CHAPTER

ROBOTS IN COMPUTER
INTEGRATED !
MANUFACTURING
The introduction of robots in manufacturing plants has helped to integrate materials handling
and several manufacturing operations. To understand the role of Robots in Computer
Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) and to appreciate what robots can do in production
operations, one must start with the basics of the Robot technology. The objective of this
chapter is to provide a basic understanding of the hardware and software that make up a
typical robotic system and to present to the reader various issues involved in the use of
robots.

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Robots perform several tasks in factories. Some of them are:
i. Movement of materials on the shop floor
(Automated guided vehicles (AGV) or rail guided vehicle (RGV)
ii. Loading and unloading of components in machines
(Gantry robot, machine mounted robot, free-standing robot)
iii. Inspection using vision sensors
iv. Manufacturing operations like painting, welding, component insertion in printed
circuit boards, sorting, automatic assembly, deburring, sampling, dispensing,
marking, etc.
Robots are programmable machines with some human like capabilities. They are made
up of mechanical components, a control system and a computer. These elements can be
arranged in different ways and can vary in size and complexity to perform different tasks.
Thus robots are available in a wide variety of types, which vary in their mechanical
configuration, degrees of freedom of motion and type of drive and control systems. The
degrees of freedom and working envelope provided by its geometric configuration are the
two major selection factors of a robot. A number of different types of drive systems, each
having its own advantages in cost and performance are used in robot technology. Robots
are controlled by a variety of hardware and software systems. The more complex tasks
usually require servo-control systems, which use sensors and microprocessors. The control
system carries out the functions, which govern the robot’s motion.
472 CAD/CAM/CIM

Robotic systems are used in a CIM environment because of they have a number of
economic and performance advantages over human labor or hard automation in many
manufacturing applications, particularly in batch manufacturing. The major advantages
are due to their re-programmability. Robots can be programmed by several techniques.
Robot programs can be very simple or extremely complex, depending on the nature of the
tasks and type of motion control involved. Robot programming is often done in high-level
languages that provide functions for data processing, computation, sensing and
manipulation. Robot manufacturers have developed different robot languages.
The following sections give a detailed account of many of these aspects to enable the
reader to understand the role of robots in a CIM environment.

13.2 DEFINITION OF A ROBOT

Many formal definitions have been developed to distinguish robots from other forms of
automation. In general robots can be defined as “Programmable and Automatic
Manipulators”. It is a special type of computer-controlled machine that can perform a
wide variety of tasks. Two definitions, which are popular in industry, are quoted here. The
first is by Computer Aided Manufacturing-International (CAM-I), USA:
It states that a robot is “a device that performs functions ordinarily ascribed to human
beings, or operates with what appears to be almost human intelligence.”
The second definition is by Robotics Institute of America (RIA), USA. RIA defines a
robot as a “programmable, multifunction manipulator designed to move materials, parts,
tools, or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks.”

13.2.1 ELEMENTS OF A ROBOTIC SYSTEM

A robot is a system made up of several elements of hardware and software. These elements
are illustrated in Fig. 13.1. They are briefly described below:

ROBOT
M O N IT O R G R IP P E R

C O N T R O L LE R

Fig. 13.1 Elements of a Robotic System

Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 473

Mechanical Components:
They provide the physical robot motions and perform the various tasks. They include:
(i) Components of the robot manipulator:
(a) A manipulator (the base and arm assembly)
(b) End-of-arm tooling, such as a gripper or end effecter
(c) Actuators (motors or drives that move the links of the robot) and associated
equipment
(d) Transmission elements like belts, pulleys, ball screws, gearing and other
mechanical components.
(ii) Control system:
The control system is used to generate the necessary signals co-ordinate the
movements of the robot. It includes:
(a) Mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, or electronic (either open loop
or closed loop) controls.
(b) Sensors including cameras, amplifiers, and related hardware.
(c) Equipment interfaces.
(iii) Computer system:
This provides the data processing capability necessary to interpolate the
intermediate positions and control the movement of the links or arms the robot.
It includes:
(a) Microprocessor or a programmable logic controller or a personal computer
(b) User interfaces (e.g. keyboard, display, teach pendant)
(c) Control software to manipulate the robot for various applications.
Robots can be configured in many different ways by using various combinations of the
above elements. Since robots are designed to perform tasks that might otherwise require
humans, many of their basic features are like those of a human arm. For example, an
articulated robot has arm, hand, wrist and gripper to reach, grasp and manipulate objects.
Chapter 13
They are driven by a power source, which provides the energy necessary for their
movements. They can be programmed or can have an intelligent control system, controlled
by neural, fuzzy or fuzzy neural techniques, which can acquire, store, process and perform
on the basis of the data collected by sensors attached to the robot.

