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Pasahe, Michelle S.

Date: October 1, 2018

Course and Year: BSA-4

China: History, Educatio, Culture

History:

China is one of the world's four ancient civilizations, and the written history of China dates back to the
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), over 3,000 years ago.

Timeline of Chinese History

Pre-1600 BC, China is charted mainly by legends and prehistoric evidence. The ancient China era was c.
1600–221 BC.

The imperial era was 221 BC – 1912 AD, from China's unification under Qin rule until the end of the Qing
Dynasty, the Republic of China era was from 1912 until 1949, and the modern China era from 1949 until
the present day.

Prehistoric China — Up to About 1600 BC

Prehistoric China's chronology is divided into the Paleolithic Age, the Neolithic Age, and the Bronze Age.

Without any reliable historical records, most of what has been pieced together about prehistoric life in
China comes from speculation about human activity at archaeological sites and unearthed relics. The
rest comes from what might be truth within Chinese mythology.

Paleolithic Age

What is now China was inhabited by Homo erectus more than a million years ago] Recent study shows
that the stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site are magnetostratigraphically dated to 1.36 million years
ago.The archaeological site of Xihoudu in Shanxi Province. The earliest recorded use of fire by Homo
erectus, which is dated 1.27 million years ago. The excavations at Yuanmou and later Lantian show early
habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Homo erectus found in China is the so-called Peking
Man discovered in 1923–27. Fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125,000–80,000 BC have been
discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County in Hunan.

Neolithic Age

The Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 18,000 BC. Early evidence for proto-Chinese
millet agriculture is radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC.The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found
by the Yangtze River, is carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago. Farming gave rise to the Jiahu culture (7000 to
5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered,
"featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or
grazing". These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written
Chinese. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC,[14] Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC,
Damaidi around 6000 BC and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. Some scholars have suggested
that Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BC) were the earliest Chinese writing system. Excavation of a
Peiligang culture site in Xinzheng county, Henan, found a community that flourished in 5,500 to 4,900
BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead. With agriculture
came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support
specialist craftsmen and administrators. In late Neolithic times, the Yellow River valley began to establish
itself as a center of Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC), and the first villages were founded; the most
archaeologically significant of these was found at Banpo, Xi'an. Later, Yangshao culture was superseded
by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC.

Bronze Age

Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC), The Bronze
Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC site in northeast China.
Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan province is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a
previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in
1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be
part of the ancient kingdom of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings.

Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in the late 6th century in the Yangzi Valley. An bronze tomahawk
with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei province)
has been dated to the 14th century BC. For this reason, authors such as Liana Chua and Mark Elliott have
used the term "Iron Age" by convention for the transitional period of c. 500 BC to 100 BC, roughly
corresponding to the Warring States period of Chinese historiography.An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan
Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings.

CHINA HIGHLIGHTS ® CUSTOMIZE

Home Chinese Culture China History

The History of China — Over 3,000 Years of Civilization

the Great Wall


The Great Wall.

China is one of the world's four ancient civilizations, and the written history of China dates back to the
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), over 3,000 years ago.

Here, we’ve outlined China’s history in a basic introduction and hope you have a good overview of it.

Timeline of Chinese History

Pre-1600 BC, China is charted mainly by legends and prehistoric evidence. The ancient China era was c.
1600–221 BC.

The imperial era was 221 BC – 1912 AD, from China's unification under Qin rule until the end of the Qing
Dynasty, the Republic of China era was from 1912 until 1949, and the modern China era from 1949 until
the present day.

Read on for a snapshot of China’s historical timeline and some key events. There’s also a simple
comparison with the world’s cultural development.

Chinese History

Click to enlarge!

Prehistoric China — Up to About 1600 BC

Prehistoric China's chronology is divided into the Paleolithic Age, the Neolithic Age, and the Bronze Age.

Without any reliable historical records, most of what has been pieced together about prehistoric life in
China comes from speculation about human activity at archaeological sites and unearthed relics. The
rest comes from what might be truth within Chinese mythology.
The Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) — Early Bronze Age China

Possibly the first dynasty in ancient China, it's generally believed that the Xia Dynasty consisted of
several clans living alongside the Yellow River. Most of the evidence for the Xia Dynasty, including its
name, is perhaps just legend.

There was a Bronze Age Yellow River civilization at this time at Erlitou in Henan; however, artifacts don't
show conclusively that this was the Xia Dynasty of later writings.

Ancient China (c. 1600–221 BC)

Chinese civilization began along the Yellow River in the Shang era, and spread from there when Bronze
Age culture reached its peak.

Then, traditional Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism, developed in the feudal Zhou
era as China expanded in territory and population.

Ancient China finally fractured into warring kingdoms for 200 years, and its reunification marked the
start of the imperial China age.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)

The Shang Dynasty was the first to have historical records remaining. Many bronze objects and jade
articles, which date back to 1600 BC, have been found to support these early archaeological records.

The earliest form of Chinese writing – oracle bones – was found. The inscriptions on animal bones had
pictographic characters. The Shang Dynasty’s capital was Yin (Anyang) and its territory stretched
between the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.

CHINA HIGHLIGHTS ® CUSTOMIZE

Home Chinese Culture China History

The History of China — Over 3,000 Years of Civilization

the Great Wall

The Great Wall.


China is one of the world's four ancient civilizations, and the written history of China dates back to the
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), over 3,000 years ago.

Here, we’ve outlined China’s history in a basic introduction and hope you have a good overview of it.

Timeline of Chinese History

Pre-1600 BC, China is charted mainly by legends and prehistoric evidence. The ancient China era was c.
1600–221 BC.

The imperial era was 221 BC – 1912 AD, from China's unification under Qin rule until the end of the Qing
Dynasty, the Republic of China era was from 1912 until 1949, and the modern China era from 1949 until
the present day.

Read on for a snapshot of China’s historical timeline and some key events. There’s also a simple
comparison with the world’s cultural development.

Chinese History

Click to enlarge!

Prehistoric China — Up to About 1600 BC

Prehistoric China's chronology is divided into the Paleolithic Age, the Neolithic Age, and the Bronze Age.

Without any reliable historical records, most of what has been pieced together about prehistoric life in
China comes from speculation about human activity at archaeological sites and unearthed relics. The
rest comes from what might be truth within Chinese mythology.

The Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) — Early Bronze Age China
Possibly the first dynasty in ancient China, it's generally believed that the Xia Dynasty consisted of
several clans living alongside the Yellow River. Most of the evidence for the Xia Dynasty, including its
name, is perhaps just legend.

There was a Bronze Age Yellow River civilization at this time at Erlitou in Henan; however, artifacts don't
show conclusively that this was the Xia Dynasty of later writings.

Ancient China (c. 1600–221 BC)

bronze

Ancient bronze objects of the Shang Dynasty have been unearthed.

Chinese civilization began along the Yellow River in the Shang era, and spread from there when Bronze
Age culture reached its peak.

Then, traditional Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism, developed in the feudal Zhou
era as China expanded in territory and population.

