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Plastic Pollution

Article · July 2014

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 Pollution
FEATURE | PLASTIC POLLUTION
Plastic
Text By Florian Thevenon and James Oliver, International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Marine and Polar Programme (GMPP)
It is easy to forget about the dangers of pollution on
the marine ecosystem, but plastics are posing a major
threat to our marine biodiversity.
Plastics are used so universally that they have
become a major part of our everyday lives. Sadly, once used,
a large amount of this plastic is not dealt with adequately
and ends up in our oceans. The problem is so acute that it is a
priority issue in ensuring better management and protection
of marine ecosystems. There is still a long way to go to increase
public awareness about the adverse effects of plastic pollution
on marine life. Achieving this would instil a sense of individual
responsibility and encourage the setting up of public and private
initiatives to reduce marine plastic pollution.
Plastic pollution is of particular concern in coastal areas of
developing countries that lack appropriate waste management
policies, but it also represents a major threat to the world’s
oceans as a whole because of the slow degradation of plastic
litter. The larger items generate so-called micro-plastics (particles
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smaller than 1-5mm in diameter), which can spread over long
distances through ocean surface circulation. These plastic
fragments will persist in the aquatic environment for decades
or centuries, due to their high resistance to natural degradation
processes. In addition to high economic costs for cleaning
marine debris from harbours and beaches, floating plastics and
lost fishing gear impact fish stocks and damage the propellers of
fishing and recreational vessels.
Why is there so much plastic in the sea?
It is estimated that around 4% of the world’s annual petroleum
production is converted into plastics, whilst a similar amount of
petroleum is used to provide the energy to manufacture these
plastics. The annual global production of plastics is currently
about 280 million tonnes per year. Almost 75% of the demand
LIFE COUNTRIES ING Private WORLD
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Contents
POLLUTION oceans
 PLASTIC POLLUTION | FEATURE

Main:
Plastic pollution has a devastating effect
on beaches. Image by Fabiano Prado
Barretto (Global Garbage).

comes from four major sectors: packaging, construction,
automotive and electrical or electronics. In Europe, packaging
represents more than one-third of plastic consumption and
consists of products which have a very short life span. Only 10%
or less of the plastic is recycled; the remaining plastics are burnt
or sent to landfills.
The majority of shoreline debris is now made up of plastic
waste. Plastics are found everywhere from the deep sea to the
shorelines of all seven continents (including remote islands)
and from the poles to the equator. Unsurprisingly, a greater
concentration of plastic material is found near popular tourist
destinations and densely populated areas. The majority of this
waste comes from land-based sources, including urban runoff,
sewer overflows, beach visitors, inadequate waste disposal,
industrial activities, construction and illegal dumping. Apart from
the proximity to coastal populated areas and tourist destinations,
the speed and direction of wind-driven surface-ocean currents
have an influence on plastic debris accumulation in coastal and
offshore areas (ocean gyres).
Plastics coming from ocean-based activities can mainly
be sourced to the fishing industry, nautical activities and
aquaculture. Lost fishing nets and monofilament fishing lines
have been found to drift thousands of kilometres and trap,
entangle and kill fishes and seabirds as well as protected marine
species such as turtles, dolphins and seals. These so-called “ghost
nets” continue to indiscriminately entangle and trap fishes and
non-target organisms when these nets drift in the oceans over
long distances.
In addition to solid waste disposal, municipal wastewaters
represent an important source of plastic pollution, with the

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FEATURE | PLASTIC POLLUTION
discharge of plastic fibres from the washing of synthetic clothes
and from the polyethylene and polypropylene scrub beads used
as abrasives in personal care products. These particles, generally
smaller than 1mm in diameter, are designed to be washed down
the drain. These plastics are usually not captured by treatment
screens in wastewater plants and can be ingested by planktonic
and filter feeding organisms at the base of the aquatic food chain,
causing death or illness and affecting organisms higher up in the
food chain.
A heavy environmental toll
The most visible and worrying impact of marine plastic pollution
is the suffocation and entanglement of hundreds of marine
species, including seabirds, turtles, fishes, mussels, crustaceans
and marine mammals. Also of concern is accidental ingestion,
which can be fatal. The effect of entanglement is largely
underestimated, as most victims are undiscovered as they sink or
are eaten by predators. There is even evidence that some birds
and marine species mistake plastic particles waste for potential
prey items and select specific plastic shapes and colours. Sea
turtles, for example, often consume plastic debris and semi-
inflated floating plastic bags drifting in ocean currents which look
similar to their favourite natural prey: jellyfish. Albatrosses may
also mistake red plastic for squid. The ingestion of plastic debris
by seabirds is directly correlated to foraging strategies.
Even if not immediately lethal, entanglement can produce
lacerations and infections from the abrasive or cutting action of
the litter. Entanglements can also impair the ability of animals
to swim and find food or escape from predators; while plastics,
as part of the animal’s diet, reduce actual food uptake and can
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cause lethal injury and death following blockage of the intestinal
tract. Animals can get entangled by plastics floating at the sea
surface and, in particular, by derelict and lost fishing gear made of
synthetic fibres that are resistant to degradation.
Another worrying aspect of plastic pollution is the potential
accumulation of toxic pollutants on the surface of floating
plastics during their long residence time in polluted seawater.
They may, therefore, serve as a vector for toxic pollutants that
accumulate in marine organisms (i.e. bioaccumulation). The
ingestion of plastic debris is also of concern to small invertebrate
organisms (for example amphipods, lugworms, barnacles and
mussels) with possible health implications for humans who
consume seafood. However, little is currently known about
the impact on living organisms of ingested plastics containing
high amounts of toxic chemicals and about their possible
accumulation within the food chain.
Last but not least, floating plastics create hard-substrate
habitats that attract a wide range of mobile opportunistic
colonisers which get carried as alien species over long distances,
potentially changing the biodiversity and the dynamic
equilibrium of native ecosystems.
Beyond the heroic efforts of community beach clean-up
volunteers, the challenge of reducing plastic pollution in the
ocean will require a concerted effort from many sectors of
society, including manufacturers, tourism, fishing and shipping
industries, local authorities and governments, and all other users
of coasts and oceans. The enforcement of existing laws would go
a long way to improving the situation, but a whole new mindset
is needed to work towards an ocean that is free of plastic waste. S