DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF LOW POWER MONOPHONIC FM

TRANSMITTER

(REG/XXXXX)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OFLAGOS

JULY 2017.
i
 THE TITLE PAGE

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF LOW POWER MONOPHONIC FM

TRANSMITTER

BY

BELLO

REG/XXXX

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS,

LAGOS, NIGERIA.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIRMENT FOR THE AWARD

OF MASTER DEGREE IN FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS,

LAGOS, NIGERIA.

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this dissertation entitled DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF LOW

POWER MONOPHONIC FM TRANSMITTERwas carried out by BELLO in the faculty of

Engineering, University of Lagos, for the award of Masters of Engineering

…………………………………….. …………………………………….

Supervisor Date
iii
Acknowledgement
iv
 Abstract

Generally, telecast and broadcast signals are carried by electromagnetic waves. Radio transmitter is used mostly as a

public medium, sending commercial broadcasts from a transmitter to anyone with a radio receiver within its range, so

it is known as a point-to-multipoint medium. However, radio can also be used for private point-to-point transmissions.

Radio transmitters are said to be electronic units which accepts the information signal to be transmitted and converts it

into radio frequency signal capable of being transmitted over long distances. Every transmitter has three basic

functions. First, the transmitter must generate a signal of the correct frequency at a desired point in the spectrum.

Second, it must provide some form of modulation that causes the information signal to modify the carrier signal.

Third, it must provide sufficient power amplification to ensure that the signal level is high enough to carry over the

desired distance.

An FM transmitter is basically a VHF oscillator capable of transmitting sound or music to any standard FM receiver.

The circuit works on a regulated D.C power supply. This FM transmitter was designed using transistors and other

component such resistor, inductor and capacitors. This project transmits frequency on 106.8MHz± 5%. The

transmitting distance is about 300metres on open air. It is powered with 9volts D.C regulated power supply, using

suitable F.M receiver tuned to the transmitting frequency of transmission. FM Transmitter can be used as cordless

microphones for public address purposes, and as a spying device. The antenna is attached to the outside of the

transmitter, as in portable devices such as cell phones, walkie-talkies, and garage door openers. In more powerful

transmitters, the antenna may be located on top of a building or on a separate tower, and connected to the transmitter

by a feed line, that is a transmission line.Basically, two modes of transmission are employed in FM broadcast

transmitter namely; MONO and STEREO modes.

 Fig 1: FM stereophonic transmitter block diagram

In stereo broadcasting, two microphones (or two audio input sources usually Left and Right channels) generates a left

signal (LCH) and a right signal (RCH) respectively. These signals are to be fed into two identical speakers at the

receiving end. With proper speaker positioning, the result is a more accurate reproduction of the soundstage than is

possible with mono. By the time engineers had figured out how to do stereo FM, mono FM had been around a long

time and there were millions of mono receivers in use. Instead of changing the standards, FCC required that any

proposed stereo scheme would have to be compatible with mono in the sense that any standard mono FM receiver

would be able, without modification, to receive a mono version of a stereo transmission. Furthermore, the stereo

signal is required to stay within the 200 kHz transmission bandwidth limitation. Many stereo systems were proposed;

the one in use today was adopted in 1961.

The transmitter is shown in Figure 1, which is basically made up AM and FM transmitters with the AM transmitter

having its carrier signal being suppressed (Pilot frequency) as DSB-SC. Note that the left and right signals are first

limited to 15kHz using a band pass (Low pass-LPF) filter. The oscillator at fp = 19kHz provides a pilot carrier, which

will eliminate the need for a local oscillator at the receiver end. The frequency doubler gives fsc = 38kHz;
 Fig 2: FM monophonic transmitter block diagram

Fig 2 is an FM monophonic broadcasting, where a single audio baseband signal is used to modulate a carrier; this

signal originates from a single studio microphone or line input (audio source). If more than one microphone or audio

input source is used, their outputs are mixed to generate a single signal. FM broadcasting was originally monophonic,

and the FCC standards were established for mono. (Recall what the FCC standards are: a transmission bandwidth of

200 kHz with maximum frequency deviation of ∆f= 75kHz.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
The Cover Page

i
The Fly Leaf

ii
The Title Page

iii
Certification

iv
Acknowledgement

v
Abstract

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER FOUR: IMPLEMENTATION AND

EVALUATION
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARYOF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONAND

RECOMMENDATION
x.x Summary

x.x Recommendations

x.x Limitations and challenges of the study

x.x Conclusions

References
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Information transmission is very vital to human life just as the early men used sticks to produce

sound which indicates the location of each other as they wander about also down to the middle

era when town crises come into play for the same information propagation to be transmitted from

one point to another with the aid of radio communication which necessities the application of

radio transmitter and receiver.

Frequency modulation (FM) is a technique for wireless transmission of information where the

frequency of a carrier signal is changed in proportion to message signal which contains the

information (Chen, 2002). FM was invented and developed by Edwin Armstrong in the 1920’s

and 30’s. Frequency modulation was demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission

(FCC) for the first time in 1940, and the first commercial FM radio station began broadcasting in

1945 (Mohn, 2007).