Ancient China finally fractured into warring kingdoms for 200 years, and its reunification marked the
start of the imperial China age.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)

The Shang Dynasty was the first to have historical records remaining. Many bronze objects and jade
articles, which date back to 1600 BC, have been found to support these early archaeological records.

The earliest form of Chinese writing – oracle bones – was found. The inscriptions on animal bones had
pictographic characters. The Shang Dynasty’s capital was Yin (Anyang) and its territory stretched
between the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.
The Zhou Dynasty (1045-221 BC)

After the Shang era, the larger Zhou era territory was divided by a network of feudal states and was ruled
over by kings.

The king of Zhou only had direct control over a small portion of the realm and received tributes from the
feudal states.

The first part of the Zhou era was called the Western Zhou (1045–771 BC). It was a fairly peaceful time
but, after 770 BC, the Zhou king lost his authority and seven prominent states emerged.

This era was divided into three periods: the Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 BC); the Spring and
Autumn Period (770–476 BC), and the Warring States Period (475–221 BC). It marked the transition from
tribal society to feudal society.

Major philosophies and religions emerged that were the basis of Chinese beliefs in later eras, such as
Confucianism and Daoism.

Imperial China (221 BC – 1912 AD)

From the first centralized feudal empire, the Qin Dynasty, which was established in 221 BC, until the
collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, this period is known as the imperial era of China.

The imperial China period makes up the bulk of Chinese history. With the cyclical rise and fall of
dynasties, Chinese civilization was cultivated and prospered in times of peace, then reformed after
rebellions and conquests.

CHINA HIGHLIGHTS ® CUSTOMIZE

Home Chinese Culture China History

The History of China — Over 3,000 Years of Civilization

the Great Wall

The Great Wall.

China is one of the world's four ancient civilizations, and the written history of China dates back to the
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), over 3,000 years ago.
Here, we’ve outlined China’s history in a basic introduction and hope you have a good overview of it.

Timeline of Chinese History

Pre-1600 BC, China is charted mainly by legends and prehistoric evidence. The ancient China era was c.
1600–221 BC.

The imperial era was 221 BC – 1912 AD, from China's unification under Qin rule until the end of the Qing
Dynasty, the Republic of China era was from 1912 until 1949, and the modern China era from 1949 until
the present day.

Read on for a snapshot of China’s historical timeline and some key events. There’s also a simple
comparison with the world’s cultural development.

Chinese History

Click to enlarge!

Prehistoric China — Up to About 1600 BC

Prehistoric China's chronology is divided into the Paleolithic Age, the Neolithic Age, and the Bronze Age.

Without any reliable historical records, most of what has been pieced together about prehistoric life in
China comes from speculation about human activity at archaeological sites and unearthed relics. The
rest comes from what might be truth within Chinese mythology.

The Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) — Early Bronze Age China
Possibly the first dynasty in ancient China, it's generally believed that the Xia Dynasty consisted of
several clans living alongside the Yellow River. Most of the evidence for the Xia Dynasty, including its
name, is perhaps just legend.

There was a Bronze Age Yellow River civilization at this time at Erlitou in Henan; however, artifacts don't
show conclusively that this was the Xia Dynasty of later writings.

Ancient China (c. 1600–221 BC)

bronze

Ancient bronze objects of the Shang Dynasty have been unearthed.

Chinese civilization began along the Yellow River in the Shang era, and spread from there when Bronze
Age culture reached its peak.

Then, traditional Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism, developed in the feudal Zhou
era as China expanded in territory and population.

Ancient China finally fractured into warring kingdoms for 200 years, and its reunification marked the
start of the imperial China age.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)

The Shang Dynasty was the first to have historical records remaining. Many bronze objects and jade
articles, which date back to 1600 BC, have been found to support these early archaeological records.

The earliest form of Chinese writing – oracle bones – was found. The inscriptions on animal bones had
pictographic characters. The Shang Dynasty’s capital was Yin (Anyang) and its territory stretched
between the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.
The Zhou Dynasty (1045-221 BC)

After the Shang era, the larger Zhou era territory was divided by a network of feudal states and was ruled
over by kings.

The king of Zhou only had direct control over a small portion of the realm and received tributes from the
feudal states.

The first part of the Zhou era was called the Western Zhou (1045–771 BC). It was a fairly peaceful time
but, after 770 BC, the Zhou king lost his authority and seven prominent states emerged.

This era was divided into three periods: the Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 BC); the Spring and
Autumn Period (770–476 BC), and the Warring States Period (475–221 BC). It marked the transition from
tribal society to feudal society.

Major philosophies and religions emerged that were the basis of Chinese beliefs in later eras, such as
Confucianism and Daoism.

Imperial China (221 BC – 1912 AD)

From the first centralized feudal empire, the Qin Dynasty, which was established in 221 BC, until the
collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, this period is known as the imperial era of China.

The imperial China period makes up the bulk of Chinese history. With the cyclical rise and fall of
dynasties, Chinese civilization was cultivated and prospered in times of peace, then reformed after
rebellions and conquests.

The Qin and Han Dynasties (221BC –220 AD)


The Qin and Han dynasties were the initial period of the Chinese empire. During this period, a number of
institutions were established that laid the foundation of the basic political system for the next 2,000
years.

The short-lived Qin Dynasty was the first to unite China as a country under an emperor instead of a
ruling clan. A bureaucratic government was introduced, and was continued by the less extreme Han
Dynasty.

The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)

CHINA HIGHLIGHTS ® CUSTOMIZE

Home Chinese Culture China History

The History of China — Over 3,000 Years of Civilization

the Great Wall

The Great Wall.

China is one of the world's four ancient civilizations, and the written history of China dates back to the
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), over 3,000 years ago.

Here, we’ve outlined China’s history in a basic introduction and hope you have a good overview of it.

Timeline of Chinese History

Pre-1600 BC, China is charted mainly by legends and prehistoric evidence. The ancient China era was c.
1600–221 BC.

The imperial era was 221 BC – 1912 AD, from China's unification under Qin rule until the end of the Qing
Dynasty, the Republic of China era was from 1912 until 1949, and the modern China era from 1949 until
the present day.
Read on for a snapshot of China’s historical timeline and some key events. There’s also a simple
comparison with the world’s cultural development.

Chinese History

Click to enlarge!

Prehistoric China — Up to About 1600 BC

Prehistoric China's chronology is divided into the Paleolithic Age, the Neolithic Age, and the Bronze Age.

Without any reliable historical records, most of what has been pieced together about prehistoric life in
China comes from speculation about human activity at archaeological sites and unearthed relics. The
rest comes from what might be truth within Chinese mythology.

The Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) — Early Bronze Age China

Possibly the first dynasty in ancient China, it's generally believed that the Xia Dynasty consisted of
several clans living alongside the Yellow River. Most of the evidence for the Xia Dynasty, including its
name, is perhaps just legend.

There was a Bronze Age Yellow River civilization at this time at Erlitou in Henan; however, artifacts don't
show conclusively that this was the Xia Dynasty of later writings.

Ancient China (c. 1600–221 BC)

Ancient bronze objects of the Shang Dynasty have been unearthed.

Chinese civilization began along the Yellow River in the Shang era, and spread from there when Bronze
Age culture reached its peak.
Then, traditional Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism, developed in the feudal Zhou
era as China expanded in territory and population.