13.2.2 NEED FOR USING ROBOTS

Robots are being used increasingly in manufacturing applications for many reasons. In many
situations, they have a number of advantages over employing humans or special purpose,
hard or fixed automation. The important benefits from the use of robots are listed below:
(i) Robots can be built with performance capabilities superior to those of human
beings in terms of strength, size, speed, accuracy and repeatability.
474 CAD/CAM/CIM

(ii) Robots are better than humans to perform simple and repetitive tasks with
better quality and consistency.
(iii) Robots can replace humans in performing tasks that are difficult and hazardous
because of factors such as size, weight, reach, precision or environment (e.g., heat
(as in pressure die casting), dust (as in foundries), chemicals (detection of mines),
nuclear radiation, and pollution).
(iv) Robots do not have the limitations and negative attributes of human workers,
such as fatigue, need for rest, diversion of attention, absenteeism, need for
refreshments etc.
(v) Robots can be used to perform tasks which human operators do not like to do
- jobs that are considered unskilled, demeaning, or low-paying or that involve
poor working conditions.
(vi) Robots can lower costs, through reduction in usage of materials, through their
efficiency and consistency.
(vii) Robots become more economical as labor costs increase.
(viii) Robots are flexible compared to hard automation since they can be reconfigured
and reprogrammed. This permits them to be reused in new or modified
applications, and they are less likely to become obsolete. The output of the
humans will depend upon the learning curve every time the job is changed.
Thus robots can do jobs easier and faster to implement automation since they are more
flexible. The flexibility is due to their reprogrammability. One can expect generally less
down time with robots than complex hard automation in batch manufacturing operations.
Although robots may have all these advantages, they are not always the best choice for
all manufacturing applications. Even though they may have a wide range of capabilities,
they still cannot match the unique combination of mental skill and alertness and physical
dexterity of a human operator. Robots, however, can supplement human operators to
enhance their productivity.

13.3 TYPES OF ROBOTS

Industrial robots are designed in a variety of shapes and sizes. They can be classified
based on a few basic characteristic features. These are listed below:
(i) The physical geometry of the manipulator arm and base unit and their degrees
of freedom (DOF) (Movements along different axes).
(ii) The complexity of the path in which the manipulator can move. (Point to point
in the case of a pick and place robot, continuous in the case of a welding robot).
(iii) The type of power source used to move the manipulator. (Electrical, hydraulic,
pneumatic etc.).
(iv) The techniques and systems used to control the motion of the manipulator. (Servo
and non-servo).
(v) Depending on whether the robot is stationary or mobile.
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 475

13.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS BASED ON MECHANICAL CONFIGURATION

Four basic robot arm geometries are used for industrial applications. These are illustrated
in Fig. 13.2.

Z
Z R
X
Y

CYLINDRICAL
CARTESIAN ROBOT
ROBOT

0
POLAR JOINTED
ROBOT ARM
ROBOT
0
R 0
0

Fig. 13.2 Basic Classification of Robots

13.3.1.1 Rectangular Co-ordinate Robots

This is also known as the Cartesian co-ordinate robots. A robot with this geometry has
three linear axes using sliding joints, which are typically arranged in a cantilever
configuration whose motion traces a box like shape. This type of configuration is ideal for
straight-line and side-to-side movements. These robots can be used for tasks involving pick
and place operations like material handling and loading and unloading of work pieces in
machines.