A radio transmitter is device whose major function is to send information (intelligence) from one

point to another in most cases the information to be transmitted are voice music and code signals.
However the transmission of radio signal is done with the aid of electrical resonance this is when

the frequency of the receiver is equal to the incoming one from the transmitter resonance is

observed which is the totality of radio communication, frequency modulation (FM) transmitter is

less distorted than other wave bands like amplitude modulation and short wave band. The

frequency on the tuning dial ranges from 88MHZ to 108MHZ (Louis, 2008).

In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of

information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. This contrasts

with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the

frequency remains constant.In analog frequency modulation, such as FM radio broadcasting of

an audio signal representing voice or music, the instantaneous frequency deviation, the

difference between the frequency of the carrier and its center frequency, is proportional to the

modulating signal. In radio transmission, an advantage of frequency modulation is that it has a

larger signal-to-noise ratio and therefore rejects radio frequency interference better than an equal

power amplitude modulation (AM) signal, though it has its disadvantage as it uses excessive

amount of spectrum space. In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant, while the carrier

frequency is varied by modulating signal. For this reason, most music is broadcast over FM

radio.However, the concept of FM is essential to a wide gamut of radio frequency wireless

devices and is therefore worth studying (“The Future of Radio”, 2008).

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The comparatively low cost of equipment for an FM broadcasting station, resulted in rapid

growth over the years due tonature of components such as valves used and the inability of

standard AM receivers to eliminate noise, poor audio fidelity and overcrowding in the AM
broadcast band. FM does not have these drawbacks and therefore can be used to transmit music,

reproducing the original performance with a degree of fidelity that cannot be reached on AM.

FM stereophonic broadcasting has drawn increasing numbers of listeners to popular as well as

classical music, so that commercial FM stations draw higher audience ratings than AM stations.

Transistors and integrated chips have also played vital role in the wide proliferation of FM

receivers, as circuits got smaller it became easier to make a modular electronic device called the

“MP3 players”, which enables the portability of a music players and an AM/FM radio receivers.

This has resulted in the portability of a miniature FM receiver, which is carried by most people

when travelling on long trips. Listeners are most interested in easily being able to select radio

stations to have better sound quality and audibility and to increase accessibility for people with

auditory impairments. Listeners also want a wider range of radio channels over the whole

country. Consumers’ needs must be met hence the need for advancements in the field of radio

broadcast is important. This project work will explain the process of designing and constructing

of an FM transmitter using discrete components unlike valves used in 18th century.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of this project is:

1. To review some modern digital technologies that has been developed for effective FM signal

generation.

2. To show the design components and construction of a FM monophonic transmitter

3. To show the construction process of an electronically operated wireless radio transmission

system known as FM transmitter capable of transmitting a frequency modulated signal (Music or

voice) using electromagnetic waves.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The aim of this project is to design and construct a handheld low power FM transmitter for short

distance radio broadcast communication which is capable of transmitting any audio signal from

any audio source within the range of 300meters to a location also capable of receiving the audio

signals simultaneously of the frequency ranges of about 88MHz to 108MHz. The intension is to

design a locally made system because such systems sold in the market are imported and

considering the cost in foreign exchange and importation duties. This project work covers the

design and construction of FM monophonic transmitters for quality audio transmission and

explains some of the modern trends in FM signal generation, highlighting their prospects. It also

covers the advantages these technologies offer over traditional radio broadcasting and brings to

light various distinguishing features possessed by these technologies.

However, the proposed 1 watt FM transmitter circuit is made up of three radio frequency stages:

The VHF oscillator stage, the buffer-amplifier/driver stage, and a power amplifier stage. Signals

are fed to the power amplifier, which is to deliver RF power to a proposed antenna.

It is required to generate a frequency within a range of 88MHz -108MHz to cover a distance of

about 300metres; an audio input is to be connected at the input of the oscillator.This project is

limited to the construction of an FM transmitter from educational design perspective utilizing

basic discrete components and doesn’t interfere with government regulation in bandwidth and
other radio broadcast stations. Hence it is limited to 1 watt. It is intended to be received within a

distance of 100meters and a DC battery is used to make it a very portable. There are three

methods of FM generations apart from FM mode of transmission.

1. The indirect-method of FM generation involves the use of stable crystal oscillators to

generate the carrier signal and the use of a buffer amplifier to isolate it from the

remainder of the circuitry. This carrier signal is then applied to a phase modulator. It is

obvious that FM here is generated indirectly through phase modulation PM. While it is

not possible to vary the frequency of a crystal oscillator directly, it is possible to vary its

phase. The resulting PM signal as the output of the modulator is the desired FM signal.

Here the voice input is amplified and processed to limit the frequency range and prevent

over deviation or modulation. The Armstrong modulator is used in this method such that

an audio signal is passed through pre-emphasis network and then an integrator of the

input signal.

