Chapter 8

The Nervous System

Chapter 8 Learning Outcomes

• 8-1
• Describe the anatomical and functional divisions of the nervous system.
• 8-2
• Distinguish between neurons and neuroglia on the basis of structure and
function.
• 8-3
• Describe the events involved in the generation and propagation of an
action potential.

Chapter 8 Learning Outcomes

• 8-4
• Describe the structure of a synapse, and explain the process of nerve
impulse transmission at a synapse.
• 8-5
• Describe the three meningeal layers that surround the central nervous
system.
• 8-6
• Discuss the roles of gray matter and white matter in the spinal cord.

Chapter 8 Learning Outcomes

• 8-7
• Name the major regions of the brain, and describe the locations and
functions of each.
• 8-8
• Name the cranial nerves, relate each pair of cranial nerves to its principal
functions, and relate the distribution pattern of spinal nerves to the regions
they innervate
• 8-9
• Describe the steps in a reflex arc.

Chapter 8 Learning Outcomes

• 8-10
• Identify the principal sensory and motor pathways, and explain how it is
possible to distinguish among sensations that originate in different areas
of the body.
• 8-11
• Describe the structures and functions of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

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Chapter 8 Learning Outcomes
• 8-12
• Summarize the effects of aging on the nervous system.
• 8-13
• Give examples of interactions between the nervous system and other
organ systems.

Organ Systems That Coordinate (Introduction)

• Two organ systems coordinate all activities to maintain homeostasis
• Nervous system
• Responses are fast and brief
• Endocrine system
• Responses are slower but last longer
• Nervous system is the most complex organ system

Nervous System Functions (8-1)

• Three main functions of the nervous system
1. Monitors the body’s internal and external environments
2. Integrates sensory information
3. Coordinates voluntary and involuntary responses

Nervous System Anatomical Divisions (8-1)

• Central nervous system (CNS)
• Includes the brain and spinal cord
• Integrates and coordinates sensory processing and motor transmission
• Location of higher functions (intelligence, memory, emotion)
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• All the neural tissues outside of the CNS
• Communication connection between the CNS and the rest of the body

PNS Functional Divisions (8-1)

• Afferent division
• Brings information to the CNS from receptors in body tissues and organs
• Receptors
• Sensory structures that detect changes in the environment or respond
to specific stimuli
• Efferent division
• Carries information away from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands
that respond to motor commands)

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Efferent Division Subdivisions (8-1)
• Somatic nervous system (SNS)
• Controls skeletal muscle
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• Controls smooth and cardiac muscle, and glands
• Includes two parts
1. Sympathetic division
2. Parasympathetic division

Checkpoint (8-1)
1. Identify the two anatomical divisions of the nervous system.
2. Identify the two functional divisions of the peripheral nervous system, and
describe their primary functions.
3. What would be the effect of damage to the afferent division of the PNS?

Neural Tissue (8-2)

• Neural tissue includes two types of cells
1. Neurons
• Basic functional units of nervous system
• Communicate with one another and with other cells
2. Neuroglia
• Regulate environment around and support neurons
• Much more numerous than neurons
• Are able to divide (unlike most neurons)

General Structure of Neurons (8-2)

• Cell body
• Projections from the cell body
• Dendrites
• Receive signals coming into the cell body
• Axon
• Carries signals away from the cell body
• Axon terminals
• Bulb-shaped axon endings that form a synapse, or site of
connection with the next cell

Neuron Cell Body (8-2)

• Contains a large, round nucleus with nucleolus
• Cytoplasm contains:
• Mitochondria, free and fixed ribosomes, and rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER)
• Free ribosomes and RER form Nissl bodies, giving a gray color to areas
with many cell bodies (gray matter)

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• Axon hillock
• Thickened region marking the beginning of the axon
• Originating point for electrical impulses (action potentials)

Neuron Regeneration (8-2)

• Most neurons lack centrioles
• Typical CNS neurons cannot divide
• Cannot be replaced if destroyed by injury or disease
• Neural stem cells typically are inactive

Structural Classification of Neurons (8-2)

• Based on relationship of the dendrites to the cell body and axon
• Multipolar neurons
• Two or more dendrites and a single axon
• The most common neurons in the CNS
• Includes all motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles
• Unipolar neurons
• Dendrites and axon are continuous
• Cell body is off to one side
• Most sensory neurons are unipolar

Structural Classification of Neurons cont. (8-2)

• Bipolar neurons
• Have only one dendrite and one axon
• Cell body between dendrite and axon
• Rare (found in special sense organs)

Functional Classification of Neurons (8-2)

1. Sensory neurons, or afferent neurons
• Receive information from sensory receptors
• Relay that information to the CNS
2. Motor neurons, or efferent neurons
• Carry instructions away from CNS
• Peripheral targets of these instructions called effectors
3. Interneurons, or association neurons
• Located entirely within the CNS
• Interconnect other neurons

Sensory Neurons (8-2)

• Number about 10 million
• Two types of somatic sensory receptors
• External receptors that monitor the external environment
• Proprioceptors that monitor position and movement of skeletal muscles
and joints

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• Visceral receptors, or internal receptors
• Monitor activities of internal organs and provide sensations of distention,
deep pressure, and pain

