Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration

in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

A2. TRIGONOMETRY AND SOLID MENSURATION

A2.1. TRIGONOMETRY

A2.1.1 Angles

1. Angle - set of points determined by two rays or finite line segments, L 1 (initial side)
and L2 (terminal side) having a common end point O.
2. Standard position of an Angle - obtained by taking its vertex at the origin of the
rectangular coordinate system and letting the initial side L 1 coincide with the positive
x-axis.
3. Positive Angle - formed by a counterclockwise rotation of L1 to its terminal position
L2.
4. Negative Angle - formed by a clockwise rotation of L1 to L2.
5. Straight Angle - sides lie on the same straight line but extend in opposite direction
from its vertex, e.g., 1800 .
6. Co-terminal Angles - any two angles having the same initial and terminal sides, no
matter the amount or direction of rotation of L 1 before coming to position L2 in a
specified quadrant, e.g., 4200 and -3000.
7. Quadrantal Angle - terminal side lies on a coordinate axis, e.g., 900 or 1800.
8. One degree (10) - the measure of the central angle of a circle subtended by (or
opposite to) an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.
9. Conversion Factors - π radians / 1800; 60 minutes / deg ; 60 seconds / min.
10. Measures of Angle θ -
Acute Angle   0 0 <  < 90 0
Obtuse Angle   90 0 <  < 180 0
Complementary Angles  &      = 90 0
Supplementary Angles  &      = 180 0
Right Angle  90 0

300 
Special Angles 6

450 
4
300 
2 450 600 
2 3
3 1
900 

2
60 0 45 0
1 1
[ 30 -60o-90o ]
o
[ 45o-45o-90o]

NOTE: Usually, no units are used for radian measure, i.e.,   5 means   5 radians, not
  5 degrees.

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

11. Length of a circular arc s on a circle of radius r subtending a central angle of radian
measure  :
s = r
(A2 - 1)
12. Area A of a circular sector:
s A = 12 r 2 ,  , in radians (A2 - 2)
r 
r

Circular sector

13. Angular speed  of a wheel rotating at a constant rate of n revolutions per minute
-the angle generated per unit time by a line segment from the center of the wheel to a
point on its circumference:
  n (A2 - 3)
14. Linear speed  of a point on the circumference of a wheel of radius r: distance
traveled by the point per unit time,   r .

NOTE: Whereas the linear speed  depends on the diameter of the wheel, the latter is
irrelevant in finding the angular speed  .

A2.1.2 Trigonometric Functions

Table A2-1. Trigonometric Functions of an Acute Angle

FUNCTION DEFINITION FORMULA
b
Sine OPP / HYP sin  
c
a
Cosine ADJ / HYP cos 
c
b
Tangent OPP / ADJ tan  
a
c
Cosecant HYP / OPP csc 
b
c
Secant HYP / ADJ sec 
a
a
Cotangent ADJ / OPP cot  
b

Hypotenuse
c
b
Opposite side

The Right Triangle

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

2. Other Trigonometric Functions.

vers  1  cos
cov ers  1  sin 
ex sec  sec  1
hav  1
2
vers
(A2 - 4)
(A2 - 5)
(A2 - 6)
(A2 - 7)

NOTE:
1. The values of the six trigonometric functions are positive for every acute angle 
since the lengths of the sides of a right triangle are positive real numbers.
2. The hypotenuse is always greater than the adjacent or opposite side.
3. The following functions are reciprocal of each other: sine and cosecant, cosine and
secant, tangent and cotangent.
4. According to the Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
Hyp  adj.  opp (A2 - 8)
5. The adjacent and opposite sides are perpendicular to each other; hence, their
included angle is 90 0 .

3. Trigonometric Function of the quadrantal angle  in the standard position in terms

of coordinates of point P on a unit circle:
y
sin 900  1
r
cos 900  x  0
r
y y
(0,1) tan 900   
x

sin 1800  0 sin 0 0  0

(1,0)
cos 1800  1 cos 00  1
(-1,0) r =1 x
tan 1800  0 tan 00  0

sin 2700  1 (0,-1)

cos 2700  0
tan 2700  

The Quadrantal Angles

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

4. To determine the value of the function of any angle  :

1. Get the value of the function of the reference angle  R , i.e., the acute angle
that the terminal side of  makes with the x-axis.