2. Direct-method; in this method crystals are not available to generate those frequencies

directly; as a result of this the carrier is usually generated at a frequency considerably

lower than the final output frequency. To achieve the desired output frequency, one or

more frequency multiplier stages are used. Another method of direct FM generation is the

use of a reactance modulator. This modulator is a circuit in which a transistor is made to

act like a variable reactance. The reactance modulator is placed across the LC circuit of

the oscillator and as the modulator’s reactance varies in response to an applied audio

signal, the oscillator frequency varies as well.

 3. The third technique is to use a voltage controlled oscillator, in which output frequency of

the voltage controlled oscillator is proportional to the voltage of the input signal; i.e. if

audio signal is applied to the input of a voltage controlled oscillator, the output is an FM

signal.

CHAPTER TWO

2.10 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. FM TRANSMITTER BACKGROUND

There has been the need to send information over a long distance and quickly too. Overtime,

various attempts have been made not only to justify this need, but to accomplish it with ease.

Both for the sender (or the source) and the receiver (or the destination) these attempt have

include those of the town criers and their local drums from the beginning of human history then

the wired telephone in the eighteen forties (1840s) and some decades later at the dawn of the 21st

century the use of radio waves (Electromagnetic waves) in the wireless communication system.

Among other things, it enables the human voice to be sent to great distances using the carrier

wave at a modulated frequency of 88MHZ – 108MHZ and received on a suitable FM receiver.

The FM transmitter according to Jersey (1992) is an electromagnetic circuit designed with input

and output transducer which convert, amplify, and transmit audio signals to the receiver’s

destination.

The transmitter modulates a carrier wave by intelligence and radiates the modulated signals

through an antenna and demodulates it to obtain or receive the original intelligence.

2.2. COMPONENT OF AN FM TRANSMITTER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

OSCILLATION STAGE: An oscillator is a circuit which generates an AC output signal

without requiring any external applied input signal.

The main functions of all oscillators in this work it to produce sinusoidal wave shapes of a

specific frequency and amplitude. In doing so, the stability of an oscillator is very

important.Moreover, the frequency of the output is determined by the passive components used

in the oscillator and can be varied at will. Electronic oscillators may be broadly divided into two

groups namely: sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators.

Sinusoidal or Harmonic Oscillators

These are oscillators which can produce an output having sine wave forms and produce any of

the following oscillations; damped or un-damped oscillations.

Non-Sinusoidal or Relaxation Oscillators

These are oscillators which produce an output which has square, rectangular or saw-tooth wave

form. Oscillations whose amplitudes keeps decreasing or decaying with time are called damped

oscillations. Ultimately, the amplitude of the oscillations decays to zero when there is not enough

to supply circuit losses or if there is no regeneration. However, the frequency or time-period

remains constant because it is determined by the circuit parameters. Sinusoidal oscillators serve a
variety connection in telecommunications and in electronics. Its most important application in

telecommunication is the use of sine waves as carrier in both radio and cable transmission.

Oscillations whose amplitude remains constant that is those that do not change with time are

called un-damped oscillations. They are produced by those oscillators circuit which have no

losses or if they have, there is provision for compensating them, the constant amplitude and

constant frequency sinusoidal waves. In addition, oscillators can be described also as an

electronic circuit whose function is to produce an alternating electromotive force (EMF) of a

particular frequency and wave. Its purpose in the design is the generation of sinusoidal carrier

signal.

The basic types of oscillators are Phase oscillator, Hartley oscillator, and colpitts oscillator. etc.

For the purpose of this project the colpitts oscillator is used. Capacitors and inductors are the

two components found in an RF oscillator or tank circuit. These two components are used

together to form an L-C circuit which provide selectivity that we need in a radio receiver. When

used together we refer to them as tuned circuits or resonant circuit. In practice, we have both

series and parallel tuned circuits. This two behave quite differently. In the case of series tuned

circuit and assuming that both of the components are “perfect”, the impedance of the circuit will

be zero at the resonant frequency this circuit is thus sometimes referred to as an acceptor circuit,

in other words, it will accept signal at other frequency. In the case of the parallel L-C circuit and

assuming that both of the components are perfect, the impedance of the circuit will be infinite, at

resonant frequency this circuits is thus sometimes referred to as a rejecter circuit, in other words

it will reject signals at resonant frequency. In the case of both the series and parallel circuit the

frequency of resonance can be calculated.

MODULATOR: A modulator is an object that converts the information in a signal into another

code. It can either be digital or analogue. The main reason for doing this is that transmission of

the signal is usually more optimum in the coded form than the non-encoded form. The main

function of the modulator in this work is that it converts the audio output of low frequency to

very high frequency.

MODULATION

Modulation is a process of superimposing information contained in a lower frequency electronic

signal into higher frequency signal. The higher frequency is called the carrier signal. In the

process of modulation, some characteristics are varied in accordance with the instantaneous

value of modulating signal such as sine wave which may be represented by the following

equation.