Ancient China finally fractured into warring kingdoms for 200 years, and its reunification marked the
start of the imperial China age.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)

The Shang Dynasty was the first to have historical records remaining. Many bronze objects and jade
articles, which date back to 1600 BC, have been found to support these early archaeological records.

The earliest form of Chinese writing – oracle bones – was found. The inscriptions on animal bones had
pictographic characters. The Shang Dynasty’s capital was Yin (Anyang) and its territory stretched
between the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.

The Zhou Dynasty (1045-221 BC)

After the Shang era, the larger Zhou era territory was divided by a network of feudal states and was ruled
over by kings.

The king of Zhou only had direct control over a small portion of the realm and received tributes from the
feudal states.

The first part of the Zhou era was called the Western Zhou (1045–771 BC). It was a fairly peaceful time
but, after 770 BC, the Zhou king lost his authority and seven prominent states emerged.

This era was divided into three periods: the Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 BC); the Spring and
Autumn Period (770–476 BC), and the Warring States Period (475–221 BC). It marked the transition from
tribal society to feudal society.
Major philosophies and religions emerged that were the basis of Chinese beliefs in later eras, such as
Confucianism and Daoism.

Imperial China (221 BC – 1912 AD)

From the first centralized feudal empire, the Qin Dynasty, which was established in 221 BC, until the
collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, this period is known as the imperial era of China.

The imperial China period makes up the bulk of Chinese history. With the cyclical rise and fall of
dynasties, Chinese civilization was cultivated and prospered in times of peace, then reformed after
rebellions and conquests.

The Qin and Han Dynasties (221BC –220 AD)

The Qin and Han dynasties were the initial period of the Chinese empire. During this period, a number of
institutions were established that laid the foundation of the basic political system for the next 2,000
years.

The short-lived Qin Dynasty was the first to unite China as a country under an emperor instead of a
ruling clan. A bureaucratic government was introduced, and was continued by the less extreme Han
Dynasty.

The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)

Terracotta Army

The Terracotta Army

The First Emperor — Qin Shi Huang was first to use the title of emperor in China. He and his Qin state
united China by conquering the other warring states, and he ruled with an iron fist.
Qin Shi Huang centralized the power of the empire after he took the throne and set up a system of laws.
He standardized units of weight and measurements, as well as the writing system.

The Qin Dynasty was the first and shortest imperial dynasty in China. It was famous for great building
projects, such as the Great Wall and the Terracotta Army, which guarded the First Emperor’s burial
objects and was to protect him in his afterlife.

During the later period of the Qin Dynasty, Liu Bang, a peasant leader, overthrew the unpopular Qin
regime and established the Han Dynasty.

The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)

CHINA HIGHLIGHTS ® CUSTOMIZE

Home Chinese Culture China History

The History of China — Over 3,000 Years of Civilization

the Great Wall

The Great Wall.

China is one of the world's four ancient civilizations, and the written history of China dates back to the
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), over 3,000 years ago.

Here, we’ve outlined China’s history in a basic introduction and hope you have a good overview of it.

Timeline of Chinese History

Pre-1600 BC, China is charted mainly by legends and prehistoric evidence. The ancient China era was c.
1600–221 BC.

The imperial era was 221 BC – 1912 AD, from China's unification under Qin rule until the end of the Qing
Dynasty, the Republic of China era was from 1912 until 1949, and the modern China era from 1949 until
the present day.
Read on for a snapshot of China’s historical timeline and some key events. There’s also a simple
comparison with the world’s cultural development.

Chinese History

Click to enlarge!

Prehistoric China — Up to About 1600 BC

Prehistoric China's chronology is divided into the Paleolithic Age, the Neolithic Age, and the Bronze Age.

Without any reliable historical records, most of what has been pieced together about prehistoric life in
China comes from speculation about human activity at archaeological sites and unearthed relics. The
rest comes from what might be truth within Chinese mythology.

The Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) — Early Bronze Age China

Possibly the first dynasty in ancient China, it's generally believed that the Xia Dynasty consisted of
several clans living alongside the Yellow River. Most of the evidence for the Xia Dynasty, including its
name, is perhaps just legend.

There was a Bronze Age Yellow River civilization at this time at Erlitou in Henan; however, artifacts don't
show conclusively that this was the Xia Dynasty of later writings.

Ancient China (c. 1600–221 BC)

Ancient bronze objects of the Shang Dynasty have been unearthed.

Chinese civilization began along the Yellow River in the Shang era, and spread from there when Bronze
Age culture reached its peak.
Then, traditional Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism, developed in the feudal Zhou
era as China expanded in territory and population.

Ancient China finally fractured into warring kingdoms for 200 years, and its reunification marked the
start of the imperial China age.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)

The Shang Dynasty was the first to have historical records remaining. Many bronze objects and jade
articles, which date back to 1600 BC, have been found to support these early archaeological records.

The earliest form of Chinese writing – oracle bones – was found. The inscriptions on animal bones had
pictographic characters. The Shang Dynasty’s capital was Yin (Anyang) and its territory stretched
between the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.

The Zhou Dynasty (1045-221 BC)

After the Shang era, the larger Zhou era territory was divided by a network of feudal states and was ruled
over by kings.

The king of Zhou only had direct control over a small portion of the realm and received tributes from the
feudal states.

The first part of the Zhou era was called the Western Zhou (1045–771 BC). It was a fairly peaceful time
but, after 770 BC, the Zhou king lost his authority and seven prominent states emerged.

This era was divided into three periods: the Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 BC); the Spring and
Autumn Period (770–476 BC), and the Warring States Period (475–221 BC). It marked the transition from
tribal society to feudal society.
Major philosophies and religions emerged that were the basis of Chinese beliefs in later eras, such as
Confucianism and Daoism.

Imperial China (221 BC – 1912 AD)

From the first centralized feudal empire, the Qin Dynasty, which was established in 221 BC, until the
collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, this period is known as the imperial era of China.

The imperial China period makes up the bulk of Chinese history. With the cyclical rise and fall of
dynasties, Chinese civilization was cultivated and prospered in times of peace, then reformed after
rebellions and conquests.

The Qin and Han Dynasties (221BC –220 AD)

The Qin and Han dynasties were the initial period of the Chinese empire. During this period, a number of
institutions were established that laid the foundation of the basic political system for the next 2,000
years.

The short-lived Qin Dynasty was the first to unite China as a country under an emperor instead of a
ruling clan. A bureaucratic government was introduced, and was continued by the less extreme Han
Dynasty.

The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)

Terracotta Army

The Terracotta Army

The First Emperor — Qin Shi Huang was first to use the title of emperor in China. He and his Qin state
united China by conquering the other warring states, and he ruled with an iron fist.
Qin Shi Huang centralized the power of the empire after he took the throne and set up a system of laws.
He standardized units of weight and measurements, as well as the writing system.

The Qin Dynasty was the first and shortest imperial dynasty in China. It was famous for great building
projects, such as the Great Wall and the Terracotta Army, which guarded the First Emperor’s burial
objects and was to protect him in his afterlife.

