
1+ NT 1+ NT
1+ NT
[ ]
Kroeger has developed an approximation for the ineffectiveness for the case of unbalanced
operation, Cr < 1 as:

1- r (4.41)
1-ε
exp(r1) - r

where

(1- r) NT (4.42)
r1
1+ ( NT r)

For the case of, Cr > 50 the value of the function reduces to:

1+ (4.43)
1-
1
y 2 (1+ )y
( ) * + (4.44)
1+y 1- (1+ )y

(1- r) (4.45)
(1- r)(1+y)

y NT r (4.46)
4.6.1 Design Problem

The heat exchanger has to be designed for the following design conditions

A. Heat exchanger input data.

Fluid used: Nitrogen gas
Temperature of hot fluid at inlet, = 310 K
Temperature of cold fluid at inlet, = 83.65 K

Pressure at inlet of hot gas = 7.35 bar.

Pressure at inlet of cold gas = 1.15 bar.
Mass flow rate of both the fluids (hot and cold) = 5 g /s.
Allowable pressure drop, ph= pc = 0.05 bar

B. Fin geometry.

38
The heat exchanger is to be constructed of Aluminium alloy Al-3003 with rectangular offset
strip fins with the following basic dimensions.
Fin geometry High pressure Side Low pressure Side
01 Fin frequency, f 714 fins per metre 588 fins per metre
02 Length of fin, l 3 mm 5 mm
03 Fin thickness, t 0.2 mm 0.2 mm
04 Fin height, h 9.3 mm 9.3 mm
05 Number of layers 05 04
Geometrical characteristics related to selected fin geometry.

Geometrical characteristics related to the fin geometry are calculated as follows:

i) Fin spacing, (excluding the fin thickness)

(1-pf t)
0.0012m
(pf)

ii) Free flow area to frontal area ratio,

(s-t)h (0.0012-0.0002) 0.0093

( ) 0.6992
(h+t)(s+t) (.0093+0.0002)(.0012+.0002)

iii) Heat transfer area / fin,

iv) Ratio of fin area to heat transfer area of fin,

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

v) Equivalent Diameter,

4 Freeflow area length

e 0.001672662m
Heat Transfer area

vi) Distance between plates, b= h + t =0.0095m

Design using correlation developed by Joshi and Webb:

The design calculations for the given heat exchanger are as given below:

a) Desired performance of heat exchangers.

The desired effectiveness of heat exchanger is given by the formula:

39
 ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Heat Load ( - ) ( - )

b) Estimation of dimensions of heat exchanger.

i) Length of the heat exchanger = 900 mm

ii) Width of the core, W = 73 mm
iii) Total Number of layers, N = 9.

c) Calculation of heat transfer area, A

The heat transfer area for hot side is calculated as

Total area between plates,
frh b Nh 0.0095 5 0.073 0.0035m2

Total free flow area,

Total heat transfer area,

Free flow area and the heat transfer are calculated for the cold side. Total wall
conduction (longitudinal conduction) area, awh + awc =0.001043 + 0.00069736 =
0.00174 m2

d) Properties at average temperature

The fluid properties at the estimated mean temperatures of 202.95 K and 191.16 K for
hot and cold fluid are obtained from property package, GASPAK

The properties of hot helium gas at the mean film temperature:

Specific heat, Cp =5197.5 J/kg- K

Viscosity, μ 0000154.0 Pa-s
Prandtl number, Pr = 6685 .0
Density, =7404 .1 kg/m3

The properties of cold helium gas at the mean film temperature.

Specific heat, cp =5197.5 J/kg- K

Viscosity, μ = 0000148.0 Pa-s
Prandtl number, Pr = 67 .0
Density, = 2808 .0 kg/m3

40
 e) Heat transfer Coefficient and Surface are of Fins

The core dimensions are calculated for the side having more stringent pressure drop
specification. The dimensions on the other side are then chosen such that the
calculated pressure is within the specified limit. The calculations for the heat transfer
coefficients for the hot and cold gas are similar. The calculations for hot fluid are
given below.

i) The core mass velocity,

m 0.005
G 2.062kg/s m-2
ffc 0.002424

ii) The Reynolds number,

G e 2.062 0.0016766
Re 223.98
μ 0.0000154

iii) The critical Reynolds number for pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient is given by