Motor Neurons (8-2)

• Total about half a million in number
• Somatic motor neurons
• Innervate skeletal muscle
• Visceral motor neurons
• Innervate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands

Interneurons (8-2)
• By far the most numerous type at about 20 billion
• Located entirely in brain and spinal cord
• Function as links between sensory and motor neurons
• Play a role in all higher functions
• Examples: memory, planning, and learning

Neuroglial Cells (8-2)

• Make up about half of all neural tissue
• Four types are found in the CNS
1. Astrocytes
2. Oligodendrocytes
3. Microglia
4. Ependymal cells
• Two types are found in the PNS
1. Satellite cells
2. Schwann cells

Astrocytes (8-2)
• Star-shaped cells in the CNS
• Largest and most numerous neuroglia
• Maintain the blood–brain barrier
• Isolates CNS from general circulation
• Varied other functions

Oligodendrocytes (8-2)
• Produce an insulating membranous wrapping around CNS axons
• Wrapping is called myelin
• Areas covered in myelin are called internodes
• Small gaps between wrappings are called nodes, or nodes of Ranvier

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White Matter and Gray Matter (8-2)
• Myelin is lipid-rich, appearing glossy white
• White matter of the CNS
• Areas dominated by myelinated axons
• Gray matter of the CNS
• Areas containing neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons

Microglia (8-2)
• The smallest and least numerous CNS neuroglial cells
• Phagocytic cells derived from white blood cells
• Perform essential protective functions such as engulfing pathogens and
cellular waste

Ependymal Cells (8-2)

• Line cavities in the CNS filled with cerebrospinal fluid including:
• Central canal of the spinal cord
• Chambers, or ventricles, of the brain
• The lining of epithelial cells is called the ependyma
• Involved in producing and circulating cerebrospinal fluid around the CNS

Neuroglial Cells in PNS (8-2)

• Satellite cells
• Surround and support neuron cell bodies
• Similar in function to the astrocytes in the CNS
• Schwann cells
• Cover every axon in PNS
• Outer surface of Schwann cell is the neurilemma
• Myelinated axons have one Schwann cell per segment
• One Schwann cell can encircle several unmyelinated axons

Neuron Organization in the PNS (8-2)

• Collections of neuron cell bodies (gray matter) located in ganglia
• Neuron cell bodies surrounded by satellite cells
• Bundles of axons are called nerves
• May contain both sensory and motor components
• Two categories based on location
• Spinal nerves connected to the spinal cord
• Cranial nerves connected to the brain

Neuron Organization in the CNS (8-2)

• Collections of neuron cell bodies (gray matter) located in centers, or nuclei
(if they contain a discrete boundary)
• Neural cortex is thick layer of gray matter covering portions of brain
surface

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• Bundles of axons are called tracts
• In the spinal cord, form larger groups called columns
• Pathways link centers of brain with rest of body
• Sensory, or ascending, pathways carry information to CNS
• Motor, or descending, pathways carry information away from CNS

Checkpoint (8-2)
4. Name the structural components of a typical neuron.
5. Examination of a tissue sample reveals unipolar neurons. Are these more
likely to be sensory neurons or motor neurons?
6. Identify the neuroglia of the central nervous system.
7. Which type of glial cell would increase in number in the brain tissue of a
person with a CNS infection?
8. In the PNS, neuron cell bodies are located in _____ and surrounded by
neuroglial cells called _____ cells.

The Membrane Potential (8-3)

• Living cells have a polarized plasma membrane
• Excessive positive charges on the outside of the cell
• Excessive negative charges on the inside of the cell
• Potential difference between the two charges is called a membrane
potential or transmembrane potential
• Membrane potential of undisturbed cell is called resting membrane
potential
• Measured in millivolts
• Resting membrane potential of neurons is –70 mV (negative on inside
relative to outside)

Factors Influencing Membrane Potential (8-3)

• Imbalance in electrical charges
• Differing composition of fluids
• Extracellular fluid (ECF) is high in Na+ and CI–
• Intracellular fluid (ICF) is high in K+ and negatively charged proteins (Pr–)
• Proteins are non-permeating, staying in the ICF
• Ions enter or leave the cell via channels and/or carrier proteins
• Leak channels are always open
• Gated channels open or close under specific circumstances

Passive Ion Movement across Membrane (8-3)

• Both chemical and electrical gradients influence passive movement
• Sodium moves into the cell
• Higher chemical concentration outside
• Attracted to negative charge inside the cell

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 • Potassium moves out of the cell
• Higher chemical concentration inside the cell
• Chemical gradient much stronger than the electrical force
• Potassium diffuses out of cell faster than sodium enters

Maintaining Resting Membrane Potential (8-3)

• Active process required to maintain potential difference
• Sodium–potassium exchange pump
• Pumps (exchanges) 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in
• Moves Na+ out as fast as it leaks in
• Cell experiences a net loss of positive ions
• Resulting in a resting membrane potential of –70 mV

Changes in Membrane Potential (8-3)

• Resting membrane potential of a cell disturbed by:
• Stimuli altering membrane permeability to Na+ or K+ or
• Stimuli altering activity of the exchange pump
• Examples include:
• Cellular exposure to chemicals, mechanical pressure, or temperature
changes
• Changes in the ECF ion concentration
• Usual response is opening of a gated channel
• Increases movement of ions across the membrane