2. Prefix the sign of the function of the angle  in the specified quadrant

II I II y y I

sin    sin    θR  θR  θ
x x
cos   cos  
tan    tan   
y y

sin    sin    
cos   cos    θR x
θR
x

tan    tan   
III IV III IV

Algebraic Signs of Trigonometric Functions The Reference Angles, θR

3. For   0 and   360 , obtain its coterminal angle 0 0    360 0 ; then
0 0

perform steps (1) and (2), using the reference angle  R and the coterminal
angle, respectively.

EXAMPLE: Find the exact value of 

cos  20
6

SOLUTION:

cos  20
6
  cos(600 )  cos(360  240 )   cos 60
0 0 0 0
1
2
R
Coterminal angle of
the given 
Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions

a. Even function  f (  x )  f ( x) :

cos(  x )  cos( x )
sec( x )  sec( x )

b. Odd function  f ( x)   f ( x) :

sin(  x )   sin( x )
tan(  x )   tan( x )
csc( x )   csc( x )
cot(  x )   cot( x )

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

NOTE: The graphs of even functions are symmetrical with respect to the y-axis; the odd
functions, symmetrical with respect to the origin.

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

A2.1.3. Trigonometric Formulas

1. Trigonometric Substitution

x  a sin  for       and a > 0

2 2

EXAMPLE: a 2   a sin   a 2 cos 2   a cos

2
a2  x2  
 
x  a tan  for    and a > 0
2 2
 3
x  a sec for 0    or     and a > 0
2 2

2. The Fundamental Identities

1. Reciprocal Identities

1
sin   (A2 – 10)
csc
1
cos  (A2 – 11)
sec
1
tan   (A2 – 12)
cot 

2. Tangent / Cotangent Identities

sin 
tan   (A2 – 13)
cos 
cos 
cot   (A2 – 14)
sin 

3. Pythagorean Identities

sin 2   cos 2   1 (A2 – 15)

1  tan 2   sec 2  (A2 – 16)
1  cot 2   csc 2  (A2 – 17)

3. Addition and Subtraction Formulas (u and v are real numbers)

sin  u  v   sin u cos v  cos u sin v (A2 – 18)

cos u  v   cos u cos v sin u sin v (A2 – 19)

tan u  tan v
tan  u  v   (A2 – 20)
1 tan u tan v

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

4. Reduction of trigonometric functions of sum or difference of angles into functions of

 alone.

Alternative I: Use addition/subtraction formulas

Alternative II: Find the terminal side of the given sum/difference of angles.
Then apply the steps for determining the value of the function of any angle
previously outlined.
 5 
EXAMPLE: Express cos   in terms of a trigonometric function
 2 
of  alone.

SOLUTION:

ALTERNATIVE I

 5  5 5
cos    cos cos  sin  sin   cos  0   sin  1  sin
 2  2 2

ALTERNATIVE II (See Figure)  5

2
 5 
cos     cos R   sin
 2 
R

5. Cofunction Formulas

   
cos     sin (A2 – 21) sec     csc (A2 – 22)
2  2 
   
sin     cos (A2 – 23) csc     sec (A2 – 24)
2  2 
   
tan     cot  (A2 – 25) cot      tan (A2 – 26)
2  2 

6. Double-Angle Formulas

sin 2u  2 sin u cos u (A2 – 27)

cos 2u  cos 2 u  sin 2 u (A2 – 28)
 1  2 sin 2 u (A2 – 29)
 2 cos 2 u  1 (A2 – 30)
2 tan u
tan 2u  (A2 – 31)
1  tan 2 u

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

7. Half-Angle Identities (so-called because the number u is one-half the angle 2u on the
right side of the equality sign)