During the later period of the Qin Dynasty, Liu Bang, a peasant leader, overthrew the unpopular Qin
regime and established the Han Dynasty.

The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)

The longest imperial dynasty, the Han Dynasty, was known for starting the Silk Road trade and
connecting China with Central Asia and Europe.

In the Han Dynasty, a bureaucratic system in which promotion was based on merit was established and
Confucianism was adopted by the state for national governance. What’s more, agriculture, handicrafts,
and commerce developed rapidly.

During the reign of Emperor Wudi (r. 140–87 BC), the Han regime prospered most. The multiethnic
country became more united during the Han regime.

The Han Dynasty was one of the most powerful and important dynasties in China’s history. It had far-
reaching impacts for every dynasty that followed it.

China's Dark Ages (220-581)

When the Han Dynasty fell into decline, it fractured into the Three Kingdoms Period (220–265). After the
Three Kingdoms Period came the Jin Dynasty, which then conquered most of China (265–420).

Its hold on power was tenuous, however, and China again fractured, this time into the Southern and
Northern Dynasties (420–589).

During this messy time, many religions emerged and Buddhism was popular among the barbarian
kingdoms in North China.

After almost 400 years of chaos ended, the Sui Dynasty eventually unified China again in 581 AD.
Medieval China (581–1368)

China's Middle Ages saw steady growth through a series of regime changes.

China went from having four warring kingdoms to being the most culturally sophisticated and
technologically developed nation. Finally, it was consumed by the rise and fall of the phenomenal
Mongol Empire, which stretched to Europe.

The Sui Dynasty (581–618)

In 581, Yang Jian usurped the throne in the north and, as Emperor Wen, united the rest of China under
the Sui Dynasty.

It was a short, intense dynasty, with great conquests and achievements, such as the Grand Canal and the
rebuilding of the Great Wall.

One of Emperor Wen’s most prominent achievements was to create the imperial examination system to
select talented individuals for bureaucratic positions.

Most of this dynasty’s government institutions were adopted by later dynasties. It's considered, along
with the following Tang Dynasty, to be a great Chinese era.

The Tang Dynasty (618-907)

After the short-lived Sui Dynasty, the powerful and prosperous Tang Dynasty unified China once again.
The Tang Dynasty continued with the Sui’s imperial examination system and optimized it.

It ruled for three centuries, and it was also the golden age for poetry, painting, tricolored glazed pottery,
and woodblock printing.

In the middle of the Tang Dynasty, an immense rebellion appeared and some regions refused to follow
the state’s authority. This situation continued to the end of the Tang Dynasty.

After the Tang Dynasty came half a century of division in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
(907–960). This ended when one of the northern kingdoms defeated its neighbors and established the
Song Dynasty.

The Song Dynasty (960–1297)


The Song Dynasty unified the Central Plain and Southern China. However, the territory under the
Northern Song Dynasty’s (960–1127) control was smaller than the Tang Dynasty’s.

The modern-day northern Hebei Province was occupied by the Khitan and was under the control of the
Liao Dynasty (907–1125). In the northwest, the Western Xia Dynasty (1038–1227) – ruled by the Tanguts
– controlled the modern-day Gansu and northwestern Shaanxi.

Until the first half of the 12th century, the Jurchens (ancestors of modern-day Manchus) annihilated the
Liao Dynasty and invaded the Northern Song’s capital.

Then the Song government moved and reestablished the capital in Hangzhou, establishing the Southern
Song Dynasty (1127–1279). The Jurchens established the Jin Dynasty at the Yellow River Basin until it was
conquered by the Mongols in 1271.

The Song era was a period of technological advances and prosperity. During the Song Dynasty, the
handicraft industry as well as domestic and foreign trade boomed. Many merchants and travelers came
from abroad.

The "four great inventions" of the Chinese people in ancient times (paper, printing, the compass, and
gunpowder) were further developed in the Song Dynasty.

The Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368) — Mongol Rule

In 1206, Genghis Khan unified all the tribes in Mongolia, founded the Mongol khanate, and conquered
an unprecedented swathe of Asia.

At the end of the 12th century, Mongolian rule grew steadily. With Genghis Khan and his descendants
expanding their territory, the Mongol Empire extended all the way to Eastern Europe.

The part of the Mongolian khanate that ruled China was known as the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368).

From 1271 to 1279, his grandson, Kublai Khan, finally conquered the Song Dynasty and founded the Yuan
Dynasty. He made Dadu (modern-day Beijing) the capital of the first foreign-led dynasty in China.

Trade, technological development, and China’s introduction to foreign countries continued under
Mongol rule. Marco Polo from Venice traveled extensively in China, and later described China's culture
and marvels in his book, Travels.

The Final Dynasties (1368–1912) — Renaissance and More Foreign Rule


In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the imperial social structure (the royal/rich class, the scholarly class, the
working class, and the slaves) and imperial examinations continued. However, they became increasingly
inadequate in the ages of exploration, colonization, and industrialization.

The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

After a series of natural disasters and rebellion movements led by the Han people, a new native dynasty
was established in 1368.

The founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, replaced the waning Mongol Empire in China with the Ming Dynasty. It was
the last ethnic Chinese dynasty, sandwiched between two foreign ones. The Ming Dynasty represented a
long period of stability.

When his son and successor, Zhu Di, ascended the throne, he started to build the Forbidden City in
Beijing. In 1421, he officially made Beijing his capital. He was very supportive of international trade and
sponsored several voyages to the West.

It was an era of native Chinese strength and prosperity, which faltered due to natural disasters and
greedy leadership, as had so many dynasties before it. Eventually, the Ming Dynasty fell due to the
frequent peasant rebellions and Manchu attacks.

The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)

In the late Ming Dynasty, the Manchus in Northeast China grew in strength. The Manchus attacked China
for three generations in succession, and finally founded the Qing Dynasty. It was the last imperial
dynasty in China’s history.

The two most famous emperors of the Qing Dynasty were Emperor Kangxi (r. 1661–1772) and Emperor
Qianlong (r. 1735–96). Their reigns were "a golden age of prosperity".

However, the last Chinese dynasty is shamefully remembered for the forced trade of the late Qing era.
China was reduced to being a semi-colonial, semi-imperial country after the First Opium War, which
began in 1839.

Modern China's territory was established during this era.

The Republic of China Era (1912–1949)

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Home Chinese Culture China History


The History of China — Over 3,000 Years of Civilization

the Great Wall

The Great Wall.

China is one of the world's four ancient civilizations, and the written history of China dates back to the
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), over 3,000 years ago.

Here, we’ve outlined China’s history in a basic introduction and hope you have a good overview of it.

Timeline of Chinese History

Pre-1600 BC, China is charted mainly by legends and prehistoric evidence. The ancient China era was c.
1600–221 BC.

The imperial era was 221 BC – 1912 AD, from China's unification under Qin rule until the end of the Qing
Dynasty, the Republic of China era was from 1912 until 1949, and the modern China era from 1949 until
the present day.

Read on for a snapshot of China’s historical timeline and some key events. There’s also a simple
comparison with the world’s cultural development.