Changes in Membrane Potential cont. (8-3)

• Opening Na+ channels speeds up entry of Na+
• Shifts the membrane potential in a positive direction (toward 0 mV)
• Shift in that direction called depolarization
• Opening K+ channels allows more K+ to leave
• Shifts the membrane in a negative direction (further away from 0 mV)
• Movement to more negative from resting (i.e., –70 mV to –80 mV) called
hyperpolarization

Graded Potentials (8-3)

• Also called local potentials
• Changes in the membrane potential that cannot spread from site of
stimulation
• Degree of depolarization decreases with distance from stimulus
• Occur in plasma membranes of all cells
• Can trigger specific cell functions in small cells
• Can only trigger activation of large neurons and muscle fibers if lead to
production of an action potential

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Action Potentials (8-3)
• Propagated change in membrane potential of excitable cells
• Cells that have an excitable membrane contain voltage-gated channels
that open or close in response to changes in membrane potential
• Change in membrane potential travels the entire length of cell
• In a neuron, called a nerve impulse
• Threshold
• Level of depolarization required to initiate an action potential

Characteristics of an Action Potential (8-3)

• All-or-none principle
• Every stimulus that brings membrane to threshold will result in an identical
action potential
• Action potential will propagate down the length of the neuron
• Refractory period
• Time from voltage-gated sodium channels opening until repolarization is
complete
• Repolarization is the return to resting potential
• Membrane cannot respond to further stimulation
• Limits rate of response by neurons

Generation of an Action Potential (8-3)

• Begins at the initial segment of an axon
1. Membrane depolarizes to threshold (–60 mV)
2. Sodium channels open and membrane rapidly depolarizes up to +30 mV
3. Sodium channels close and potassium channels open, repolarizing the
membrane
4. Potassium channels close and membrane returns to resting potential

Propagation of an Action Potential (8-3)

• Begins with local changes in the membrane in one site
• Local current of moving sodium ions spreads in all directions
• Results in the activation of voltage-gated channels in the next adjacent
site of the membrane
• Causes a wave of membrane potential changes
• Continuous propagation
• Occurs in unmyelinated fibers and is relatively slow (about 1 meter per
second)
• Saltatory propagation
• Occurs in myelinated axons and is much faster (from 18–140 meters per
second)

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Checkpoint (8-3)
9. What effect would a chemical that blocks the voltage-gated sodium channels
in the excitable axon membrane of a neuron have on its ability to depolarize?
10. What effect would decreasing the concentration of extracellular potassium
have on the membrane potential of a neuron?
11. List the steps involved in the generation and propagation of an action
potential.
12. Two axons are tested for propagation velocities (speeds). One carries action
potentials at 50 meters per second, the other at 1 meter per second. Which
axon is myelinated?

The Synapse (8-4)

• Site where neuron communicates with another cell
• Information transferred through release of chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters
• Communication happens in one direction only
• Synapse between a neuron and another cell type is a neuroeffector junction
• Neuromuscular junction between neuron and muscle cell
• Neuroglandular junction between neuron and secretory cells

Structure of a Synapse (8-4)

• Presynaptic neuron
• Neuron on sending side of synapse
• Axon terminal holds vesicles containing neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters are released and diffuse across synaptic cleft
• Postsynaptic neuron
• Neuron on receiving side of synapse
• Has receptors for neurotransmitters

The Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (8-4)

• Acetylcholine, or ACh
• Activates cholinergic synapses in four steps
1. Action potential arrives and depolarizes the axon terminal
2. ACh is released and diffuses across synaptic cleft
3. ACh binds to receptors and triggers depolarization of the postsynaptic
membrane
4. ACh is removed by AChE (acetylcholinesterase)

Other Important Neurotransmitters (8-4)

• Norepinephrine (NE), or noradrenaline
• Common neurotransmitter
• Important in the brain and part of the ANS
• Released by adrenergic synapses
• Dopamine, GABA, and serotonin
• Function as CNS neurotransmitters

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• At least 50 less-understood neurotransmitters
• Nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO)
• Gases that act as neurotransmitters

Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses (8-4)

• Usually, ACh and NE trigger depolarization
• Increases the probability of reaching threshold
• An excitatory effect
• Usually, dopamine, GABA, and serotonin trigger hyperpolarization
• Hyperpolarization moves membrane potential farther from threshold
• An inhibitory effect

Postsynaptic Neuron Response (8-4)

• Multiple presynaptic neurons can synapse with one postsynaptic neuron and
have cumulative effects
• If all release excitatory neurotransmitters:
• An action potential can be triggered
• If all release an inhibitory neurotransmitter:
• No action potential can occur
• If half release excitatory and half inhibitory neurotransmitters:
• They cancel each other, resulting in no action

Neuronal Pools (8-4)

• Group of interconnected interneurons with specific functions
• Communicate in neural circuit patterns
• Divergence
• Spreads information from one neuron to multiple neurons (or one pool
to multiple pools)
• Convergence
• Several neurons synapse with a single postsynaptic neuron

Checkpoint (8-4)
13. Describe the general structure of a synapse.
14. What effect would blocking calcium channels at a cholinergic synapse have
on synapse function?
15. What type of neural circuit permits both conscious and subconscious control
of the same motor neurons?