Where:

e = the instantaneous value of the sine wave called the carrier

ɛ = the maximum amplitude

ωt = the angular velocity with respect to time

ϕ = the phase relation is with respect to some reference value. Any of this last three

characteristics or parameters (e,ωt, ϕ) of the carrier may be varied by the modulating signal,

giving rise to amplitude, frequency or phase modulation respectively in this project, frequency

modulation is considered.

NEED FOR MODULATION

However, it is needed due to the following reason.

(i) For efficient radiation and reception of radio waves. The transmitting and receiving antenna

must have height will be too long to be realized.

(ii) Signals of low frequencies cannot travel far hence, it is of importance to superimpose it on a

signal of higher frequencies for a wider coverage, on the other hand an un-modulated carrier

cannot be used to convey information.

(iii) By standard, the bandwidth for commercial quality speech is 30Hz to 3400Hz. To allow for

discrimination, each individual signal is modulated by different carriers through the process

called Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). By this method, a telephone cable is capable of

carrying up hundreds of channels.

TYPES OF MODULATION TECHNIQUES

Basically, there are two types of modulation namely Amplitude Modulation and Angle

Modulation. Angle Modulation is further divided into frequency and phase modulation. They are

each briefly discussed below.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

A signal is said to be amplitude modulated when the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in

proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the information signal or RF signal.

Obviously, the amplitude and intensity of the carrier waves is changed while the frequency

remains constant remains constant.

LIMITATIONS OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Although theoretically highly effective, Amplitude Modulation suffers from the following draw

backs;
(i) Noisy Reception: In an AM, the signal is in the amplitude variations of the carrier practically

all the natural and manmade noises consists of electrical amplitude disturbances. As a radio

receiver cannot distinguish between amplitude variations that represent noise and those that

contain the desired signal, therefore reception is generally noisy.

(ii) Low Efficiency: In amplitude modulation, useful power is in the side bands as they contain

the signal.

(iii) Small Operating Range: Due to low efficiency of the amplitude modulation, transmitters

employing this method have a small operating range. i.e message cannot be transmitted over

large distances.

(iv) Lack of Audio Quality: This is a distinct disadvantage of amplitude modulation. In order to

attain high-fidelity reception all audio frequencies up to 15 KHz must be reproduced. This

necessitates band width of 30 KHz since both sidebands must be reproduced. But FM

broadcasting stations are assigned bandwidth of only 10 KHz to minimize the interference from

adjacent broadcasting station. This means that the highest modulation frequency can be 5 KHz

which is hardly sufficient to reproduce the music properly.

PHASE MODULATION

Here, the phase of the sinusoidal carrier is made to vary with the instantaneous value of the

modulating audio signal or the information signal changes the phase of the waves with the

frequency and the amplitude kept constant. However; phase modulation varies with the

modulating frequency.

FREQUENCY MODULATION
In this case the frequency of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the modulating signal.

During modulation only the frequency of the carrier varies as it increases positively with increase

in modulating voltage.

The carrier amplitude is kept constant and thus the associated power of the modulated wave is

constant and this is a vital advantage over amplitude modulation.

DEMODULATION

The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as demodulation

or detection. At the broadcasting station, modulation is done to transmit the signal over a large

distance to the receiver when the modulated wave is picked up by the radio receiver. It is

necessary to recover the audio signal from it. This process is accomplished in the radio receiver

and is called demodulation.

NECESSITY FOR DEMODULATION

It was noted previously that amplitude modulated wave consists of carrier and sideband

frequency. The audio signal is contained in the sideband frequencies which are audio

frequencies. If the modulated wave after amplification is directly fed to the speaker no sound will

be heard. It is because diaphragm of the speaker is not all able to respond to such high

frequencies. Before the diaphragm is able to move in one direction, the rapid reversal of current

tends to move it in the opposite direction i.e diaphragm will not move at all. Consequently no

sound will be heard.

THEORY OF FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION

Frequency Modulation is a system of modulation in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier

is kept constant, while its frequency and rate of change are varied by the modulating signal.

The most direct way to get FM is to apply the audio signal to a varactor in a tuned oscillator an

example is known as reactance modulation. The varying voltage across the varactor causes its

capacitance to change in accordance with the audio wave form. The changing capacitance results

in variation of the resonant frequency of the induction-capacitance (LC) tuned circuit, causing a

swing in the frequency generated by the oscillator. A direct way to get FM is to modulate the

phase of the oscillator signal (Carrier signal).

Any change in the instantaneous phase of a sine-wave RF carrier causes a change in its

instantaneous frequency. The first practical system was put forward in 1936 as an alternative to

A.M in an effort to make radio transmissions more resistant to noise.

Phase Modulation is a similar system in which the phase of the carrier is varied instead of the

frequency: as in FM, the amplitude of the carrier remains constant. When the phase modulation

is used, the audio signal must be processed, adjusting the amplitude-versus-frequency response

of the audio amplifiers; otherwise, the signal sounds unnatural when it is heard at the output of

an FM receiver.