Chinese History

Click to enlarge!

Prehistoric China — Up to About 1600 BC

Prehistoric China's chronology is divided into the Paleolithic Age, the Neolithic Age, and the Bronze Age.
Without any reliable historical records, most of what has been pieced together about prehistoric life in
China comes from speculation about human activity at archaeological sites and unearthed relics. The
rest comes from what might be truth within Chinese mythology.

The Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) — Early Bronze Age China

Possibly the first dynasty in ancient China, it's generally believed that the Xia Dynasty consisted of
several clans living alongside the Yellow River. Most of the evidence for the Xia Dynasty, including its
name, is perhaps just legend.

There was a Bronze Age Yellow River civilization at this time at Erlitou in Henan; however, artifacts don't
show conclusively that this was the Xia Dynasty of later writings.

Ancient China (c. 1600–221 BC)

Ancient bronze objects of the Shang Dynasty have been unearthed.

Chinese civilization began along the Yellow River in the Shang era, and spread from there when Bronze
Age culture reached its peak.

Then, traditional Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism, developed in the feudal Zhou
era as China expanded in territory and population.

Ancient China finally fractured into warring kingdoms for 200 years, and its reunification marked the
start of the imperial China age.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)

The Shang Dynasty was the first to have historical records remaining. Many bronze objects and jade
articles, which date back to 1600 BC, have been found to support these early archaeological records.
The earliest form of Chinese writing – oracle bones – was found. The inscriptions on animal bones had
pictographic characters. The Shang Dynasty’s capital was Yin (Anyang) and its territory stretched
between the lower reaches of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.

The Zhou Dynasty (1045-221 BC)

After the Shang era, the larger Zhou era territory was divided by a network of feudal states and was ruled
over by kings.

The king of Zhou only had direct control over a small portion of the realm and received tributes from the
feudal states.

The first part of the Zhou era was called the Western Zhou (1045–771 BC). It was a fairly peaceful time
but, after 770 BC, the Zhou king lost his authority and seven prominent states emerged.

This era was divided into three periods: the Western Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 BC); the Spring and
Autumn Period (770–476 BC), and the Warring States Period (475–221 BC). It marked the transition from
tribal society to feudal society.

Major philosophies and religions emerged that were the basis of Chinese beliefs in later eras, such as
Confucianism and Daoism.

Imperial China (221 BC – 1912 AD)

From the first centralized feudal empire, the Qin Dynasty, which was established in 221 BC, until the
collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, this period is known as the imperial era of China.
The imperial China period makes up the bulk of Chinese history. With the cyclical rise and fall of
dynasties, Chinese civilization was cultivated and prospered in times of peace, then reformed after
rebellions and conquests.

The Qin and Han Dynasties (221BC –220 AD)

The Qin and Han dynasties were the initial period of the Chinese empire. During this period, a number of
institutions were established that laid the foundation of the basic political system for the next 2,000
years.

The short-lived Qin Dynasty was the first to unite China as a country under an emperor instead of a
ruling clan. A bureaucratic government was introduced, and was continued by the less extreme Han
Dynasty.

The Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)

Terracotta Army

The Terracotta Army

The First Emperor — Qin Shi Huang was first to use the title of emperor in China. He and his Qin state
united China by conquering the other warring states, and he ruled with an iron fist.

Qin Shi Huang centralized the power of the empire after he took the throne and set up a system of laws.
He standardized units of weight and measurements, as well as the writing system.

The Qin Dynasty was the first and shortest imperial dynasty in China. It was famous for great building
projects, such as the Great Wall and the Terracotta Army, which guarded the First Emperor’s burial
objects and was to protect him in his afterlife.

During the later period of the Qin Dynasty, Liu Bang, a peasant leader, overthrew the unpopular Qin
regime and established the Han Dynasty.
The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)

Silk Road

The Silk Road

The longest imperial dynasty, the Han Dynasty, was known for starting the Silk Road trade and
connecting China with Central Asia and Europe.

In the Han Dynasty, a bureaucratic system in which promotion was based on merit was established and
Confucianism was adopted by the state for national governance. What’s more, agriculture, handicrafts,
and commerce developed rapidly.

During the reign of Emperor Wudi (r. 140–87 BC), the Han regime prospered most. The multiethnic
country became more united during the Han regime.

The Han Dynasty was one of the most powerful and important dynasties in China’s history. It had far-
reaching impacts for every dynasty that followed it.

China's Dark Ages (220–581)

When the Han Dynasty fell into decline, it fractured into the Three Kingdoms Period (220–265). After the
Three Kingdoms Period came the Jin Dynasty, which then conquered most of China (265–420).

Its hold on power was tenuous, however, and China again fractured, this time into the Southern and
Northern Dynasties (420–589).

During this messy time, many religions emerged and Buddhism was popular among the barbarian
kingdoms in North China.
After almost 400 years of chaos ended, the Sui Dynasty eventually unified China again in 581 AD.

Medieval China (581–1368)

China's Middle Ages saw steady growth through a series of regime changes.

China went from having four warring kingdoms to being the most culturally sophisticated and
technologically developed nation. Finally, it was consumed by the rise and fall of the phenomenal
Mongol Empire, which stretched to Europe.

Grand Canal

The Grand Canal

The Sui Dynasty (581–618)

In 581, Yang Jian usurped the throne in the north and, as Emperor Wen, united the rest of China under
the Sui Dynasty.

It was a short, intense dynasty, with great conquests and achievements, such as the Grand Canal and the
rebuilding of the Great Wall.

One of Emperor Wen’s most prominent achievements was to create the imperial examination system to
select talented individuals for bureaucratic positions.

Most of this dynasty’s government institutions were adopted by later dynasties. It's considered, along
with the following Tang Dynasty, to be a great Chinese era.
tricolored glazed pottery

Tri-colored glazed pottery

The Tang Dynasty (618-907)

After the short-lived Sui Dynasty, the powerful and prosperous Tang Dynasty unified China once again.
The Tang Dynasty continued with the Sui’s imperial examination system and optimized it.

It ruled for three centuries, and it was also the golden age for poetry, painting, tricolored glazed pottery,
and woodblock printing.

In the middle of the Tang Dynasty, an immense rebellion appeared and some regions refused to follow
the state’s authority. This situation continued to the end of the Tang Dynasty.

After the Tang Dynasty came half a century of division in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
(907–960). This ended when one of the northern kingdoms defeated its neighbors and established the
Song Dynasty.

The Song Dynasty (960–1297)

The Song Dynasty unified the Central Plain and Southern China. However, the territory under the
Northern Song Dynasty’s (960–1127) control was smaller than the Tang Dynasty’s.

The modern-day northern Hebei Province was occupied by the Khitan and was under the control of the
Liao Dynasty (907–1125). In the northwest, the Western Xia Dynasty (1038–1227) – ruled by the Tanguts
– controlled the modern-day Gansu and northwestern Shaanxi.

Until the first half of the 12th century, the Jurchens (ancestors of modern-day Manchus) annihilated the
Liao Dynasty and invaded the Northern Song’s capital.
Then the Song government moved and reestablished the capital in Hangzhou, establishing the Southern
Song Dynasty (1127–1279). The Jurchens established the Jin Dynasty at the Yellow River Basin until it was
conquered by the Mongols in 1271.