13.3.1.2 Cylindrical Co-ordinate Robots

This is also referred to as a rectilinear co-ordinate robot. A robot with this geometry has
three axes of motion that trace the shape of a cylinder. It has a base unit, which rotates, a
vertical extension, and a horizontal arm that moves in a line. This type is best suited for
movements around a base. Chapter 13
13.3.1.3 Spherical Co-ordinate Robots
This is also known as the polar co-ordinate robot. A robot with this geometry has three
axes of motion that trace the shape of a sphere. It has a base unit that rotates, a main body
that tilts, and arm that slides in and out.

13.3.1.4 Revolute Co-ordinate Robots

This configuration is also known as anthropomorphic (i.e. like a human arm) or
articulated arm or jointed arm. Such a robot has three axes of motion involving a base, a
shoulder, and an “elbow” that rotate.
476 CAD/CAM/CIM

Several variations of these basic geometries have also been developed to provide
optimum performance for certain applications. Two of these are:
i. “Gantry” or “box frame”
This is a rectangular co-ordinate configuration with all three linear axes of
motion suspended above the work space (Fig. 13.3). It can be made very rigid,
which allows high precision and high acceleration. It also lends itself to
modularity in design for a variety of configurations, including multiple arms.
This type of robots is used for loading work pieces in CNC turning centres in
flexible turning installations. Mention of gantry robots has been made in chapter
6 and chapter 12.

X Z

Fig. 13.3 Gantry Robot

ii. Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA)

This configuration shown in Fig. 13.4 is horizontally revolute. A robot of this
type moves by sweeping over the workspace at a fixed horizontal distance
before moving a vertical arm down. This permits a compact and relatively low
cost design for small assembly tasks.

Fig. 13.4 SCARA Robot

Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 477

13.3.2 FREEDOM OF MOTION

The primary function of the manipulator is to position the arm of the robot such that it
can perform its intended tasks. This requires precise and sometimes complex control of
the motions of each of the mechanical elements (i.e., base and joints). To perform useful
tasks, however, the robot must also grip and apply force to objects. This requires the
addition of end-of-arm tooling, such as a robot hand or gripper, whose motions must
also be controlled.
The motion ability of a robot is usually expressed in terms of the number of “degrees
of freedom” it has. The number of axes it uses or independent moves it can make. An
axis of motion can be either linear or rotational. Six geometric parameters or axis co-
ordinates are required in order to completely specify the location and orientation of an
object. Three co-ordinates can locate the centre of gravity of an object (e.g., x, y, and z
co-ordinates in a rectangular co-ordinate system). Three more axes determine its
orientation (e.g., angles of rotation i.e., roll, pitch and yaw). Therefore, a robot requires
six degrees of freedom in order to be completely versatile in its motions.
Since all of the basic mechanical configurations of manipulators provide only three
degrees of freedom, additional axes must be added if more flexibility in motion is required.
This is normally achieved by adding wrist and hand movements with the end-of-arm tooling
(Fig 13.5). There are three basic types of wrist motions:
i. Roll: Rotational or swivel movement in a plane perpendicular to the end of the
arm.
ii. Pitch: Rotational or bending movement in a plane vertical to the arm.
iii. Yaw
Yaw: Rotational or twisting movement in a plane horizontal to the arm.

Axis 1

Axis 2
Axis 3 Pitch

Yaw Chapter 13
Roll

Fig. 13.5 End-of-Arm Movements

The motion ability of a robot is also described in terms of its “working envelope”.
This is the volume that can be reached by the maximum movements of the end of the
robot arm. Each manipulator configuration has a different shape for its working envelope,
which also varies in size with the size of the robot (Fig. 13.6).
478 CAD/CAM/CIM