FREQUENCY DEVIATION

Assuming the moment that the carrier of the transmitter is at its resting frequency ie state of no

modulation of 100MHz and we apply a modulating signal. The amplitude of the modulating

signal will cause the carrier to shift from this resting frequency by a certain amount. If we

increase the amplitude of the modulating signal we will increase the deviation. A maximum of

75 KHz is allowed as specified by the Federal Communication Council. If we remove the

modulation, the carrier frequency shifts back to its initial resting frequency 100MHz. However,

the deviation of the carrier is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating voltage. The

deviation in comparison to the amplitude of the modulating voltage is called the Deviation Ratio.

For most FM voice transmitters, the deviation is standardized at 5 KHz for commercial

broadcast. The deviation obtainable by means of direct FM is greater, for a given oscillator
frequency than the deviation that can be obtained using phase modulation. Deviation can be

increased by a frequency multiplier. When an FM signal is passed through a frequency

multiplier, the deviation is multiplied along with the carrier frequency.

In FM High-Fidelity music broadcasting and in some other applications the deviation is much

greater than 5 KHz. This is called wide band FM, as opposed to narrowband FM discussed

above. To obtain the optimum fidelity the deviation for an FM signal should be at least equal to

the highest modulating audio frequency. ie the rate at which the carrier shifts from its resting

point to a non-resting point is determined by the frequency of the modulating signal. Thus for

voice signals 5 KHz is more than enough. For music, a deviation of at least 15 KHz to 20 KHz is

needed. The ratio of the frequency deviation to the highest modulating audio frequency is called

the Modulating Index. Ideally, the ratio should be between 1:1 and 2:1.If it is less than1:1, the

signal sounds muffled, and the efficiency sacrificed, but increasing it beyond 2:1broadens the

bandwidth without providing much improvement in the signal quality.

Frequency Modulation can also be described as a process of changing a particular property of the

carrier wave in sympathy with the instantaneous voltage or current which is the signal. The most

commonly used methods of modulation are the Amplitude Modulation (AM) and the Frequency

Modulation (FM) in the former case, the carrier amplitude; its peak voltage varies according to

the voltage at any instant of the Modulation signal in the latter case, the carrier frequency is

varied in accordance with voltage, at any instant of the modulating signal.

BUFFER-DRIVER AMPLIFIER STAGE:Thebuffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a

buffer) is one that provides electrical impedance transformation from one circuit to another, with
the aim of the signal source being unaffected by ("buffered from") whatever currents (or

voltages, for a current buffer) that the load may produce.

RF AMPLIFIER: This frequency modulated signal is further amplified to a higher frequency

before it is coupled to the Antenna for transmission.The class – C amplifier is used as it is the

most suitable type of the amplifier for high power output at radio frequency. The function of RF

amplifier in this work is that it improves selectivity (i.e. rejection of unwanted signal).

ANTENNA: Antenna is a device that radiates radio frequency energy in responses to an applied

voltage and the associated alternating electric circuit in it and a voltage between its terminals.

The main function of the antenna in this work is to radiate electromagnetic energy into space.

DC POWER SUPPLY: A DC power supply is an electric circuit that is used to convert an input

AC voltage into a stable output voltage in the form of DC.The function of a DC power supply in

this work is that it provides direct current voltage supply to the transmitter unit.

MICROPHONE (AUDIO LINE INPUT): A microphone is a form of an electromechanical

transducer, it convert sound wave of varying air pressure into electric audio signal and voice

(sound) is coupled into the system by the microphone. The function of a microphone here is to

convert the pressure waves coursed by sound into vibrations within a coil which transforms the

vibration. The audio line input (RCA jack for line input), provides input from any audio source

such as an iPod, iPhone or MP3 player to broadcast the audio signal.

ELECTROACOUSTIC TRANSDUCERS (MICROPHONES)

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another form. Transducers in

terms of electro acoustic converts sound wave energy to electrical signal energy and vice versa.

Transducer that converts changes in air pressure into corresponding changes in electrical signals

is called microphone. Several varieties of microphones exist which may be classified according

to the basic principle of operation. These include its resistance, moving coil induction, and

capacitance and piezoelectric effect property.

Variable Resistance Microphones

An example of this class of microphone is the carbon granules microphone which is mainly used

in telephone handsets and portable radio systems.

The electrical resistance of the granules varies with pressure and results to varying circuit

current. It is characterized by a limited frequency response. If the movement of the diaphragm

takes place sinusoidal at a frequency F, then the resistance of the granules at any given time t is

given by:

Where Ro is the Resistance of granules when there is no pressure on the diaphragm, Rt is the

total resistance under signal conditions and r is the maximum change in resistance due to sound

pressure. However, the carbon granules microphone is small and relatively cheap, very rugged

and produces a relatively high output.

Capacitor Microphones

These have an excellent frequency response and frequently reduced as standard against which

others are calibrated. They are quite delicate because of the narrow separation between the

diaphragm and the back plate and the thin diaphragm needed. An elect ret microphone is an

example of such, as it is the electrostatic equivalent of a permanent magnet and can store

electrostatic charges almost indefinitely. When an elect ret is placed between two metal plates it

forms a special kind of a changed capacitor, with charge held by the elect ret permanently.