The Meninges (8-5)

• Three layers of specialized membranes
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid
3. Pia mater

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• Surround the brain and spinal cord
• Cranial meninges (covering brain) are continuous with spinal meninges
(surrounding spinal cord)
• Provide physical stability and shock absorption

The Dura Mater (8-5)

• Tough, fibrous outermost covering
• Two fibrous layers around the brain
• Outer layer fused to the periosteum of the skull
• Dural folds
• Folded membranes formed by extensions of inner layer of dura
mater into cranial cavity
• Contain large collecting veins, the dural sinuses
• Spinal cord dura mater separated from the vertebrae by the epidural
space

The Arachnoid
• Layer of squamous epithelial cells
• Separated from dura mater by subdural space
• Contains small amounts of lymphatic fluid
• Reduces friction between layers
• Subarachnoid space
• Deep to arachnoid epithelial layer
• Created by a web of collagen and elastic fibers
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

The Pia Mater

• Innermost meningeal layer
• Firmly bound to the neural tissue underneath
• Highly vascularized
• Provides needed oxygen and nutrients to superficial areas of neural cortex

Checkpoint (8-5)
16. Identify the three meninges surrounding the CNS.

Spinal Cord (8-6)

• Major neural pathway between brain and the PNS
• Also integrates information on its own
• Controls spinal reflexes
• About 45 cm (18 in.) long and 14 mm (0.54 in.) wide
• Two regions with slightly wider diameter where nerves supplying limbs branch
• Cervical enlargement
• Lumbar enlargement
• Distal end tapers to a point

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Spinal Cord Structure (8-6)
• Central canal
• Narrow internal passageway filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Surface of the spinal cord is indented by the:
• Posterior median sulcus
• Deeper anterior median fissure

Spinal Segments (8-6)

• Spinal cord consists of 31 segments, each giving rise to pair of spinal nerves
• Identified by a letter and number relating to the nearby vertebrae
• 8 cervical
• 12 thoracic
• 5 lumbar
• 5 sacral
• 1 coccygeal

Structure of a Spinal Nerve (8-6)

• Each spinal segment has a pair of:
• Dorsal root ganglia
• Containing the cell bodies of sensory neurons
• Dorsal roots contain axons of the sensory neurons
• Ventral roots containing motor neuron axons
• Roots are bound together into single spinal nerve
• Spinal nerves are mixed nerves because contain both sensory and motor
fibers

Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord (8-6)

• Central gray matter made up of glial cells and neuron cell bodies
• Forms rough H or butterfly shape around central canal
• Projections of gray matter called horns extend out into the white matter
• Location of nuclei (collections of neuron cell bodies) in the gray matter relate
to their function
• Posterior gray horns contain somatic and visceral sensory nuclei
• Lateral gray horns are visceral motor nuclei
• Anterior gray horns are somatic motor nuclei

White Matter of the Spinal Cord (8-6)

• White matter contains myelinated and unmyelinated axons
• Can be organized into three regions, or columns
• Posterior white columns
• Anterior white columns
• Lateral white columns
• Columns contain either ascending tracts to the brain, or descending
tracts from the brain to the PNS

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Checkpoint (8-6)
17. Damage to which root of a spinal nerve would interfere with motor function?
18. A person with polio has lost the use of his leg muscles. In which area of his
spinal cord could you locate the poliovirus-infected motor neurons?
19. Why are spinal nerves also called mixed nerves?

The Brain (8-7)

• Contains almost 97 percent of the body’s neural tissue
• “Typical” brain weighs 1.5 kg (3 lb)
• Brain size varies among individuals
• No correlation between brain size and intelligence

Six Major Regions of the Brain (8-7)

1. Cerebrum
2. Diencephalon
3. Midbrain
4. Pons
5. Medulla oblongata
6. Cerebellum

Brain Structure Overview (8-7)

• The cerebrum
• Divided into paired cerebral hemispheres
• Functions: conscious thoughts, sensations, intellectual functions, memory
storage and processing
• Deep to the cerebrum is the diencephalon
• Divided into thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
• The brain stem
• Contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
• The cerebellum
• Most inferior/posterior portion of the brain

The Ventricles of the Brain (8-7)

• Internal cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid and lined with ependymal cells
• Two lateral ventricles, one in each cerebral hemisphere
• Drain through the interventricular foramen into the
• Third ventricle in the diencephalon, which drains through the cerebral
aqueduct into the
• Fourth ventricle, which drains into the central canal

Cerebrospinal Fluid (8-7)

• Cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF
• Surrounds and bathes the exposed surfaces of the CNS
• Cushions brain and spinal cord against physical trauma

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 • Supports the brain by “floating” it in fluid
• Transports nutrients, chemicals, and wastes

Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Flow (8-7)

• Produced by a choroid plexus within each ventricle
• Production rate about 500 mL/day
• Continually secreted and replaced
• Entire circulating volume of 150 mL replaced about every 8 hours
• Circulation from the fourth ventricle into the subarachnoid space into the dural
sinuses
• Absorbed across the arachnoid granulations