Extreme Vertcal Position

Z
MAX.RADIUS Elevation

Y
X

Z
CARTESIAN
ROBOT

CYLINDRICAL
ROBOT
Plan

SPHERICAL ARTICULATED
ROBOT ROBOT

Fig. 13.6 Work Envelope of a Robot

13.3.3 DRIVE SYSTEMS

The mechanical linkages and joints of a manipulator are driven by actuators, which can
be various types of motors or valves. The energy for these actuators is provided by some
power source (electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic). In some cases special technologies are
used. For example, shape memory alloys are used in some specialized robotic applications.
Actuators may be directly coupled to the links or joints that they drive, or through screw
and nut mechanisms. There are three major types of drive systems for industrial robots:
i. Pneumatic Actuator System: These systems are driven by compressed air.
Pneumatic-drive robots are usually small and have limited flexibility, but they
are relatively inexpensive to build and use. The weight of the payload they can
carry and the speed of their motion are limited by the compressibility and low
operating pressure of air. These are also particularly suitable in certain application
like nuclear reactors and places were fire hazards are likely to occur.
ii. Hydraulic Actuator System: These systems are driven by a fluid that is pumped
through motors, cylinders, or other hydraulic actuator mechanisms.
Hydraulically driven robots can be relatively compact yet provide high levels
of force, power, and speed with accurate control. They can also be made very
large for heavy payloads and large working envelopes. Because the power
supply (hydraulic pump) can be isolated from the robot and no electric power
is required in the manipulator, hydraulic robots are safe and reliable in wet,
dusty, and potentially explosive environments. These types of robots are
suitable for operations in foundries.
iii. Electric Actuator System: These systems are driven by rotational electric
motors (various types of AC Servos, DC Servos etc.). Electrically driven robots
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 479

are best suited for applications involving light payloads, which require high
accuracy and fast response. They do not have some of the maintenance and
reliability problems associated with pneumatic or hydraulic systems. However,
they require more sophisticated electronic controls and can fail in high
temperature, wet, or dusty environments. AC Servo drives are preferred now
because of their ruggedness.

13.3.4 CONTROL SYSTEMS

The motions of a robot are controlled by a combination of software and hardware that is
programmed by the user. There are two basic types of robot control systems - servo
controlled and non-servo controlled. These are described in subsequent sections.
i. Robot control through non-servo operation: This is the simplest and least
expensive type of control system, but it is also very limited in its flexibility
and performance. It can be a purely mechanical system of stops and limit
switches, which are pre-programmed or positioned for specific repetitive
movements. This can provide accurate control for simple motions at low cost.
Such a system can also use some type of electro- mechanical logic, such as
pneumatic valves or electrical relays, to control fixed sequences of movements.
The motions of non-servo controlled robots are controlled only at their
endpoints, not throughout their paths. Due to the nature of the types of
controls used, the number of points, which can be programmed into a sequence
of movements, is also limited.
ii. Servo-controlled Robots: This system is capable of controlling the velocity,
acceleration, and path of motion, from the beginning to the end of the path. It
uses complex control programs. Servo-controlled systems use electronic controllers
(PLC’s) or computers and sensors to control the motions of robots. They are more
flexible than non-servo systems, and they can control complicated motions
smoothly. Their capabilities and cost will vary depending on the type and
sophistication of the controller and sensors involved.
Sensors are used in servo-control systems to track the position of each of the axes of
Chapter 13
motion of the manipulator. These sensors may be located internally, in the robot joints, or
externally, in the workspace. Many different types of sensors can be used depending on
the nature of the task and performance requirements involved. The major functions of a
control system involve:
(i) Generating the path of motion for the manipulator: Assume that a robot link has
to execute an angular movement. The link starts from zero angular velocity and
accelerates until reaches a maximum velocity. It then continues at that velocity
until it begins to approach the position it is programmed to reach. It then decelerates
480 CAD/CAM/CIM

until it stops at that position. The control system must provide the commands
for this motion.
(ii) Feedback devices: Servo-control requires feedback from sensors, which track the
movements and actions of the manipulator. The signals from these sensors are
read by the controller and used to make any adjustments required in the motion
of the robot to achieve its task.
(iii) Co-ordinate transformation: The position of the robot can be expressed in
terms of the angles of its joints and the lengths of its arms. This is the “joint
co-ordinate system” with which the robot must be controlled. However robot
motions are usually programmed in terms of the rectangular co-ordinates of the
real world (i.e. the “world co-ordinate system”). The control system must
therefore convert the programmed path from one co-ordinate system to the
other (Fig. 13.7). This can involve considerable amount of computation. The
translated path may not be precisely the same as the one described in the
original co-ordinate system program.