Re 257(l/s)1.23 (t/l).58 e(t +1.328 (Re/l e)0.5)-1

257(3/1.2)1.23 (.2/ ).580.001672(0.2 +1.328 (223.98/0. 03 )0.5)-1= 691.75

iv) The Colburn jh factor (for Re≤ Re*) is given by correlation proposed by Joshi and
Webb as

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

v) The convective heat transfer coefficient, is given by hc

( ) ( )

41
vi) Fin parameter is given by

√ √

vii) Heat loss to the ambient decreases the overall surface effectiveness of fins and
finally the effectiveness of heat exchanger. In heat exchangers used for cryogenic
service, the layers through which the cold fluid passes are placed in between the
two hot layers .This minimizes the heat loss from the cold fluid. The number of
layers through which the hot fluid passes will be more than that of cold fluid by
one and are exposed more to the ambient. To take into account the heat losses to
the ambient, the fin conduction lengths for the outer layers on the hot side will be
taken as b whereas for the inner layers of the hot fluid, the conduction length is
taken as b/2.However for the cold layers placed between the hot layers the fin
conduction length is taken as b/2 for both the inner and outer layers.

Le = Effective length of fins for inner layers of hot fluid =b/2= 4.75 mm
Le = Effective length of fins for outer layers of hot fluid = b= 9.5 mm

viii) The fin effectiveness for a straight fin is

( )

For the outer layers of hot side the fin effectiveness is 0.50127.

ix) The overall surface effectiveness of fins on hot side is

Np = 5

( ) ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ) ( ) ( ⁄ )

f) The overall heat transfer coefficient and number of transfer units

( ) ( )

Where Aw = Lateral conduction area = W × L × (2Np + 2) = .073 × 0.9 (2×4 +2) =

0.657m2

( ) ( )

0.00113K/

42
 (UoAo)h = 885.23 W/K

The overall heat transfer coefficient,

( )

Number of Transfer Units

o o
NT
min

g) Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger

The effectiveness of heat exchanger, neglecting longitudinal heat conduction is given

by the relation

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

h) Pressure drop

Since pressure drop of cold fluid is more critical, the pressure drop calculations for
the cold fluid are presented here.

The Colburn jf factor (for Re≤ Re*) is given by correlation proposed by Joshi and
Webb as
-0.15
jf 8.12(l/ e) ( )-0.14 (Re)-0.74

The pressure drop,

4fLG2
p 2675.99 a
2 e b

The pressure drop is less than the allowable pressure drop of Hence the design does
meet the hydraulic requirement. 5 .kPa

4.7 Spiral Heat Exchangers

43
A spiral heat exchanger can be considered as a plate heat exchanger in which the plates are
formed into a spiral. The fluids flow through the channels formed between the plates. The
exchanger is made up from long sheets, between 150 to 1800 mm wide, formed into a pair of
concentric spiral channels. The channels are closed by gasketed end-plates bolted to an outer
case. Inlet and outlet nozzles are fitted to the case and connect to the channels. The gap
between the sheets varies between 4 to 20 mm; depending on the size of the exchanger and
the application. They can be fabricated in any material that can be cold-worked and
welded.[2]

4.7.1 Selection

The advantages and disadvantages of Spiral Heat Exchangers, compared with other heat
exchangers are listed below [2,8]

Advantages

1. Compact: a unit with around 250 m2 area occupying a volume of approximately 10

m3 .
2. Centrifugal force increases the heat transfer coefficient particularly of highly viscous
liquid slurries or sludges
3. Spiral plate Heat Exchangers foul at much lower rate because of the single flow
passage and curved flow path which does not easy settlement of solids.
4. Relative ease of cleaning
5. Spiral configuration reduces stress associated with differential thermal expansion.
6. True counter-current flow
7. Maintenance cost is less.

Disadvantages

1. More expensive
2. Higher pressure drop compared to shell and tube HE.
3. Design is not well established.
4. Gasket selection is crucial.
5. Maximum design pressure is 10bar g as the spiral construction limits the design
pressure

4.7.2 Flow Arrangements

In spiral plate Heat Exchanger following types of flow arrangements are possible

(i) Spiral Flow in both channels

(ii) Spiral Flow in one channel and axial flow in another
(iii) Combination flow

Spiral Flow in both channels

This type of flow arrangement is used for liquid-to-liquid services. With this type of flow
arrangement spiral plate heat exchanger is covered by flat heads on both sides. In this

44
arrangement usually two liquids flow counter currently with cold liquid entering at the
periphery and flowing toward the core and the hot liquid entering at the core and flowing
toward periphery. Use of this type spiral heat exchanger is common in cooling hot
hydrogenated edible oil from deodorizer as it offers good heat transfer coefficient for viscous
oil.