1  cos 2u
sin 2 u  (A2 – 32)
2
1  cos 2u
cos u 
2
(A2 – 33)
2
1  cos 2u
tan u 
2
(A2 – 34)
1  cos 2u

8. Half-Angle Formulas
v 1  cos v
sin  (A2 – 35)
2 2
v 1  cos v
cos   (A2 – 36)
2 2
v 1  cos v 1  cos v sin v
tan     (A2 – 37)
2 1  cos v sin v 1  cos v

v
NOTE: Choose the algebraic sign depending on the quadrant containing the angle .
2
v v
Thus if is in quadrant III, cos  is negative (-).
2  2

9. Product-to-Sum Formulas

sin u cos v  2
    sin u  v  
1 sin u  v
(A2 – 38)
 
cos u sin v  12 sin u  v  sin u  v   (A2 – 39)
 
cos u cos v  12 cos u  v   cos u  v   (A2 – 40)
    cos u  v  
sin u sin v  12 cos u  v (A2 – 41)

10. Sum-to-Product Formulas

   
sin   sin   2 sin cos (A2 – 42)
2 2
   
sin   sin   2 cos sin (A2 – 43)
2 2
   
cos  cos   2 cos cos (A2 – 44)
2 2
   
cos  cos   2 sin sin (A2 – 45)
2 2

A2.1.4. Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1. INVERSE SINE (or arcsine) FUNCTION: denoted by sin 1 or arcsin

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

DEFINITION:
y  arcsin x if and only if x  sin y ,

DOMAIN:  1  x  1 ;

GENERAL SOLUTION OF sin y = x:

y = nπ + (-1)n arcsin x, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±…..

PRINCIPAL VALUE: y = arcsin x, with range of values.

 
  arcsin x 
2 2

2. INVERSE COSINE (or arccosine) FUNCTION: denoted by cos 1 or arccos

DEFINITION:
y  arccos x if and only if cos y  x ,

DOMAIN:  1  x  1 and range: 0  arccos x  

GENERAL SOLUTION of cos y  x :

y  2n  arccos x , n  0 ,  1,  2 ,  3 ,  .....

PRINCIPAL VALUE: y  arccos x

3. INVERSE TANGENT (or arctangent) FUNCTION: denoted by tan 1 or arctan

DEFINITION:
y  arctan x if and only if tan y  x ,
DOMAIN:    x  
GENERAL SOLUTION of tan y  x :

y  n  arctan x , n  0 ,  1 ,  2 ,  3 ,  .....

PRINCIPAL VALUE: y  arctan x , with a range:    arctan x  

2 2
4. INVERSE COTANGENT (or arccotangent) FUNCTION: denoted by cot 1 or
arccot

DEFINITION:
y  arc cot x if and only if x  cot y ,
DOMAIN:    x  
GENERAL SOLUTION of cot y  x :

y  n  arc cot x , n  0 ,  1 ,  2 ,  3 ,  .....

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

PRINCIPAL VALUE: y  arc cot x , with a range: 0  arc cot x  

5. INVERSE COSECANT (or arccosecant) FUNCTION: denoted by csc 1 or

arccsc

DEFINITION:
y  csc 1 x if and only if csc y  x ,
DOMAIN: x 1
GENERAL SOLUTION OF csc y  x :

y  n    1 n arc csc x , n  0 ,  1 ,  2 ,  3 ,  .....

PRINCIPAL VALUE: y  arc csc x , with a range:

   arc csc x  
2 2

6. INVERSE SECANT (or arcsecant) FUNCTION: denoted by sec 1 or arcsec

DEFINITION:
y  sec 1 x if and only if sec y  x ,
DOMAIN: x 1
GENERAL SOLUTION OF sec y  x :

y  2n  arc sec x , n  0 ,  1,  2 ,  3 ,  .....