The Song era was a period of technological advances and prosperity. During the Song Dynasty, the
handicraft industry as well as domestic and foreign trade boomed. Many merchants and travelers came
from abroad.

The "four great inventions" of the Chinese people in ancient times (paper, printing, the compass, and
gunpowder) were further developed in the Song Dynasty.

The Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368) — Mongol Rule

In 1206, Genghis Khan unified all the tribes in Mongolia, founded the Mongol khanate, and conquered
an unprecedented swathe of Asia.

At the end of the 12th century, Mongolian rule grew steadily. With Genghis Khan and his descendants
expanding their territory, the Mongol Empire extended all the way to Eastern Europe.

The part of the Mongolian khanate that ruled China was known as the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368).

From 1271 to 1279, his grandson, Kublai Khan, finally conquered the Song Dynasty and founded the Yuan
Dynasty. He made Dadu (modern-day Beijing) the capital of the first foreign-led dynasty in China.

Trade, technological development, and China’s introduction to foreign countries continued under
Mongol rule. Marco Polo from Venice traveled extensively in China, and later described China's culture
and marvels in his book, Travels.

The Final Dynasties (1368–1912) — Renaissance and More Foreign Rule


In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the imperial social structure (the royal/rich class, the scholarly class, the
working class, and the slaves) and imperial examinations continued. However, they became increasingly
inadequate in the ages of exploration, colonization, and industrialization.

The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

The Forbidden City

The Forbidden City

After a series of natural disasters and rebellion movements led by the Han people, a new native dynasty
was established in 1368.

The founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, replaced the waning Mongol Empire in China with the Ming Dynasty. It was
the last ethnic Chinese dynasty, sandwiched between two foreign ones. The Ming Dynasty represented a
long period of stability.

When his son and successor, Zhu Di, ascended the throne, he started to build the Forbidden City in
Beijing. In 1421, he officially made Beijing his capital. He was very supportive of international trade and
sponsored several voyages to the West.

It was an era of native Chinese strength and prosperity, which faltered due to natural disasters and
greedy leadership, as had so many dynasties before it. Eventually, the Ming Dynasty fell due to the
frequent peasant rebellions and Manchu attacks.

The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)

The Summer Palace

The Summer Palace


In the late Ming Dynasty, the Manchus in Northeast China grew in strength. The Manchus attacked China
for three generations in succession, and finally founded the Qing Dynasty. It was the last imperial
dynasty in China’s history.

The two most famous emperors of the Qing Dynasty were Emperor Kangxi (r. 1661–1772) and Emperor
Qianlong (r. 1735–96). Their reigns were "a golden age of prosperity".

However, the last Chinese dynasty is shamefully remembered for the forced trade of the late Qing era.
China was reduced to being a semi-colonial, semi-imperial country after the First Opium War, which
began in 1839.

Modern China's territory was established during this era.

The Republic of China Era (1912–1949)

The Republican Revolution of 1911, led by Sun Yat-sen, ended the rule of the Qing Dynasty. However, the
Republic of China could not be firmly established across China, with civil war ensuing for decades.

Modern China (1949–Now)

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, China has entered a Communist era of
stability, with the Reform and Opening Up policy of 1978 bringing in China's phenomenal economic
growth.

Education:

Education in China is a state-run system of public education run by the Ministry of Education. All citizens
must attend school for at least nine years, known as the nine-year compulsory education, which is
funded by the government. Compulsory education includes six years of primary education, starting at
age six or seven, and three years of junior secondary education (junior middle school) for ages 12 to 15.
After junior middle school, there are three years of senior middle school, which then completes the
secondary education.

In 1985, the government abolished tax-funded higher education, requiring university applicants to
compete for scholarships based on academic ability. In the early 1980s the government allowed the
establishment of the first private institution of higher learning, increasing the number of undergraduates
and people who hold doctoral degrees fivefold from 1995 to 2005.[4]

Structure of the Chinese education system

In China, the education is divided into three categories: basic education, higher education, and adult
education. By law, each child must have nine years of compulsory education from primary school (six
years) to junior secondary education (three years).

Basic Education

Basic education in China includes pre-school education (usually three years), primary education (six
years, usually starting at the age of six) and secondary education (six years).

Secondary education has two routes: academic secondary education and


specialized/vocational/technical secondary education. Academic secondary education consists of junior
(three years) and senior middle schools (three years). Junior middle school graduates wishing to
continue their education take a locally administered entrance exam, on the basis of which they will have
the option of i) continuing in an academic senior middle school; or ii) entering a vocational middle school
(or leave school at this point) to receive two to four years of training. Senior middle school graduates
wishing to go to universities must take National Higher Education Entrance Exam (Gao Kao). According to
the Chinese Ministry of Education, in June 2015, 9.42 million students took the exam.

Creative commons image Icon Higher Education

Higher education is further divided into two categories: 1) universities that offer four-year or five-year
undergraduate degrees to award academic degree qualifications; and 2) colleges that offer three-year
diploma or certificate courses on both academic and vocational subjects. Postgraduate and doctoral
programmes are only offered at universities.

Adult Education

The adult education ranges from primary education to higher education. For example, adult primary
education includes Workers’ Primary Schools, Peasants’ Primary Schools in an effort to raise literacy level
in remote areas; adult secondary education includes specialized secondary schools for adults; and adult
higher education includes traditional radio/TV universities (now online), most of which offer
certificates/diplomas but a few offer regular undergraduate degrees.

Term times and school hours


The academic year is divided into two terms for all the educational institutions: February to mid-July (six
weeks summer vocation) and September to mid/late-January (four weeks winter vocation). There are no
half-terms.

Most schools start from early morning (about 7:30am) to early evening (about 6pm) with 2 hours lunch
break. Many schools have evening self-study classes running from 7pm-9pm so students can finish their
homework and prepare for endless tests. If schools do not run self-study evening classes, students still
have to do their homework at home, usually up to 10pm. On average, a primary school pupils spend
about seven to eight hours at school whilst a secondary school student spends about twelve to fourteen
hours at school if including lunch time and evening classes. Due to fierce competitiveness to get into
good universities, the pressure to do well for Gao Kao is intense. Many schools hold extra morning
classes in science and math for three to four hours on Saturdays. If schools do not have Saturday
morning classes, most parents would send their children to expensive cramming school at weekends or
organise one-to-one private tuition for their children over the weekend.

Although Shanghai and Hong Kong are among the top performers in the Programme for International
Student Assessment, China's educational system has been criticized for its rigorousness and its emphasis
on test preparation.

Culture:

The Culture of China (Chinese: 中國文化) is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex
civilizations covering a history of over 5,000 years. The nation covers a large geographical region with
customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and provinces. Chinese culture (Chinese: 中
華文化) is a broad term used to describe the cultural foundation, even among Chinese-speaking regions
outside of mainland China.