The Cerebrum (8-7)

• Largest region of the brain
• Includes gray matter and white matter
• Superficial layer of gray matter called cerebral cortex
• Gray matter also found in deeper areas called basal nuclei
• White matter is deep to the cortex and surrounds basal nuclei
• Outer surface of cerebrum forms series of folds (gyri) that increase surface
area
• Separated by shallow depressions, or sulci
• Deeper grooves called fissures

The Cerebral Hemispheres (8-7)

• Divided into regions, or lobes
• Named after overlying bones of the skull
• Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe
• Insula
• Area of cerebral cortex located deep to the temporal lobe
• Each lobe has sensory regions and motor regions
• Each hemisphere sends and receives information from the opposite side of
the body

Features of the Cerebral Hemispheres (8-7)

• Separated by the longitudinal fissure
• Central sulcus
• Divides frontal lobe from parietal lobe
• Lateral sulcus
• Separates frontal lobe from temporal lobe
• Parieto-occipital sulcus
• Separates parietal lobe from occipital lobe

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex (8-7)

• Primary areas divided by the central sulcus
• Precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe

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 • Contains the primary motor cortex
• Postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe
• Contains the primary sensory cortex

Other Sensory Areas of the Cortex (8-7)

• Visual cortex in the occipital lobe
• Receives visual information
• Gustatory cortex in the frontal lobe
• Receives taste sensations
• Auditory cortex and olfactory cortex in the temporal lobe
• Auditory receives information about hearing
• Olfactory receives information about smell

Association Areas (8-7)

• Integrate sensory and motor cortexes
• Interpret incoming information
• Coordinate a motor response
• Somatic sensory association area
• Monitors activity in primary sensory cortex
• Helps to recognize a touch
• Somatic motor association area, or premotor cortex
• Responsible for coordinating learned movements
• Example: picking up a glass

Cortical Connections (8-7)

• Regions of the cortex are linked by the deeper white matter
• The left and right hemispheres are interconnected across the corpus
callosum
• Other axons link the cortex with:
• The diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum, and spinal cord

Cerebral Processing Centers (8-7)

• Receive information from many association areas
• Direct extremely complex motor activities
• Often lateralized or restricted to one hemisphere
• General interpretive area, or Wernicke’s area
• Integrates sensory information and visual and auditory memory
• Damage affects ability to interpret what is read or heard
• Speech center, or Broca’s area
• Regulates breathing and vocalization required for speech
• Damage affects ability to form words

The Prefrontal Cortex (8-7)

• Located in the frontal lobe
• Coordinates information from association areas of the entire cortex

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 • Performs abstract intellectual functions
• Example: predicting consequences of actions or events
• Damage affects ability to estimate time relationships
• Generates feelings of frustration, tension, and anxiety as events are
interpreted and predictions made

Hemispheric Lateralization (8-7)

• Each hemisphere is responsible for specific functions not ordinarily performed
by opposite hemisphere
• Left hemisphere tends to be involved in language skills, analytical tasks,
and logical decision making
• Right hemisphere tends to be involved in spatial analysis, analyzing
sensory input and relating it to the body, and analyzing emotional context

The Electroencephalogram (8-7)

• Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• Printed record of electrical activity in the brain
• Electrical patterns called brain waves
• Brain waves correlated with level of consciousness
• Can also provide diagnostic information regarding brain disorders
• Other methods of mapping brain activity
• Brain imaging using PET scan and MRI scan

Memory (8-7)
• Fact memories
• Specific bits of information (like your social security number)
• Skill memories
• Learned motor skill that can become incorporated into unconscious
memory (like playing the violin)
• Short-term memories
• Do not last long but can be recalled immediately
• Converting into long-term memory through memory consolidation
• Long-term memories
• Remain for long periods, sometimes an entire lifetime
• Amnesia
• Memory loss as a result of disease or trauma

The Basal Nuclei (8-7)

• Masses of gray matter that lie beneath the lateral ventricles
• Function in subconscious control of skeletal muscle tone and coordination of
learned movements
• Three components
1. Caudate nucleus
2. Lentiform nucleus

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The Basal Nuclei cont. (8-7)
• Contains the medial globus pallidus and the lateral putamen
• The caudate and lentiform nuclei together are called the corpus striatum
3. Amygdaloid body, or amygdala
• Component of the limbic system

The Limbic System (8-7)

• Includes the olfactory cortex, basal nuclei, gyri, and tracts between the
cerebrum and diencephalon
• A functional grouping, rather than an anatomical one
• Functions
• Establishes the emotional states
• Links the conscious with the unconscious functions
• Aids in long-term memory storage and retrieval with help of the
hippocampus

The Diencephalon (8-7)

• Contains switching and relay centers
• Centers integrate conscious and unconscious sensory information and motor
commands
• Surrounds third ventricle
• Three components
1. Epithalamus
2. Thalamus
3. Hypothalamus

The Epithalamus (8-7)

• Lies superior to the third ventricle
• Forms the roof of the diencephalon
• Anterior part contains choroid plexus
• Posterior part contains the pineal gland
• Endocrine structure that secretes melatonin
• Functions in regulating day–night cycles