Figure 4.7 Spiral Flow in both Channels [8]

Spiral Flow in one channel and Axial Flow in Other

This type of flow arrangement is used for condensing or boiling. With this type of flow
arrangement spiral flow heat exchanger is covered by conical heads on one or both sides.
Condensation or boiling takes place in axial direction. This arrangement is preferred where
there is a large difference in volumes of two fluids. In case of condensation, difference
between volumetric flow rates of boiling liquid and the same of hot oil is large.

45
 Figure 4.8 Spiral Flow in one channel and Axial Flow in Other [8]
Combination Flow

Combination Flow is used to condense vapours. In this arrangement condensing vapour flows
axially and then condensate flow spirally. This arrangement is used for condensation with sub
cooling. Part of the open spiral is kept closed at the top. Entering fluid (condensing vapour)
flows axially through the center part of assembly in downward direction. Condensate at
bottom flow spirally and coming out from the side bottom. With this arrangement spiral
j=heat exchanger is equipped with conical head at top and flat cover at bottom.

46
 Figure 4.9 Combinational Flow [8]

4.7.3 Fabrication of Spiral Plate Heat Exchanger

Spiral plate heat exchanger is fabricated from two relatively long strips of plate which are
spaced apart and wound around an open split center to form pair of concentric spiral
passages. Spacing is maintained uniformly along the length of the spiral by spacer studs
welded to plate. Commonly used material for fabrication of spiral plate heat exchanger are
carbon steel, stainless steel, Hastelloys, nickel and nickel alloys titanium, copper-alloys etc.
[8]

4.7.4 Design Procedure

Design procedure steps are as follows [8]:

1. Calculate heat duty

2. Select cooling medium or heating medium
3. Based on Energy Balance calculate the mass flow rate of heating medium or cooling
medium.

47
 4. Calculate LMTD
5. Assume the value of overall heat transfer coefficient for the first trial calculation.
6. Determine the heat transfer area required based on assumed value of overall heat
transfer coefficient
7. Heat transfer area for spiral plate Heat Exchanger

2 L H (4.47)
Where A= Heat Transfer area, m2
L = Length of plate, m
H = Width of plate = Height or length of heat exchanger, m
Fix the value of H and find the value of L

L (4.48)
2 H
Diameter of heat exchanger or diameter of outside spiral can be calculated by following
equation.

DS = [1.28 ×(L dc + dh + 2t) + c2]1/2 (4.49)

Where DS = Outside Spiral diameter, m

L = Length of plate, m
dc = Channel spacing of cold side, m
dh = Channel spacing of hot side, m
t = plate thickness, m
c = core diameter, m
Some dimension of spiral heat exchanger are standard and as follows

1. Plate width H: 101.6 mm (4 in.) 152.4 mm (6 in.),

304.8 mm (12 in), 457.2 mm (18 in),
609.6 mm (24 in), 762 mm (30 in)
914.4 mm (36 in), 1219.2 mm (48 in),
1524mm (60 in), 1778 mm (72 in)
2. Core Diameter, c: 203.2 mm (3/16 in) (for 304.8 mm maximum width)
3. Channel spacing dc and dh : 4.76mm (3/16 in) (for 304.8 mm maximum width)
6.35 mm (1/4 in) (for 1219.2 mm maximum width)
7.94 mm (5/16 in), 9.525 mm (3/8 in)
12.7 mm (1/2 in) , 19.05 mm (3/4 in)
25.4 mm (1in)
4. Plate thickness, t : For carbon steel 3.175 mm (1/8 in)
4.76 m (3/16 in)
6.35 mm (1/14 in) , 7.94 mm(5/16 in)
For stainless steel 14 to 3 US gauge

In spiral plate heat exchanger to arrive at best design outside compact diameter of spiral D S
and plate width (H) are kept approximately equal.

8. Calculate the equivalent diameter of flow channel by following equation.

48
 4 Flow area 4 pacing width
e
wetted perimeter 2 pacing width

For hot fluid

( )
(4.50)
( )

For cold fluid

( ) (4.51)
( )
9. Calculate Reynolds number by following equation

2m (4.52)
Re
H μ
Where, m = Mass flow rate of fluid, kg/s
H = Width of plate, m
μ Viscosity of fluid, kg/(m.s)
Reynolds number is calculated for both; cold fluid and hot fluid.