Chinese culture underwent several turning points and renewals throughout its long unfolding but it was
already rich and essential in the period of antiquity called the pre-Chin period that saw the brutal
unification of China by Shi Huangdi. A major shift happened from the Shang dynasty which was still
connected with barbarian practices to the Zhou dynasty when culture started to flourish.

The antique period saw the creation of language, the emergence of philosophy, science, and technology
with a great intelligence and diversity that contrast with the chaos that plagued China during the
Warring States period, particularly from the third century to the first century B.C.E.

Identity
Many ethnic groups have existed in China. In terms of numbers, however, the preeminent ethnic group is
the Han Chinese, Han tribe 漢族 or Han people 漢人. The term Han comes from the dynasty (206 B.C.E.-
220 C.E.) which succeeded the Chin founded by Shi Huangdi, but it evokes the people who already in the
ancient period, especially in the north-eastern part, took conscience of belonging to the same group and
who made the cultural base for the whole country. On that base the Han were able to expand West and
to assimilate other groups culturally.

Throughout history, many groups have been assimilated into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared
without a trace. At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and
regional cultural traditions. The term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the notion of Chinese
nationalism in general. Much of the traditional cultural identity within the community has to do with
distinguishing the family name.

It is to be noted that although foreign powers like the Mongols in 1260 and the Manchu in 1644 took
over China, they had to unite with the Confucian and Neo-Confucian views and with the Chinese culture
if they wanted to keep their power and really govern. Therefore, foreign leaders became very much
sinocized and even sinophile. The Manchu Kangxi was extremely well versed in the Chinese classics and a
great protector of the Confucian humanities.

Regional

Traditional Chinese Culture covers large geographical territories, each region being usually divided into
distinct sub-cultures. Using modern names, here are some distinction:

The Yellow River basin areas include Henan, Shanxi, Shanxi, Hebei, and Shandong

The Yangtze River areas include Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Anhui, Zhejiang, and
Jiangsu.

Society

Chongzheng Hall, Mukden Palace, Shenyang, China

The dragon is such an important symbol in China that it deserves a few remarks. The dragon has been
used in other cultures with different meanings. In Christianity, the dragon is related to the snake of the
Fall and is called the Beast in the Book of Revelation with the meaning of evil and the enemy of man and
God. Saint George is represented as defeating the dragon. However, in the Chinese culture the dragon is
more related to the cosmic forces without the connotation of evil. The dragon in the first hexagram of
the Book of Changes called "The Creative" represents the profound man who comes out of his hidden
position and starts to act openly in a cautious way. While developing his action he must be careful not to
fall into arrogance when reaching a high position. Richard Wilhelm, who translated first The Book of
Changes into German, commented: "The dragon in China is a symbol of the electrically charged,
dynamic, arousing force that manifests itself in the thunderstorm. In winter this energy withdraws into
the earth; in the early summer it becomes active again … as a result the creative forces on earth begin to
stir again."

Structure

Since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of Chinese monarch has been the main
ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society.
Conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials ranking
high in the hierarchy, and the rest of the population under regular Chinese law[1]

The Chinese take as models of leadership the semi-legendary emperors Yao and Shun who were called
from among the poor people and lived a sacrificial self-less life before being asked to lead the empire. It
is therefore considered as a regression to have accepted the transmission of power by the hereditary
way.

The Zhou started the conception of the Mandate of Heaven 天命 that they considered having received in
order to stop the evil ruling of the Shang. Mencius developed a political conception based on the
Mandate of Heaven stating that the ruler can lose his Mandate and that in that case he can be removed
by the people. With Confucius and Mencius the aim of ruling is to establish a structure of goodness,
"ren," 仁政 for the sake of people.

Ancient Chinese education also has a long history especially with the Imperial examination.

Emperor Wu (156-87 B.C.E.) of the Han dynasty created the first university of 50 students, the number
reaching 30 000 in later Han. The curriculum relied much on the Confucian classics. Although it was a
period of Buddhism and of flourishing of poetry the Tang dynasty (581-907) established a system of
imperial examination in 605. This system was going to remain all throughout history with modifications
at different subsequent periods. The examination to select future leaders of the country included two
main parts, one on the Confucian classics, the other being an essay on political subjects and also on
poetry. Candidates were also evaluated according to their appearance, ability in speech and calligraphy.
The examination was open to all males differently from the previous dynasties, although the aristocrats
had their way to succeed better.

Trades and crafts were usually taught by a sifu. The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for
Women in the han dynasty and outlined the four virtues women must abide to. Chinese marriage and
Taoist sexual practices are some of the customs and rituals found in society.

Values

Most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism with a combination of conservatism. The
subject of which school was the most influential is always debated as many concepts such as Neo-
Confucianism, Buddhism and many others have come about. Reincarnation and other rebirth concept is
a reminder of the connection between real-life and the next-life.

Early wisdom, Confucius's thought, and related thoughts of Mencius and Sunzi have played a major role
in shaping the Chinese values until the introduction of Buddhism in the late Han first century C.E.,
Buddhism reaching its peak during the period of disunity from the third century to the ninth century.

Early Confucianism emphasized the deep cultivation of the Self and correction of the heart in order to
serve others and be able to correctly establish a family and also to contribute to the shaping of a country
in caring for people of all ages and particularly for those in need. The Confucian figures were the ruler as
a parent to all and the parents of the family with the values of loyalty towards the sovereign and filial
piety towards the parents.

This dramatically changed with the coming of Buddhism. Although both schools of thought share the
values of heart, "ren" or compassion, care for others in the ideal way, the Buddhist figure is more the
celibate monk or nun. The primary interest in Buddhism is not the family values or the elaboration of
social institutions, but more a quest for self spiritual enlightenment and salvation. Therefore, from this
period of the fourth to ninth centuries C.E. in China remained a tension that never really resolved
between Confucianism and Buddhism.
This is one of the reason that Confucian scholars worked hard at creating a Confucian renaissance, called
Neo-Confucianism, that went back to the ancient foundation and conveyed the core of Confucianism in a
new more elaborated way philosophically and metaphysically.

Taoism brought a complementary aspect in the development of Chinese values and culture so much so
that the three thoughts are inseparable. Taoism is very critical of all that is artificial and the fruit of
abstract reasoning. It takes nature as a model and advocates the need to strive for naturalness,
spontaneity, creativity and simplicity. When someone reaches the top of his art in working he does
things naturally, without efforts or pretense. Taoists withdrew a bit too much of social responsibilities
but their deep message was understood by the Confucians and the Buddhists.

Language

Chinese calligraphy written by Song Dynasty (1051-1108 C.E.) poet Mi Fu

Spoken Chinese consisted of a number of Chinese dialects throughout history. In the Ming Dynasty,
standard Mandarin was nationalized. Even so, it wasn't until the Republic of China era in the 1910s when
there was any noticeable result in promoting a common unified language in China.

The ancient written standard was Classical Chinese. It was used for thousands of years, but was mostly
reserved for scholars and intellectuals. By the twentieth century, millions of citizens, especially those
outside of the imperial court were illiterate.[1] Only after the May 4th Movement did the push for
Vernacular Chinese begin. This allowed common citizens to read since it was modeled after the
linguistics and phonology of a spoken language.