PRINCIPAL VALUE: y  arc sec x , with a range: 0  y  

NOTE: “Arcsin x” means “an angle whose sine is x” and “arccosine x”., “an angle whose
3 1
cosine is x”, and so on. Thus, arcsin , arccos , arctan 3 , etc, refer to the same angle
2 2
y=600.
A2.1.5. Solutions of Triangles

1. Solving the Right Triangle

1. Angle of Elevation – angle that the line of sight (to an elevated object) makes
with the horizontal line, usually at eye level of observer.
2. Angle of Depression – similarly defined, except that the object sighted is below
the horizontal line or eye level.

NOTE: The sum of the interior angles of any triangle:

      180 0 (A2 – 46)
Given: one side (a, b or c) and any acute angle  , or any 2 sides
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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
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a (c  b)(c  b)  c sin   b tan  (A2 – 47)

b (c  a )(c  a 0)  c cos   a tan  (A2 – 48)

2. Solution of Oblique Triangles

Oblique Triangle –does not contain a right angle. Solving oblique triangles mean
finding the measures of the angles  ,  and  corresponding to the vertices A, B and
C, and measures of the sides opposite them designated by a, b and c, respectively.

3. Law of Sine
a b c
  (A2 – 49)
sin  sin  sin 

Case I: Given the measures of two angles and a side, where

      180 0
Case II: (ambiguous) – Given the measure of 2 sides a and b and an acute
angle  opposite a

Possibility 1(See Figure): a  b sin 

y C
SOLUTION: No triangle formed because a
b B
BC does not intersect the
x-axis to complete a triangle 
x
A b sin 
Possibility 2(See Figure): a  b sin 
y C
SOLUTION: One right triangle formed b
 a  b sin 
x
A B

y C
Possibility 3(See Figure): b sin   a  b
SOLUTION: 2 possible triangles formed, b a a
CAB1 and CAB2, since side a
intersect the x-axis at B1 and B2
 b sin 
x
A B2 B1

Possibility 4: a  b
SOLUTION: Only one possible triangle;
side a intersects the x-axis at B
only. If a  b , an isosceles triangle
is obtained.

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Case III: One angle (  ) is obtuse: the measure of the side a opposite the
angle is greater than the measures of the other sides.

Possibility 1: a  b

SOLUTION: One triangle is formed

However, consider:
Possibility 2: a  b
SOLUTION: There is no triangle

NOTE: The ambiguous case yields the same results if the known sides and the
angle opposite one of them are represented by other symbols: c, b and  ; b, a
and  , and other combinations.

4. Laws of Cosines

a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc cos  (A2 – 50)

2 2 2
b  a  c  2ac cos  (A2 – 51)
c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab cos  (A2 – 52)

Case I – Given 2 sides and the angle between them (examples: a, b and  ; a,
c and  , etc.)
Case II – Given the measures of the 3 sides

NOTE: In solving these cases, the law of cosines are usually aided by the Law of
sines and the equation       180 0 .

5. Laws of Tangents
a  b tan 2    
1
 (A2 – 53)
a  b tan 12    

b  c tan 2     
1
 (A2 – 54)
b  c tan 12     

a  c tan 2    
1
 (A2 – 55)
a  c tan 12    

6. Application to Navigation

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Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

One knot – one nautical mile per hour

Course of a ship or airplane – angle measured in degrees clockwise from the north to
the actual direction of the carrier. Contrary to the algebraic sign convention, the angle
is considered positive in the clockwise direction.
Bearing from an observer at A to a particular location at B - angle measured in
degrees clockwise from the north to the line segment AB ; while the bearing from B
to A is 180 0   .
N N

180 0  0
B

A
A

Bearing from A to B Bearing from B to A

A2.1.6. Polar or Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers

If the point  a, b  of complex numbers representing a  bi is expressed in polar
coordinates with r  0 , then

a  bi  r cos  i r sin  (A2 – 56)

 r (cos   i sin  ) (A2 – 57)
 r cis (A2 – 58)
NOTE:
1. The right side of the equality sign is the polar (or trigonometric) form of the
complex number a  bi .
2. The angle  is the argument (or amplitude) of a  bi ; the argument may be
measured in degrees or radians.

