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in: A. Sanfeliu, J.J. Villanueva, M. Vanrell, R. Alquezar, T. Huang, J. Serra (eds.), ICPR15, Proc. 15th Int. Conference on
Pattern Recognition (Barcelona, Spain, Sep.3-7), vol. 3, Image, Speech, and Signal Processing, IEEE Computer Society
Press, Los Alamitos, 2000, 342-345.
A0 1
Gq (s) = (8)
(qs + m0 )(qs + m1 + jm2 )(qs + m1 − jm2 ) (qs − m0 )(qs − m1 − jm2 )(qs − m1 + jm2 )
The expression Gq(s) is then factored into the product will be using complex arithmetic in all calculations.
of two terms, Gq(s) = GL (s) • GR(s): GL (s) with poles in To examine local structures we seek a filter width in
the left-half plane and GR(s) with poles in the right-half time (or space) that is narrow. To obtain good frequency
resolution we seek a filter width in frequency that is
plane. For reasons discussed in [1], we used the backward similarly narrow. The Gaussian envelope in equation (11)
difference technique [4] to transform the two, stable, achieves the smallest possible time-bandwidth product and
analog filters characterized by GL (s) and GR(s) into two, thus allows us to perform “local” spectral analysis [4],
stable, digital filters H+(z) and H–(z). These filters have [5].
z-transforms given by: A number of authors have examined the possibilities
1 for fast implementation of the Gabor filter [6], [7], [8].
H+ (z) = (9)
b0 + b1 z + b2 z −2 + b3 z −3
−1 To our knowledge the fastest algorithms that have been
described are in Qiu [8] and, for a signal consisting of N
B samples, the transform (filter) has complexity O(N•logN).
H− (z) = (10)
b0 + b1 z1 + b2 z2 + b3 z 3 4. The Algorithm
Our implementation is based upon a combination of
Equations (9) and (10) are precisely the z-transforms our recursive Gaussian implementation plus a well-
of equations (1) and (2), respectively. The forward filter, known property that relates modulation in the (discrete)
h[n], corresponds to H+(z) and is stable because all of its time domain and shifting in the frequency domain. To be
poles are inside the unit circle; the backward filter, h[-n], specific if the signal x[n] has Fourier spectrum X(Ω ) then
corresponds to H–(z) and is stable because all of its poles [4, pp 650-651]:
F {e jΩo n x[n]} = X(e − jΩo z)
are outside the unit circle. The accuracy and speed of this
recursive Gaussian implementation are discussed (12)
extensively in [1].
Note that the replacement of z with e − jΩ o z
3. Gabor Filtering represents a rotation of angle Ω o around the point z =
While operators that focus on global information are (0,0) in the complex z-plane. The direct consequence of
essential to describing a variety of physical systems, this is that the Gaussian filter pair H+(z) and H–(z)
operators that focus on local information are essential to become the Gabor filter pair B+(z) and B–(z):
analyzing physical signals. For example, linear, time-
invariant (or shift-invariant) systems are usually analyzed 3
with Fourier or Laplace transforms which are global B+ (z,Ω o ) = 1 ∑ (bk e jkΩ o z− k ) (13)
operations. But as the examples in Figure 2 show, the k= 0
information in a signal is usually local. 3
B− (z,Ω o ) = B ∑ (bk e − jkΩ o z k ) (14)
k= 0
Algebraic manipulation of the various terms using
Mathematica [9] yields the following:
2 2 2
b0 = 1 scale = (m0 + q)(m1 + m2 + 2m1q + q )
b1 = −q (2m 0m1 + m12 + m22 + (2m0 + 4 m1 )q + 3q2 )/ scale
(a) (b) (c) (15)
F i g u r e 2 : ( a ) borehole image of subsurface; (b) b2 = q2 (m0 + 2m1 + 3q) / scale
local color and shape information; ( c ) MRI image b3 = − q 3 / scale
revealing (local) anatomical structures.
The coefficient of each term in zk in equation (14) is
While there are many approaches to processing just the complex conjugate of the term in z–k in equation
signals in such a way as to examine the local character of (13). The five coefficients {b0, b1, b2, b3, scale} are real
structure, the Gabor filter has a number of elegant and are functions of just four numbers {m0, m1, m2, q}.
properties that make it highly suitable for this goal. The The first three numbers are given in equation (7). The last
one-dimensional Gabor filter is given by: number q represents the value that must be used in
1
g( t;σ,ω ) = e − t 2σ e jω t
2 2
(11) equations (13) and (14) to achieve a desired standard
2π σ deviation σ. Using a formula that is a slight
improvement in speed and accuracy to that presented in
It is clear that the Gabor filter is the modulation of
[1], the relationship between q and σ is given by:
the Gaussian kernel given in equation (3) by the complex
0.9804(σ -3.556)+2.5091 σ ≥ 3.556
term e jωt . The use of the complex term means that we q= (16)
0.0561σ +0.5784σ -0.2568 0.5 ≤ σ ≤ 3.556
2
For σ < 0.5, the Gaussian envelope in equation (11) OUT(z) = B− (z, Ω o )( B+ (z, Ω o )• IN(z) ) (22)
is too narrow, consequently undersampled and, therefore,
to be avoided. then the inverse transform, IB(z), is simply:
The resulting Gabor recursive equation pair is: 1
IB(z) = (23)
forward (n increasing): B− (z, Ω o )B+ (z, Ω o )
w[n] = in[n]− ( fd1 • w[n −1] + The filters B+(z) and B–(z) are all-pole filters which
(17)
fd2 • w[n − 2] + fd3 • w[n − 3]) means that their inverses are all-zero filters that are non-
recursive and stable. The difference equations are given
backward (n decreasing): by:
out[n] = B• w[n]− (bd1 • out[n + 1]+
(18) forward (n increasing):
bd2 • out[n + 2] + bd3 • out[n + 3]) u[n] = out[n] + fd1 • out[n − 1] +
(24)
where: fd2 • out[n − 2] + fd3 • out[n − 3]
B ( )2
= m 0 (m12 + m22 ) / scale backward (n decreasing):
fd1 = bd1* = b1 • e j Ωo (19) in[n] = (u[n] + bd1 • u[n + 1] +
(25)
fd2 = bd2* = b2 • e j2 Ωo bd2 • u[n + 2] + bd3 • u[n + 3]) / B
0.8
Ω o = π/10 0.6
σ = 10.0
0.4
0.2
0.8
Ω o = π/2 0.6
σ = 5.0
0.4
0.2
0.8
Ω o = 3π/4 0.6
σ = 20.0
0.4
0.2
Figure 3: Complex impulse response g[n] and Fourier spectrum G(Ω) for various values of Ωo and
σ. Signal length is N = 100. Gaussian envelopes have been drawn for purposes of comparison.
Ω o = π/2
σ = 5.0
Ω o = π/2
σ = 2.0
Figure 4: Gabor filtering of a real image produces a complex result. ( a ) Values of frequency Ωo and
Gaussian width σ; (b) Original image; ( c ) - ( e ) Absolute value of images processed at angles given.