10. Calculate the critical Reynolds number Rec, Critical Reynolds number is the value of
Reynolds number above which turbulent flow is achieved.

e 0.32 (4.53)
Rec 20000 ( )
s

11. Calculate the cold fliud side and hot fluid side heat transfer coefficients by using the
suitable correlations. Various correlations for calculating heat transfer coefficient for
spiral plate heat exchangers are given as follows.
(a) For spiral flow with no phase change and Re > ReC (i.e. turbulent flow):

h e
( 1+3.5 ( )) (0.023 Re-0.2 r -2/3) (4.54)
pG s

(b) For spiral flow with no phase change and, Re < ReC (i.e. laminar flow)

h
Re-0.2 r -2/3 (4.55)
pG

Here mass velocity G is calculated by following equation

m
G (4.56)
d H

(c) For axial flow with no phase change and Re > 10 000

49
 h
0.023 Re-0.2 r -2/3 (4.57)
pG

12. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient by following equation

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + (4.58)
hc hh hcd hhd km

where U = Overal heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 oC

hc = Cold fluid side heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 oC
hh = Hot fluid side heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 oC
hcd = Cold fluid side fouling coefficient, W/m2 oC
hhd = Hot Fluid side fouling coefficient, W/m2 oC
km = Thermal Conductivity of Plate material, W/ m oC
t = Plate thickness, m
13. Calculate the heat transfer area required
14. Calculate the % excess heat transfer area. Ideally it should be in between 10 to 20%
15. Calculate the cold fluid side and hot fluid side pressure drops for spiral flow heat
exchanger are given as follows.
(a) Spiral flow with no phase change and Re > ReC

1 1
2 (4.59)
L 1.3 μ3 H 3 μf 16
∆p 0.079 [ ] [ ( ) ( ) +1.5+ ]
p ds H (ds + 0.0032) μb L

(b) Spiral flow with no phase change and 100 < Re < ReC

1 1
L 1.035 μ2 H 2 μf 16 (4.60)
∆p 36.84 [ ][ ( ) ( ) +1.5+ ]
p ds H (ds + 0.0032) μb L

(c) Spiral flow with no phase change and Re < 100

Lρμ μf 0.17
∆p 5.526 10-5 [ ] * ( ) + ( )+ (4.61)
ds2.75 μb H

(d) Axial flow with no phase change and, Re > 10 000

1.8
H (4.62)
∆p 253.85 ( ) ( 0.0115 μ0.2 +1+0.03 H)
L ds

Where p = Pressure drop, Pa

L = Total Length of plate, m

50
 = Density of fluid, kg/m3
W = m = Mass flow rate of fluid, kg/s
ds = Channel Spacing (dc or dh), m
H = Width of plate, m
μf = Viscosity of fluid, kg/(m.s)
μb = Bulk fluid viscosity, kg/(m.s)

Calculated pressure drop must be less than or equal to maximum allowable

pressure drop or optimum pressure drop.

References
1. Engineering Heat Transfer by C.P.Gupta and Rajendra Prakash, Eight edition
2007,Nem Chand & Bros,Roorkee, U.A, India

51
2. Coulson and Richardson Chemical Engineering Series, Chemical Engineering Design
by Ray Sinnott and Gavin Towler, Fifth Edition,Butterworth- Hienemann, An imprint
of Elsevier,© Elsevier Ltd. 2009

3. An E-book of Heat Exchanger Design Handbook by T.Kuppan downloaded from

http://199.91.153.208/3vmpj545ed3g/0nks04o8rkbznie/Heat+Exchanger+Design+Ha
ndbook.pdf,26/01/2013,10:35

4. http://sky.kiau.ac.ir/~mostafa.khosravy/myCourses/Heat_Transfer_I_files/10Heat%20
Exchangers.pdf,24/01/2013,18:37

5. http://etd.lib.montana.edu/etd/2005/lindstrom/LindstromJ0505.pdf ,24/01/2013,17:37

6. http://ethesis.nitrkl.ac.in/297/1/DESIGN_OF_COMPACT_PLATE_FIN_HEAT_EX
EXCHANG2.pdf, 30/03/13,22:01

7. http://ethesis.nitrkl.ac.in/4426/1/Alur_Final_Thesis.pdf, 30/03/13,22:05

8. Introduction to Process Engineering Design by S.B. Thakore and B.I.Bhatt,

Copyright
©2007, by Tata McGraw Hill Company Publishing Limited

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