3. The argument  for 0    2 , is called the principal argument; hence, the

complex number is considered to be in standard polar form.

1. De Moivre’s Theorem for All Integers

If k is any positive or negative integer, then

 r  cos  i sin    k  r k  cos k  i sin k  (A2 – 59)
EXAMPLE: Use De Moivre’s Theorem to find   1  i  12

SOLUTION:
Plot (-1 -i ) to determine r and  values (See Figure Below)

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  1  i  12   2 12 cos  12 54  i sin( 12 ) 54 

 
1   30   30 
 6 cos    i sin  
2   2   2 
1
   1  0i 
64
1
 i
64

5
 
4

-1 real

r 2
( 1  i ) -1

Graph of (-1 –i)

2. n th Roots of Complex Numbers

If n is a positive integer, then z  r  cos  i sin   has exactly n distinct n th roots

1/ n     k  2     k  2 
given by r cos   i sin  where k is 0, 1, …..n - 1.
  n   n 

NOTE: The geometric representation of the n th roots lie equally spaced around a
circle of radius n r measured from its center at the origin

EXAMPLE: Find the three cube roots of unity.

SOLUTION:
a  bi  1  0i ; r  12  0 2  1 ; cos  a  1
r
sin   b  0 therefore,   0
r

The three roots are the following:

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1/ 3   0  k  2   0  k  2 
k  0, 1st Root  1 cos   i sin 
  3   3 
  0  2   0 
 1cos   i sin    1
  3   3 
  1  2   2 
k  1, 2nd Root  cos   i sin   0.5  0.866i
  3   3 
  2  2   4 
k  2, 3rd Root  cos   i sin   0.5  0.866i
  3   3 

 0.5  0.866 i

10i

 0.5  0.866 i

The Graph of the Three Roots of Unity

NOTE: The three roots are equally spaced on a circle of radius 3

1  1.
A2.2. SOLID MENSURATION

A2.2.1. Areas of Plane Figures

1. Square: d  e 2 ; d is length of diagonal and e is the edge

A  e 2  12 d 2

2. Rectangle: d  b2  h2 , A  bh  b d 2  b 2  h d 2  h 2

3. Parallelogram (opposite sides parallel): A  bh , h is the perpendicular distance between

parallel sides
A  2 s1 ( s1  b)( s1  h)( s1  d1 ) , where s1  12 (b  h  d1 )
A  2 s 2 ( s 2  b)( s 2  h)( s 2  d 2 ) , where s 2  12 (b  h  d 2 )
d1 is short diagonal,
d 2 is long diagonal

4. Rhombus (equilateral parallelogram): A  12 ab , a and b are length of the diagonals.

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5. Triangle: A  12 bh , h is length of line dropped

perpendicularly from one vertex
to the line where its opposite side
lies.
A s ( s  a )( s  b)( s  c ) , where s  12  a  b  c  and a, b
and c are the three sides of the
triangle

6. Trapezoid (four sides, two parallel): A  12 (b1  b2 )h , h is the perpendicular distance

s
between shorter and longer bases, b1 and b2, respectively.

 2 C2 
7. Circle: C  2r  d ; A  r 2  d  r
4 4
C = circumference, r = radius, d = diameter

8. Sector of a Circle: A  12 rs  12 r  , s = arc length

2
Circular Sector
s = r ,  in radians b s

r h
9. Segment of a Circle: A  12 rs  12 bh

Circular Segment

10. Ellipse: (See Figure) A  ab

b
length of major axis = 2a
length of minor axis = 2b
a2  b2
C(approximate) = 2
2 a

Parabolic Segment: (See Figure) A  23 bh

 2 
 2h  4h 2   b  
b
2
b  1 
2
  2 
Length of arc DEF  4h         ln  
2

2
   2   2h   b 
 2 
 
E

D F
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 180 0 
11. Regular Polygon of n sides: A  14 nl cot  , l = length of each side
2

 n 
1  180 0 
R csc  , R = radius of circumscribed circle
2  n 
1  180 
0
r  cot  , r = radius of the inscribed circle
2  n 
360 0
 
n
 
l  2r tan  2 R sin
2 2
(n  2)180 0

n

12. Area of polygon inscribed in a circle of radius R (See Figure):

nR 2  360 0 
A sin  
2  n  l


inscribed circle r
R
13. Perimeter of inscribed polygon(See Figure): 