One of the plates is used as microphone diaphragm and made to vibrate with sound waves. Thus

sound waves are converted to audio frequency (AF) voltage signals very small and needs to be

amplified. The microphone has high internal impedance and does not require a polarizing

voltage. A field effect transistor (FET) is always included inside the microphone capsule and

used as a source follower to provide matching between the high impedance microphones to the

low impedance of the amplifier circuit. They require high voltage supply and must be used with

a signal amplifier.

Magnetic Microphones

The variables reluctance and moving coil induction microphones are grouped. Both types of

microphones do not require bias current for their operation but have low signal output levels. The

variable reluctance microphone are not common as their diaphragm has to be of a magnetic

material and which is difficult to construct as it not being too rigid and having interfering

mechanical resonance. It has high source impedance. The moving coil induction microphones or
dynamic microphone as it is commonly known has the same structure as the moving coil

loudspeaker. Its diaphragm is light and has a characteristic very linear frequency response. It is

used mainly for music recording and broadcasting.

Piezoelectric Microphones

These are also known as crystal microphones. They are self-generating microphones and quite

rugged and provide reasonable good frequency response. Recently the crystal has been replaced

with ceramics materials and at time are called ceramic crystal microphones.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

The overall method and steps involved during the design of this project are briefly explained

here. These can best be explained using the block diagram below.

FIG. x.x;Block diagram of 1W monophonic FM transmitter

There are several methods of generating Frequency Modulation as follows, but for the purpose

and success of this project, the Direct-method of Frequency Modulation generation was

implemented.

3.12 Direct-Method of Frequency Modulation Generation

In this method crystals are not available to generate those frequencies directly; as a result of this

the carrier is usually generated at a frequency considerably lower than the final output frequency.

To achieve the desired output frequency, one or more frequency multiplier stages are used.

Another method of direct FM generation is the use of a reactance modulator. This modulator is a

circuit in which a transistor is made to act like a variable reactance. The reactance modulator is

placed across the LC circuit of the oscillator and as the modulator’s reactance varies in response

to an applied audio signal, the oscillator frequency varies as well.

Others include the indirect-method of FMgeneration which involves the use of a stable crystal

oscillator to generate the carrier signal and the use of a buffer amplifier to isolate it from the

remainder of the circuitry. And the use of voltage controlled oscillator. The output frequency of

the voltage controlled oscillator is proportional to the voltage of the input signal; i.e. if audio

signal is applied to the input of a voltage controlled oscillator, the output is an FM signal.

The various components used in the construction of this project include: resistors, transistors,

capacitors, potentiometer and inductors.

The major sections that constitute this design are:

(i) Audio input unit (Pre-emphasis)

(ii) Oscillator/Modulator unit

(iii) Buffer-driver amplifier unit

(iv) RF power amplifier unit

(v) Antenna unit

(vi) Power supply unit

Audio preamplifier unit:

The function of this stage is to pre-amplify the audio signal from the microphone which is very

weak so that it can be set for modulation. This stage consists of an active element(Transistor), in

a common emitter configuration, with collector feedback biasing, biasing resistors and

capacitors. The input to this state is from the base of the transistor while the output is from the

collector. The capacitors atthis unit serve as coupling circuits.

Oscillator/Modulatorunit:

This unit consists of a parallel resonant circuit or tank which is responsible for producing the

carrier wave upon which the intelligence signal (voice, music) is to be superimposed for

modulation.

Buffer-driver amplifier unit:

A buffer amplifier (sometimes simply called a buffer) is one that provides electrical impedance

transformation from one circuit to another, with the aim of the signal source being unaffected by

("buffered from") whatever currents (or voltages, for a current buffer) that the load may produce.

This stage ensures that the carrier signal coming from the oscillator stage is not “Damped” due to

loading of the power amplifier stage.

RF power amplifier unit:

A radio frequency power amplifier (RF power amplifier) is a type of electronic amplifier that

converts a low-power radio-frequencysignal into a higher power radio frequency signal.

Typically, RF power amplifiers drive the antenna of a transmitter. Design goals often include

gain, power output, bandwidth, power efficiency, linearity (low signal compression at rated

output), input and output impedance matching, and heat dissipation.This stage consists of

NPN transistor, common emitter configuration with voltage divider biasing, biasing resistors.

The input to this stage is from the base of the transistor, while the output is from the collector,

which goes to the parallel resonant circuit or tank circuit.

Antenna unit:

The antenna is responsible for the transmission of the modulated signal through space or air in

form of electromagnetic waves. For this project, the antenna is 1.75ft. Single pole antenna, It

should be noted that extending the length of the antenna consequently extends the range of signal

transmission as observed during testing.

Power supply unit:

This unit consists of a 9 volts regulated dc supply .The power supply ensures the FM transmitter

circuit functions effectively.

 CHAPTER FOUR

DESIGN AND CONSRUCTION OF THE CIRCUIT

Fig X: The monophonic FM transmitter circuit diagram

DESIGN SPECIFICATION

The design specification is a detailed description of the expected characteristics of the designed

FM transmitter.