+Z

+Y
–Y +X –Z
+X

–X
+Z
–Y
–X +Y

–Z

W o rld Co o rd in a te S ys te m Too l C o ord in a te S y ste m

Fig. 13.7 Coordinate Systems of a Robot

(iv) Safety controls: To assure that failures or errors are detected before any damage
or harm is done, the actual motion of the robot must be constantly monitored
and compared to allowable limits. This can involve a variety of monitoring or
measuring techniques.
(v) Interfaces: The control system must communicate with the user or programmer.
This can be done through terminals, keyboards, control pendants, or switches
(Fig. 13.8). The system controller must have interfaces to the sensors and
actuators that control the motion of the robot. In some applications, the system
must also communicate with other equipment, such as production machines,
materials handling devices or even other robots. The communication channel
provides all these interfaces to the control system.
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 481

JOINT GRIPPER VISION

ENCODERS SENSORS SENSOR

SAFETY PRINTER
DEVICES

WORKSTATION
INTERFACE MONITOR
ELECTRONICS

TEACH
PENDANT

Fig. 13.8 Control System of a Robot

13.4 PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES

The performance of a robot can be described in terms of many different parameters or
characteristics. Their magnitude and relative importance vary depending on the inherent
capabilities of the robot design and its intended applications. In general, a robot user would
look for desirable characteristics such as high reliability, high speed, programmability,
and low cost. However, there may be trade-offs, between even these basic characteristics.
For example, increasing the speed of the robot or lowering its cost may lead to lower
reliability. There is no one robot, which is best for all applications. To select one that is well
suited for a particular application, the key features and specifications required must be
understood and prioritized.

13.4.1 SPECIFICATIONS
i. Axes of motion: The number of degrees of freedom of the robot’s joints determines
the complexity of motion it is capable of. Three degrees of freedom are provided
by all basic manipulator configurations. They are adequate to locate the position Chapter 13
of an object. Additional degrees of freedom (up to seven with some configurations,
including gripper) can permit more complex motion, which can adapt to the
orientation and shape of objects.
ii. Work envelope: The maximum reach or range of arm movement varies in shape
and size, depending on the configuration and size of the robot. The work envelope
can be described in terms of degrees of rotation, vertical motion, and radial arm
extension. The work envelope of the robot must obviously be compatible with
all the paths and positions intended in the application.
iii. Speed: The speed of the robot - which is measured at the end of the arm, where
the task is to be performed - determines how fast the end-of-arm tooling or
482 CAD/CAM/CIM

gripper can get from one position to another. This speed will vary, depending
on payload, position in the work envelope, and axis of movement.
(iv) Acceleration: This is the rate at which the robot can reach its programmed
speed. It can be important for complex paths, in which the time to reach
maximum velocity can be a significant portion of the total travel time. The
acceleration capability of a robot is determined by the power is built into the
drive system. Hydraulic drives can provide very high accelerations by storing
energy in an accumulator.
(v) Payload capacity: The maximum weight the robot can carry is normally specified
at low or normal speeds. It depends on the size and configuration of the robot.
High payload capacity is a compromise with some other performance
specifications, such as maximum speed, acceleration and accuracy. Very large
robots can even carry payloads of several hundred kilograms.
(vi) Accuracy: The Accuracy denotes how closely the end of the robot arm can be
moved to a specific position. This is a function of several factors:
(a) The basic geometric configuration of the manipulator.
(b) The mathematical function used by the control system to convert position
specifications from world co-ordinates to joint co-ordinates.
(c) The effects of the payload on deflections and distortions in the joints and
arms, because of the robot’s static and dynamic compliances.
(d) The effects of temperature on the joints and arms.
(e) Errors in the control system.
(f) The accuracy of the specification of the end position or objects to be reached.
(g) Degradation or drift in the performance of the actuators and sensors.
(vii) Resolution: This may also be referred to as the precision of the robot. Resolution
is the smallest increment of motion for which the robot can be controlled; it is
normally dependent on the sensors used.
(viii) Repeatability: Repeatability is the ability of the manipulator to repeatedly return
to exactly the same position. It depends on the stability of the control system and
is affected by temperature, load and joint clearances.
(ix) Reliability: This is measured in terms of the average time between failures.
Reliability depends on the speed and load during operation as well as on the
quality of the robot design and control system. Industrial robots have usually
high values of mean time between failures (MTBF).