The Thalamus (8-7)

• Left and right thalamus separated by the third ventricle
• Functions as relay and processing center for sensory information
• All sensory information other than olfactory passes through thalamus
• Thalamus filters information, passing on only small portion to primary
sensory cortex
• Remaining information relayed to basal nuclei and centers in brain stem

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The Hypothalamus (8-7)
• Lies inferior to the third ventricle
• Functionally associated with the limbic system
• Contains centers involved with emotions, autonomic functions, and hormone
production
• Pituitary gland connected to hypothalamus by narrow stalk
• Primary link between nervous and endocrine systems

Hypothalamus Functions (8-7)

• Subconscious control of skeletal muscle contractions associated with strong
emotion
• Adjusts pons and medulla functions
• Coordinates the nervous and endocrine systems
• Secretes hormones including ADH and oxytocin
• Produces “drives” of thirst and hunger
• Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
• Regulates body temperature
• Coordinates daily cycles

The Midbrain (8-7)

• Contains various nuclei
• Two pairs of sensory nuclei, or colliculi, involved in visual (superior
colliculi) and auditory (inferior colliculi) processing
• Motor nuclei for cranial nerves III and IV involved in eye movements
• Cerebral peduncles contain bundles of descending fibers
• Reticular formation is network of nuclei related to the state of wakefulness
and other involuntary functions
• Substantia nigra influence muscle tone

The Pons (8-7)

• Links the cerebellum with the midbrain, diencephalon, cerebrum, and spinal
cord
• Also connected to the medulla oblongata
• Contains sensory and motor nuclei for cranial nerves V, VI, VII, and VIII
• Other nuclei influence rate and depth of respiration

The Cerebellum (8-7)

• Automatic processing center
• Adjusts voluntary and involuntary motor activities based on sensory input
and stored memories
• Adjusts postural muscles to maintain balance
• Programs and fine-tunes movements
• Cerebellar peduncles
• Tracts that link the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and brain stem
• Ataxia

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 • Disturbance of balance
• Can be caused by damage to the cerebellum

The Medulla Oblongata (8-7)

• Connects the brain with the spinal cord
• Contains sensory and motor nuclei for cranial nerves VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII
• Contains reflex centers
• Cardiovascular centers
• Adjust heart rate and contraction strength (cardiac center) and
peripheral blood flow (vasomotor center)
• Respiratory rhythmicity centers
• Regulate respiratory rate
• Adjusted by respiratory centers of the pons

Checkpoint (8-7)
20. Describe one major function of each of the six regions of the brain.
21. The pituitary gland links the nervous and endocrine systems. To which portion
of the diencephalon is it attached?
22. How would decreased diffusion across the arachnoid granulations affect the
volume of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles?
23. Mary suffers a head injury that damages her primary motor cortex. Where is
this area located?

Checkpoint (8-7)
24. What senses would be affected by damage to the temporal lobes of the
cerebrum?
25. The thalamus acts as a relay point for all but what type of sensory information?
26. Changes in body temperature stimulate which area of the diencephalon?
27. The medulla oblongata is one of the smallest sections of the brain. Why can
damage to it cause death, when similar damage in the cerebrum might go
unnoticed?

Peripheral Nervous System (8-8)

• Links the CNS to the rest of the body through peripheral nerves
• Cranial nerves originate from the brain
• Spinal nerves connect to the spinal cord
• Cell bodies of sensory and motor neurons are contained in the ganglia

Cranial Nerves (8-8)

• Twelve pairs
• Designated with Roman numerals I through XII
• Classified as:
• Primarily sensory
• Primarily motor
• Mixed (both sensory and motor)

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• Often names remembered with a mnemonic
• “Oh, Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very Good Vacations Are
Heavenly”

The Twelve Cranial Nerves (N I–II) (8-8)

• Olfactory nerves (N I)
• Only cranial nerves connected to the cerebrum
• Carry sensory information concerning the sense of smell
• Begin in nasal epithelium, pass through cribriform plate of ethmoid bone,
synapse in olfactory bulb, and continue as olfactory tracts to olfactory
centers of the brain
• Optic nerves (N II)
• Carry sensory visual information from the eyes, through the optic
foramina of the orbits to the optic chiasm
• Continue as the optic tracts to the thalamus

The Twelve Cranial Nerves (N III–IV) (8-8)

• Oculomotor nerves (N III)
• Motor only, arising in the midbrain
• Innervate four of the six extrinsic eye muscles that move the eyeball and
the intrinsic eye muscles that control the size of the pupil
• Trochlear nerves (N IV)
• Smallest cranial nerves, also arise in the midbrain
• Motor nerves
• Innervate the superior oblique muscles of the eyes

The Twelve Cranial Nerves (N V) (8-8)

• Trigeminal nerves (N V)
• Mixed nerves with nuclei in the pons
• The largest cranial nerves
• Three branches
1. Opthalmic provides sensory input from the orbit, sinuses, nasal cavity,
skin of forehead, nose, eyebrows, and eyelids.
2. Maxillary provides sensory input from the lower eyelid, upper lip,
cheek, nose, upper gums, and teeth.
3. Mandibular provides sensory input from salivary glands and tongue
and motor control to chewing muscles