180 0
P  2nR sin
n

14. Area of polygon circumscribed about a circle of radius r (See Figure):

180 0
A  nr 2 tan l
n


inscribed circle r
R
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circumscribed circle
Philippine Handbook Trigonometry and Solid Mensuration
in Chemical Engineering Azucena Puertollano

A2.2.2. Surface Areas and Volume of Solids

1. Polyhedron – solid bounded by polygons; if regular, all faces are regular polygons

 Edges of a polyhedron – intersections of the bounding planes

 faces – portions of the bounding planes enclosed by the edges.
 vertices – intersections of the edges.
 tetrahedron – four faces are equilateral triangles:
A f (area of one face)  3 2
e , where e = length of an edge
4
2 3
Volume of Tetrahedron, V  e
12
6
Radius of inscribed sphere in a tetrahedron, r = e
12
e
 hexahedron – cube, radius of inscribed sphere , r 
2

 octahedron – eight faces that are equilateral triangles

3 2
Af  e AT  2 3 e 2
4
2 3 6
V  e radius of inscribed sphere = e
3 6

 General Formulas for Polyhedrons

AT  n f A f V  13 n f A f r where nf = number of faces

Cube: Total Area, AT  6e ,

2
 e = edge length
3 3
Volume, V  e 3  d , d = length of diagonal of cube
9

 Rectangular parallelepiped: AT  2(ab  bc  ac)

V  abc , where a, b and c are length, width and height, respectively

 Prism - polyhedron with two equal and parallel base polygons and lateral faces which
are parallelograms:
Lateral Area, AL  ePr where e = lateral edge
Pr = perimeter of right section
Volume, V  Bh  Ar e where B = area of the base
h = altitude
Ar = area of the right section

2. Cylinders

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 Right Circular Cylinder: AL  2rh , B  r 2 , V  r 2 h

 Hollow Cylinders: V  h( R 2  r 2 ) , where R and r are external and internal radii
 Truncated Right Circular Cylinder (See Figure):
AL  2rh , V  r 2 h , where h  12 (h1  h2 )
h1  h  h2

h1 h h2

3. Pyramid
AL = sum of areas of triangular faces
V  13 Bh

NOTE: For a regular upright pyramid (vertex directly above the center of the bases),
AL  12 Pb LS where Pb = perimeter of the base; LS = slant height or altitude of one
face

4. Right Circular Cone

AL  rLS  12 CLS where C = circumference of the base
V  13 r h 2
LS = slant height of cone

5. Frustum
 Frustum of Regular Pyramid (obtained by cutting off the portion containing the
vertex with a plane, usually parallel to the base):

AL  1
 P  P2  L  A  A2  A1  A2 
V  1 h
S  3 
2  

P1 = perimeter of bigger base

P2 = perimeter of smaller base
LS = slant height or altitude of one trapezoidal face
A1 = area of bigger base
A2 = area of smaller base

 Frustum of a Right Circular Cone:

 C  C2 
AL   1  LS    R  r  LS
 2 

V  13 A1  A2  A1  A2 h 
r2
where R and r are radii of the bigger base and smaller base, respectively.r1
h1
6. Sphere (See Figure) h2
surface area, A  4R 2 h
R
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volume, V  43 R  16 D
3 3

V(spherical sector)  23 R h  16 D h
2 2

h
V(spherical segment with one base)  1  3r22  h12 
6
h 2
V(spherical segment with two bases)   3r1  3r22  h22 
6

Zone - portion of the surface of a sphere included between two parallel planes

A( zone)  2Rh  Dh

7. Ellipsoid – every section perpendicular to the axis of the solid is an ellipse

V  43 abc , where a, b, and c are the length of the semi-axes.