Despite its difficulty to master, Classical Chinese remains extremely important in the world heritage of
languages. Classical Chinese's birth is concomitant to the beginning of astronomy, the connection with
higher spirits through divination and the formation of several Books of Changes, the most famous being
the one of the Zhou dynasty. Therefore Chinese is not just a code or a tool, it is packed with profound
meaning and wisdom that gives light and guidance to people in their decisions and actions when
received in the proper way. Classical Chinese has been the cultural backbone of all the great
philosophies, spiritualities, and even arts not just in China but all over Asia.
Mythology and spirituality

Luohan, one of the spiritual figures shared between Chinese and India Culture across different types of
Buddhism.

The Chinese never developed extensive myths such as those of Ancient Greece or Rome. They
mentioned late in the South semi-divine figures like Pangu to explain the cosmic development of the
world. But in general they were more interested in semi legendary figures having already an historical
dimension and who were concerned by the development of human civilization like Fuxi and Shennong.

A large part of Chinese culture is based on the notion that a spiritual world exists. Countless methods of
divination have helped answer questions, even serving as an alternate to medicine. Folklores have
helped fill the gap for things that cannot be explained. There is often a blurred line between myth,
religion and unexplained phenomenon. While many deities are part of the tradition, some of the most
recognized holy figures include Guan Yin, Jade Emperor, and Budai. Other concepts have extended to
outside of mythology into spiritual symbols such as Door god and the Imperial guardian lions. Along with
the belief of the holy, there is also the evil. Practices such as Taoist exorcism fighting mogwai and jiang
shi with peachwood swords are just some of the concepts passed down from generations. A few Chinese
fortune telling rituals are still in use today after thousands of years of refinement.

Health

A large part of traditional Chinese culture is about finding the balance of Yin and Yang in relation to Qi,
health, and the meridian system in order to find harmony. Traditional Chinese medicine consists of a
number of treatments including Chinese herbology and acupuncture. Other less intrusive forms of
health improvement include qigong and meditation.

The Chinese vision brings something essential in the understanding of man as a whole, of the body in
order to prevent sickness and to take care when an unbalance takes place. This approach appeals to
philosophy and wisdom. With the understanding of the Creative and the Receptive, the Yin and the Yang,
the corresponding bestowing what is hidden and what is manifested, the harmony of the Tao and the
myriads things benefiting of its working, we see how each being receives its nature and its potential of
development and when following essential principles keeps an harmonious balance between the
different dimensions of one's being. For example the body is healthy when keeping the balance between
its different components and when energy and blood are smoothly circulating. The Chinese developed
all kinds of techniques to nourish and balance the breath which is so vital to the duration of activities.
Confucius insisted in the Zhongyong on the cardinal dimension of the "Mean" 中, Middle, that is also
present in Aristotle but in a less Ontological way. Confucius lamented that people usually missed this
golden center because they were either excessive or lacking effort. Finding the center is to reach proper
emotions, thoughts and decisions. It is to enter into harmony with the universe and others. Therefore
because of our lack of true vision we often lead a life that is not fully healthy.

Literature

Zhūgě Liàng, a character in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The extensive collection of books that have been preserved since the Zhou Dynasty demonstrate just
how advanced the intellectuals have been at one time. The Five Cardinal Points is the foundation for
almost all major studies. Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of
subjects including poetry, astrology, astronomy, calendar, constellations, and many others. Some of the
most important early texts include I Ching and Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics. Many
Chinese concepts such as Yin and Yang, Qi, Four Pillars of Destiny in relation to heaven and earth were all
theorized in the dynastic periods.

Notable Confucianists, taoists and scholars of all class have made significant contributions from
documenting history to authoring saintly concepts that seem hundred of years ahead of time. Many
novels such as Four Great Classical Novels spawned countless fictional stories. By the end of the Qing
Dynasty, Chinese culture would embark on a new era with Vernacular Chinese for the common citizens.
Hu Shih and Lu Xun would be pioneers in modern literature.

Arts

A Tang Dynasty tri-color Chinese glazed horse c. 700 C.E.

Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers, teachers, religious figures
and even political figures. Chinese art encompasses all facets of fine art, folk art and performance art.
Porcelain pottery was one of the first form of art in the Palaeolithic period. Early Chinese music and
poetry was influenced by the Book of Songs, Confucius and the Chinese poet and statesman Qu Yuan.
Chinese painting became a highly appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety of Shan
shui with specialized styles such as Ming Dynasty painting. Early Chinese music was based on percussion
instruments, which later gave away to string and reed instruments. By the Han dynasty paper cutting
became a new art form after the invention of paper. Chinese opera would also be introduced and
branched regionally in additional to other performance formats such as variety arts.

Martial arts

Wu Chien-ch'uan demonstrate a Wu family posture known as Step Forward, Deflect, Parry and Punch 進
步搬攔捶

Main articles: Chinese martial arts and List of Chinese martial arts

China is the original birth place of Eastern martial arts. The names of martial arts were called Kung Fu or
its first name Wushu. China also includes the home to the well-respected Shaolin Monastery and
Wudang Mountains. The first generation of art started more for the purpose of survival and warfare than
art. Overtime, some art forms have branched off, while others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor.
Regardless, China has brewed some of the most renowned martial artists including Wong Fei Hung and
many others. The art have also co-existed with a variety of weapons including the more standard 18
arms. Legendary and controversial moves like Dim Mak are also praised and talked about within the
culture.

Fashion

Different social class in different time eras boast different fashion trends. China's fashion history covers
thousands of years with some of the most colorful and diverse arrangements. Fashionable but
questionable practices such as footbinding have also been part of the culture. Many symbols such as
phoenix have been used for decorative as well as political purposes.

Architecture

Forbidden City, featuring classic construction style

Main article: Chinese architecture

Chinese architecture, examples of which can be found from over 2,000 years ago, has long been a
hallmark of the culture. There are certain features common to Chinese architecture, regardless of
specific region or use. The most important is its emphasis on width, as the wide halls of the Forbidden
City serve as an example. In contrast, western architecture emphasize on height, though there are
exceptions such as pagodas.

Another important feature is symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies to everything
from palaces to farmhouses. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as
asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition
is to create enduring flow, to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in
nature herself. Feng shui has played an important part in structural development.

Cuisine

Chinese meal in Suzhou with rice, shrimp, eggplant, fermented tofu, vegetable stir-fry, vegetarian duck
with meat and bamboo

The overwhelmingly large variety mainly comes from the emperors hosting a banquet of 100 dishes each
meal[2] Countless number of imperial kitchen staff and concubines were involved in the food
preparation process. Over time, many dishes became part of the everyday citizen culture. Some of the
highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in
Beihai Park Beijing and the Oriole Pavilion[2]. Arguably all branches of Hong Kong eastern style or even
American Chinese food are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines.

Leisure

A number of games and past-times are popular within Chinese culture. The most common game is Mah
Jong. The same pieces are used for other styled games such as Shanghai Solitaire. Others include Pai
Gow, Pai gow poker, and other bone domino games. Go proverb and Xiangqi is also popular. Ethnic
games like Chinese yo-yo are also part of the culture.

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