The Twelve Cranial Nerves (N VI–VII) (8-8)

• Abducens nerves (N VI)
• Motor nerves
• Innervate only the lateral rectus eye muscle
• Nuclei located in the pons
• Facial nerves (N VII)
• Mixed nerves

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 • Emerge from the pons
• Sensory fibers monitor proprioception in the face and provide taste
information from anterior two-thirds of the tongue
• Motor fibers provide facial expressions and control tear and salivary
glands

The Twelve Cranial Nerves (N VIII) (8-8)

• Vestibulocochlear nerves (N VIII)
• Sensory nerves
• Nuclei in the pons and medulla
• Respond to sensory receptors in the inner ear
• Two components
1. Vestibular nerve
• Conveys information about balance and position
2. Cochlear nerve
• Conveys information related to sense of hearing

The Twelve Cranial Nerves (N IX) (8-8)

• Glossopharyngeal nerves (N IX)
• Mixed nerves innervating the tongue and pharynx
• Nuclei in the medulla oblongata
• Sensory portion
• Provides taste sensations from posterior third of the tongue
• Monitors blood pressure and blood gases
• Motor portion controls pharyngeal muscles used in swallowing and parotid
salivary gland secretion

The Twelve Cranial Nerves (N X) (8-8)

• Vagus nerves (N X)
• Nuclei located in the medulla oblongata
• Mixed nerves
• Sensory input
• From ears, diaphragm, taste receptors, visceral receptors
• Information provided is vital to autonomic control of visceral function
• Motor components
• Control skeletal muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, and esophagus
• Also a major pathway for ANS output to cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle, and digestive glands

The Twelve Cranial Nerves (N XI–XII) (8-8)

• Accessory nerves (N XI), or spinal accessory nerves
• Motor nerves innervating structures in neck and back
• Some fibers originate in the medulla oblongata
• Other fibers come from the lateral gray horns of the first five cervical
segments of the spinal cord

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• Hypoglossal nerves (N XII)
• Nuclei located in medulla oblongata
• Provide voluntary motor control over the tongue

The Spinal Nerves (8-8)

• Found in 31 pairs grouped according to the region of the vertebral column
• 8 pairs of cervical nerves, C1–C8
• 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, T1–T12
• 5 pairs of lumbar nerves, L1–L5
• 5 pairs of sacral nerves, S1–S5
• 1 pair of coccygeal nerves, Co1

Nerve Plexuses (8-8)

• Networks of major nerve trunks
• Cervical plexus
• Innervates the muscles of the neck and the diaphragm
• Brachial plexus
• Innervates the pectoral girdles and upper limbs
• Lumbar plexus and the sacral plexus
• Also called lumbosacral plexus
• Innervate the pelvic girdle and lower limbs

Dermatome (8-8)
• Specific region of the body surface monitored by a pair of spinal nerves
• Clinically important in determining location of damage or infection of a spinal
nerve

Checkpoint (8-8)
28. What signs would you associate with damage to the abducens nerve (N VI)?
29. John is having trouble moving his tongue. His physician tells him it is due to
pressure on a cranial nerve. Which cranial nerve is involved?
30. Injury to which nerve plexus would interfere with the ability to breathe?

Reflexes (8-9)
• Reflex
• Rapid, automatic response to a specific stimulus
• Helps preserve homeostasis with rapid adjustments
• Monosynaptic reflexes
• Simplest type of reflex
• Only involve one synapse
• Example: the stretch reflex
• Muscle spindles detect stretch of muscle fibers
• Best known stretch reflex is the patellar reflex, or knee-jerk reflex

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Simple Reflexes (8-9)
• Wired in a reflex arc
• A stimulus activates a sensory receptor
• An action potential travels down a sensory neuron
• Information processing occurs with the interneuron
• An action potential travels down a motor neuron
• The effector organ responds
• Usual response removes or opposes original stimulus, an example of
negative feedback

Complex Reflexes (8-9)

• Polysynaptic reflexes
• Have at least one interneuron (so more than one synapse)
• Have a longer delay than monosynaptic reflexes, but can activate more
than one effector
• Withdrawal reflexes
• Move a body part away from the stimulation
• Example: flexor reflex stimulated by touching a hot stove
• Reciprocal inhibition
• Neurons controlling antagonistic muscles are inhibited
• Prevents stretch reflex in the antagonist
• Ensures that flexion (withdrawal) is not interfered with

Input to Modify Reflexes (8-9)

• Reflexes are automatic, but higher brain centers can influence or modify them
• Interneurons and involved motor neurons are facilitated or inhibited
• Examples
• Jendrassik maneuver overemphasizes patellar reflex
• Babinski sign
• Triggered by stroking an infant’s sole, resulting in a fanning of the toes
• As descending inhibitory synapses develop, an adult will respond by
curling the toes instead, called the plantar reflex

Checkpoint (8-9)
31. Define reflex.
32. Which common reflex do physicians use to test the general condition of the
spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and muscles?
33. Why can polysynaptic reflexes produce more complex responses than can
monosynaptic reflexes?
34. After injuring his back lifting a sofa, Tom exhibits a positive Babinski reflex.
What does this imply about Tom’s injury?