(1) Modulation type: FM

(2) Frequency of operation: 106.85 MHz

(3) Antenna type: Single Pole Antenna

(4) Radius of coverage in free space: About 300meters

(5) Supply voltage: 9 volts (DC) regulated

STAGE ANALYSIS FOR EACH SECTION

This section examines the stage by stage analysis of the module with their respective circuit

diagrams.

OSCILLATOR DESIGN

An oscillator provides a source of repetitive A.C. signal across its output terminals without
needing any input, except a d.c. supply voltage (VCC). The signal generated by the oscillator is
usually of constant amplitude. The wave shape and amplitude are determined by the design of
the oscillator circuit and choice of component values. The frequency of the output wave may be
fixed or variable, depending on the oscillator design. Oscillators are simply amplifiers with a
positive feedback.

The oscillator in the project is designed using Colpitts arrangement in which the load is not part
of the three-terminal model or the oscillator equation, though care must be taken to ensure that
the collector output voltage does not significantly feedback through the base-collector junction
capacitance.
As an alternative, the output of the common collector could also be taken across emitter
resistanceRE. A simple base-bias technique is used, where a resistor is placed between the base
and a base battery VBB. For convenience, it is better to use the existing power supply voltage
VCC instead of a new bias supply.

Fig X. Oscillator active element (Transistor) base - biasing

From Kirchoff’s voltage law:

The loop containing the battery, RB, and the voltage drop on transistor baseVBE is:

VBB – VBE – IBRB – VBE = 0………Equ 1

Where VBB for the base supply, even though it is actually VCC. If current gain (β) is large we can
make the approximation that IC =IE. For silicon transistors, VBE ≅ 0.7V. Silicon small signal
transistors typically have a current gain (β) in the range of 100 -300. Assuming that β =100
transistor, the value of base-bias resistor required to yield an emitter current of 83mA

Solving for base bias resistor RB

RB = VBB – VBE
IE/β = 9V – 0.7V = 10KΩ approximately: IC =IE, VBB= VCC
83mA/100

Collector to Base Voltage VCBO 20V

Collector to Emitter Voltage VCEO 12V
Emitter to Base Voltage VEBO 3V
Collector Current IC 100mA
Total Power Dissipation PT 600mW
Junction Temperature Tj 150 ˚C
Transistor current gain (β) 100 - 300
Storage Temperature Tstg 65 ˚C to +150 ˚C

Table 1: Transistor (2SC3355)Datashee

Collector-feedback bias

The collector load RC, in my circuit design comprises the capacitor C impedance and inductor L
impedance. This parallel resonant circuit is used as load impedance in output circuits of RF
amplifiers and oscillators. Due to high impedance, the gain of amplifier or oscillator is maximum
at resonant frequency.

Fig 2. Oscillator Parallel tank circuit working as Collector load (RC)

At resonance:
Resonance occurs whenthe LC circuit is driven from an external source VCCat an angular
frequency ω0 at which the inductive and capacitive reactance are equal in magnitude. The
frequency at which this equality holds for the particular circuit is called the resonant frequency.
The resonant of the LC circuit is:

Where L is the inductance in Henry (H), and C is the capacitance in Farads (F). The angular
frequency (ω0) has units of radians per second.

The equivalent frequency in units of Hertz is

Where:

L is the Inductance in Henries

C is the Capacitance in Farads

F0 is the Output Frequency in Hertz

The LC circuit is tunable to accommodate the commercial FM broadcast band (88MHZ to

108MHZ). Fixed inductance was designed for the commercial FM broadcast bandwidth; the
inductance of the inductor was designed as below

L = 6 turns, 5mm diameter, 0.5mm length

Using the formula: L = (d2n2) / (18d + 40L)

Where L is the inductance in Micro Henry (µH)

d is the diameter of the coil from one wire center to another wire center. It is measured in inches

L is the length of coil measured in inches

n is the number of turns.

The inductance of the inductor and the capacitance of capacitor were chosen to cover
the commercial FM radio broadcast band.
Emitter-bias circuit

Inserting a resistor RE in the emitter circuit of the transistor oscillator circuit, opposes a change in
emitter current IE due to temperature changes, resistor tolerances, beta variation, or power supply
tolerance. Typical tolerances are as follows: resistor— 5%, beta— 100-300, power supply— 5%.
The emitter resistor stabilizes a change in current because polarity of the voltage drop across RE
is due to the collector battery VCC. Any increase in current flow through RE will increase the
magnitude of negative voltage applied to the base circuit, decreasing the base current, decreasing
the emitter current. This decreasing emitter current partially compensates the original increase.