8. Torus – obtained by rotating a circle of radius r about a line whose distance is R>r from
the center of the circle.

V  2 2 Rr 2 surface area = 4 2 Rr

9. Spheroids

 Prolate Spheroid – obtained by rotating an ellipse about its major axis:

surface area  
 2b 2  2 ab sin 1 e
e , where e is the eccentricity (e<1).

V  43 ab 2
 Oblate Spheroid – by rotating ellipse about its minor axis:
 b 2  1  e
surface area  2a 2
   ln , where e is the eccentricity (e<1).
 e  1 e
V  43 a 2 b

A2.3. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

A2.3.1. The Spherical Triangle

1. Circle – intersection of a plane with a sphere

2. Great Circle – formed when the plane passes through the center of the sphere
3. Small Circle – formed when the plane passes through any point other than the center.

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4. Axis of Circle – line through the center of the sphere perpendicular to the plane of the
great circle and pierces the sphere at two extreme points called the poles.
5. Spherical Triangle ABC (see figure) – bounded by three arcs (AB, BC and CA) of
great circles; composed of three angles (A, B and C) and their opposite sides (a, b and
c, respectively).

a
  c
O C

b

6. Trihedral Angle – “space corner” opposite to the spherical triangle; vertex is at the
center O of the sphere. The plane angles  ,  and  are the face angles of the
trihedral angle.

7. Sides of the Spherical Triangle – measured by the corresponding face angles of the
trihedral angle: a is measured by BOC or  ; b by AOC or  ; and c by AOB or  .

8. Angles of the Spherical Triangle – measured by the corresponding dihedral angles of

the trihedral angle. For example, angle A is measured by the dihedral angle whose
edge is OA and bounded by the faces AOB and AOC.

9. Oblique spherical triangle – does not have a right angle (90°)

NOTE: Since the face angles  ,  and  are the central angles of the respective sides
a, b, and c of the spherical triangle, a   , b   and c   in angular measures.
Therefore, the sides of the spherical triangle have trigonometric functions.

Limitations on the sides of a spherical triangle:

1. 0 o < a + b + c < 360 o
2. a, b, or c should not be greater than 180 o

Limitations on the angles of a spherical triangle

1. No angle (A, B, or C) of a spherical triangle is equal to or greater than 180 o
2. 180 o < A + B + C < 540 o

Theorems on spherical triangles

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I. The sum of any two sides of a spherical triangle is greater than the third
side
II. The largest angle is opposite to the longest side; the smallest angle is
opposite to the shortest side.

A2.3.2. General Laws

The Cosine Law for Sides: The cosine of any side of a spherical triangle equals the
product of the cosines of the other two sides plus the product of the sines of these two sides
multiplied by the cosines of their included angle.

cos a  cos b cos c  sin b sin c cos A

cos b  cos c cos a  sin c sin a cos B
cos c  cos a cos b  sin a sin b cos C

The Cosine Law for Angles: The cosine of any angle of a spherical triangle is equal to
the product of the sines of the other two angles multiplied by the cosine of their included side
minus the product of the cosine of the other two angles.

cos A  sin B sin C  cos a  cos B cos C

cos B  sin C sin A  cos b  cos C cos A
cos C  sin A sin B  cos c  cos A cos B

The Sine Law: In a spherical triangle, the sines of the angles are proportional to the
sines of the opposite sides.
sin A sin B sin C
 
sin a sin b sin c

Haversine Law for Angles:

Let s = ½ (a + b + c)
sin( s  b) sin( s  c)
havA 
sin b sin c
sin( s  c) sin( s  a )
havB 
sin c sin a
sin( s  a ) sin( s  b)
havC 
sin a sin b

Haversine Law for Sides:

hav a  hav (b  c)  sin b sin c havA
hav b  hav (c  a )  sin c sin a havB A
hav c  hav ( a  b)  sin a sin b hav C b
A2.3.3. Solutions of Spherical Triangles c
Right Spherical Triangle O C
a
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If angles B and C (see figure) are both 900-angles, then the faces AOB and AOC are
perpendicular to plane BOC, The edge of intersection OA of planes AOB and AOC are
likewise perpendicular to the planes BOC; thus, angles AOB and AOC are right angles and
arcs AB and AC are quadrants of great circles, i.e., 900-arcs.