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Sensory Pathways (8-10)
• Ascending pathways
• Posterior column pathway
• Carries “fine” touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception
• Spinothalamic pathway
• Spinocerebellar pathway
• Sensory homunculus
• Map of the body surface overlain on cortex with size relative to number of
sensory receptors in the region

Motor Pathways (8-10)

• Descending pathways
• Corticospinal pathway, or pyramidal system
• Provides conscious, voluntary control of skeletal muscles
• Axons cross over to reach motor neurons on opposite side of body (so
right cerebral hemisphere controls left side of body and vice versa)
• Medial and lateral pathways, or extrapyramidal system
• Motor homunculus
• Map of the body surface overlain on cortex with size relative to number of
motor units in the region

Checkpoint (8-10)
35. As a result of pressure on her spinal cord, Jill cannot feel touch or pressure
on her legs. What sensory pathway is being compressed?
36. The primary motor cortex of the right cerebral hemisphere controls motor
function on which side of the body?
37. An injury to the superior portion of the motor cortex would affect the ability to
control muscles of which parts of the body?

The Autonomic Nervous System (8-11)

• Involved in unconscious regulation of body functions
• Differs anatomically from somatic nervous system
• SNS requires only one motor neuron from CNS to effector (skeletal
muscle)
• ANS uses two motor neurons from CNS to effector (cardiac and smooth
muscle, glands, and fat cells)
• Preganglionic neurons communicate with
• Ganglionic neurons whose axons are called postganglionic fibers

Two Divisions of the ANS (8-11)

• Sympathetic division
• Preganglionic fibers leave thoracic and lumbar spinal segments
• Ganglia located near spinal cord
• Short preganglionic fibers
• Long postganglionic fibers

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• Parasympathetic division
• Preganglionic fibers originate in brain stem and sacral spinal region
• Ganglia located near or within target organs
• Long preganglionic fibers
• Short postganglionic fibers

Neurotransmitters at Specific Synapses (8-11)

• All preganglionic fibers
• Are cholinergic
• Meaning they release acetylcholine (ACh)
• Are excitatory
• Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers
• Are cholinergic
• Effects are excitatory or inhibitory, depending on the target cell receptor
• Most postganglionic sympathetic fibers
• Are adrenergic
• Meaning they release norepinephrine (NE)
• Are usually excitatory

Sympathetic Division Components (8-11)

• Sympathetic chain
• Arises from spinal segments T1–L2
• Preganglionic fibers enter the sympathetic chain ganglia just outside the
spinal column
• Collateral ganglia
• Unpaired ganglia that receive splanchnic nerves from the lower thoracic
and upper lumbar segments
• Postganglionic neurons innervate abdominopelvic cavity

Sympathetic Division Components cont. (8-11)

• The adrenal medullae
• Center of the adrenal glands
• Innervated by preganglionic fibers
• Modified sympathetic ganglia (neurons)
• Secrete norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E) into capillaries,
functioning like an endocrine gland
• Effect is nearly identical to that of the sympathetic postganglionic
stimulation of adrenergic synapses

Sympathetic Division Functions (8-11)

• Called the “fight-or-flight” division
• Effects
• Increase in alertness, metabolic rate, sweating, heart rate, blood flow to
skeletal muscle
• Dilates the respiratory bronchioles and the pupils

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 • Blood flow to the digestive organs is decreased
• E and NE from the adrenal medullae support and prolong the effect

The Parasympathetic Division (8-11)

• Preganglionic neurons arise from the brain stem and sacral spinal cord
• Fibers travel within cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
• The vagus nerve (N X) provides about 75 percent of all parasympathetic
outflow
• Ganglia very close to or within the target organ
• Preganglionic fibers of the sacral areas form the pelvic nerves

Parasympathetic Division Functions (8-11)

• Called the “rest-and-digest” division
• Less divergence than in the sympathetic division, so effects are more localized
• Effects
• Constricts pupils, increases digestive secretions, increases digestive tract
smooth muscle activity
• Stimulates urination and defecation
• Constricts bronchioles, decreases heart rate

Dual Innervation (8-11)

• Refers to both divisions affecting the same organs
• Mostly have antagonistic effects
• Some organs are innervated by only one division

Checkpoint (8-11)
38. While out for a brisk walk, Megan is suddenly confronted by an angry dog.
Which division of the ANS is responsible for the physiological changes that
occur as she turns and runs from the animal?
39. Why is the parasympathetic division of the ANS sometimes referred to as the
anabolic system?
40. What effect would loss of sympathetic stimulation have on the flow of air into
the lungs?
41. What physiological changes would you expect in a patient who is about to
undergo a root canal procedure and is quite anxious about it?

Aging and the Nervous System (8-12)

• Age-related changes begin by age 30 and accumulate over time and include:
• Reduction in brain size and weight
• Reduction in number of neurons
• Decrease in blood flow to the brain
• Change in synaptic organization of the brain
• Decreased synaptic connections and neurotransmitter production
• Increase in intracellular deposits and extracellular plaques
• Dementia can be a result of all these changes

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Checkpoint (8-12)
42. What is the major cause of age-related reduction, or shrinkage, of the brain?

Checkpoint (8-13)
43. Identify the relationships between the nervous system and the body systems
studied so far.

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