Fig X. Oscillator active element (Transistor) emitter - biasing

In fig 2, using KVL we have that:

VBB– IBRB – VBE– IERE = 0…..Equ 2

IE = (β + 1)IB »βIB

From Equ 2, we have:

VBB– (IE/β)RB – VBE– IERE = 0

VBB–VBE = IE [(RB/β) + RE]

IE =VBB – VBE
RB/β + RE………Equ 3

[
RB = β VBB – VBE–RE ]
IE
 POWER SUPPLY DESIGN AND RESIDUAL CAPACITOR CAPACITANCE

Fig 1: DC power supply sections

In fig1; the power supply is designed using a full-wave bridge rectifier that converts the whole of
the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive) at its output. Full-wave rectification
converts both polarities of the input waveform to pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a
higher average output voltage using four diodes in a bridge configuration from a transformer
(Step down).

1. Transformer step down AC voltage

Fig 2: Transformer section

In Fig2; the transformer converts 220V AC into a 12V AC. Here we have used 12-0-12 1A step-
down transformer, which convert 220V AC to 12V AC. In transformer there are primary and
secondary coils which step up or step down the voltage according to the no of turn in the coils.
Selection of proper transformer is very important. Current rating depends upon the current
requirement of Load circuit (circuit which will use the generate DC). The voltage rating should
be more than the required voltage. Means if we need 9V DC, transformer should at least have a
rating of 11V, because voltage regulator IC 7809 at least need 2V more i.e. 11V to provide a 9V
voltage.

2. Rectification

Fig 3: shows rectifier section, which is the process of removing the alternate current (AC)
voltage, to produce partial direct current (DC) voltage. This can be achieved by using four diodes
D1, D2…D4, which allow current to flow in one direction to form a full wave bridge
rectification

Fig 3: Rectifier section

3. Filtration (Smoothing)
 Fig 4: Smoothing or filtration section

In Fig 4; shows smoothing or filtration section. The output after rectification is not a proper dc voltage
output, meaning that it has some ac voltage components as spikes. This causes ripples, and a capacitor
is needed as a filter to remove these unwanted spikes from the pulsating output. The capacitor charge
till the waveform goes to its peak, and discharges to load circuit when the waveform goes low hence
maintain proper dc voltage supply into the load circuit. For the capacitance of the residual or
smoothening capacitor at filter stage;

Recall that Q = CV

C = I*t / V………Equ 2

C is the capacitance of the filter capacitor

I is the maximum output current (Usually transformer current rating 1000mA)

t is 10ms (Timebase)

V is the voltage output from rectifier

For the full wave rectification, we get a waveform of 100HZ frequency after converting AC
voltage into DC voltage through the bridge rectifier. As the negative cycle of the waveform is
converted into positive cycle, one pulse will be counted two so that the time period will be 1/100
or 0.01s (10ms).

The voltage input to regulator (V) = Peak voltage – voltage given to regulator IC (Usually +2V
above rated value). In this case we should have 9+2 = 11V. If the RMS (Root mean square)
value of transformer is 12-0-12,

Then peak voltage is Vrms*1.414 = 12*1.414 = 16.968V, since there is a voltage drop across the
rectifier bridge diodes, we have a total of 1.4V dropped, so actual peak voltage will be;

16.968V – 1.4V = 15.568V.

For the voltage regulator to work properly when the capacitor discharges into the load circuit
there must be at least 11V to the IC. So the final voltage will be 15.568V – 11V = 4.568V.

The capacitance of the filter capacitor will be;

From Equ 2, C = I*t / V

C = 1000mA*10ms / 4.568 = 0021894F (approximately 2000uF)

 Fig 5; Residual capacitor output waveform

Fig 5; shows the output waveform of the filter capacitor after smoothing the rectified output
waveform. A standard value of 2700uF can be used for the capacitance of the filter capacitor

4. Voltage regulation

Fig 6; Regulator section

Fig 6; shows voltage regulator K (IC 7809) is used to provide a regulated 9V dc. Usually, input
voltage to regulators are ±2V more than the rated output voltage of any regulator for proper
working of the IC, it means that we atleast have ≥11V is needed since most regulators can
tolerate an input voltage of ≥ 7V input ≤ 20V. Capacitor (Non polarised) of 0.001uF are
connected to the regulator output to eliminate noise produced by transient changes in voltage.

The regulator has an output of ±0.05% of the output, so the regulator outputs:

≥ 8.995V output ≤ 9.045V

 Fig 7; Regulated output waveform

Fig 8; complete regulated 9V dc power supply circuit

 CHAPTER FIVE

TEST AND OBSERVATION

It was observed that during the testing of this project with a radio receiver that the transmitted

signal produced a clean monaural FM signal. During testing of the transmitter, maximum power

was observed at a frequency of 106.85 MHzThis situation resulted from tuning and adjusting of

variable capacitorswithin the oscillator and power amplifier stages to obtain maximum power at

that carrier frequency. Also observed was that touching of the inductor coil, caused the frequency

to drift by a reasonable amount. In addition, the main area of instability is the oscillator part.

Shielding the oscillator helps in part to counter this and an extension of the antenna length

increased the range of signal propagation. The use of a voltmeter was used to test for voltages at

various points also an oscilloscope was used to test for frequencies of oscillations and

waveforms.

Fig X: Frequency modulated signal