A right spherical triangle contains one 900-angle; birectangular triangle, two right angles; and
trirectangular triangle, three right angles.

A quadrantal triangle has one side equal to a quadrant or 90 0; biquadrantal, two sides each
equal to 900; triquadrantal, three 900-sides.

NOTE:
1. In a birectangular triangle like ABC, the sides (b and c) opposite the right angles B and
C are quadrants (900).
2. The third angle A has the same measure as its opposite side a.
3. If each of the three angles is 900, each side is also 900 or quadrantal. In this case, the
triangle is its own polar.
4. A right spherical triangle (only one angle equal 900) has its opposite side different
from 900.
A
Napier’s Rules

The Five Angular A

Quantities of the Right
b c
Spherical Triangle c
(Left Figure) Arranged b
in a Cicle (Right Figure)
B
a
900 C
B

The bars over the letters A, B and c are read “the complement of”, example: A means “900 –
A”.
Circular parts – angular quantities a, b, c, A , and B (C = 900 is excluded in the circle).
Middle part – any given part
Adjacent parts – parts contiguous with or adjacent to any given part
Opposite parts – two non-adjacent or non-contiguous parts

Example: In the right figure, if A is the middle or given part, c and b are adjacent to A ,
and B and a are opposite to it.

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Napier’s Rules State:

I. The sine of any middle part is equal to the product of the cosines of the opposite
parts.
II. The sine of any middle part is equal to the product of the tangents of the adjacent
parts.

NOTE: “sine middle = cos opposite = tan adjacent”

Example: Obtain the formula for tan b using Napier’s rules.

Solution:

Rule II is directly applicable, since it involves tangents of adjacent parts. For b to be

adjacent, choose either Ā or a as middle part (consult the circle).

If a is chosen, b and B are adjacent to it; then from Rule II:

sin a = tan b tan B

Solving for tan b:

sin a sin a sin a

tan b  
   sin a tan B
tan B tan(90  B ) cot B
o

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References:
EDWARDS, C.H., Jr. and David E. Penney. 1994. Calculus with Analytic Geometry,
Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey.

HESTENES, Marshall D. and Richard O. Hill Jr. 1982. Trigonometry with Calculators,
Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey

LEITHOLD, Louis. 2001. College Algebra and Trigonometry, Addison Wesley Longman,
Inc., Philippines.

RIDER, Paul R. 1971. Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, The Macmillan Company,
Philippines Copyright

SWOKOWSKI, Earl W. and Jeffrey A. Cole, 2002. Algebra and Trigonometry with Analytic
Geometry, 10th Edition, Brook/Cole-Thomson Learning, California.

adjacent side, A2-3

angles, A2-1
co-terminal, A2-1
negative, A2-1
positive, A2-1
quadrantal, A2-1
reference, A2-4
standard position of, A2-1
straight, A2-1
angular speed, A2-2
De Moivre’s Theorem, A2-13
ellipsoid, A2-19
even function, A2-4
frustum, A2-19
fundamental identities, A2-5
Haversine Law for Angles, A2-22
Haversine Law for Sides, A2-22
hypotenuse, A2-3
inverse trigonometric functions, A2-8
linear speed, A2-2
Napier’s Rules, A2-23
odd function, A2-4
polar form of complex numbers, A2-12
trigonometric form of complex numbers, A2-12

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polyhedron, A2-17
Pythagorean identities, A2-5
reciprocal identities, A2-5
solid mensuration, A2-1, A2-15
spheroids, A2-20
surface areas, A2-17
tangent / cotangent identities, A2-5
torus, A2-19
trigonometric functions, A2-2
trigonometric substitution, A2-5
trigonometry, A2-1
volume of solids, A2-17

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