13.4.2 KEY FEATURE CAPABILITIES

In addition to the typical specifications, which define a robot’s performance capabilities, a
number of other features can also influence its performance. These features are more
subjective and therefore difficult to quantify. They are:
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 483

i. Quality: Generally, one can expect higher accuracy and reliability from robots
that are built with better and more rugged electrical and mechanical components.
ii. Serviceability: Many features can be added to the design of the robot to
minimize both the frequency of failure and time it takes for repair. Such features
include conservative designs for electrical and mechanical parts, modular design
and extensive use of standard parts.
iii. Safety: A wide variety of features are incorporated to prevent damage or injury
during robot operation, including sensors, limit switches and end stops. The
design of the work cell is as important as the selection of the robot.
iv. Modularity: Adoption modular design technique enables for the manipulator to
be reconfigured for different applications.
v. Dexterity: This is the ability of the manipulator to perform delicate, precise, or
complex tasks. This depends on the number of axes and the design of the gripper.

13.4.3 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF A ROBOT

Typical specifications of a robot are given below:
No. of axes 6
Maximum reach 1m
Payload 8 kgf
Repeatability + 0.025 mm
Joint speed 90 deg/sec
Waist rotation 290 deg
Shoulder rotation 300 deg
Elbow rotation 300 deg
Wrist pitch + 90 deg
Wrist roll + 180 deg
Drive AC Servomotor
Mounting options Pedestal, table top, floor, overhead, servo track Chapter 13
Controller specifications:
Processor 32 bit
Memory 10 MB
Communication RS 232 Serial ports
User I/O 32 digital I/O
24 analog I/O
Programming Language AR-SMART, AR-BASIC
484 CAD/CAM/CIM

13.5 PROGRAMMING ROBOTS

The major advantage that robots have over fixed automation is their ability to be
reprogrammed. They can perform complex tasks under the control of stored programs,
which can be modified at will. In addition they can move in response to real time inputs
from sensors. Programming is an important feature of robots, and it is also a significant
component in their design and application. The process of robot programming involves
“teaching” it the task to be performed, storing the program, executing the program, and
debugging it. A number of different techniques and software approaches are used to
program robots.
The kinematic analysis of a robot means the determination of position, velocity and
acceleration of the various links of the robot. This can be of two types - direct kinematics
and inverse kinematics. Direct kinematics involves determination of position of the end
effectors for specified displacement of links. Inverse kinematics deals with the problem
of the calculation of link movements to achieve a desired position of the end effectors.
The inverse kinematics problem is important in most of robotic applications. The
programming of the robot involves the coding of the data obtained from direct/inverse
kinematic analysis so that the end effector of the robot is positioned suitably for the
required applications.
The principal task of the robot program is to control the motions and actions of the
manipulator. However, due to the inaccuracies and uncertainties involved in the positions
and movements of robots, much of the programming involved deals with the detection
and correction of errors. Programs must also be written to deal with both user and machines.
The user may include professional programmers, as well as operators, maintenance
personnel, and application engineers.

13.5.1 PROGRAMMING METHODS

The following methods are commonly used to program robots:
i. Guiding: This is also known as the “Walk through” or “Playback” method. It
involves manipulating the robot arm so that it can be moved manually through
the intended motions while its link movements are being recorded by the control
system. This is the simplest technique and does not require the operator to write
any program code, but it is limited to relatively short and simple motions. With
this method, the operator physically guides the robot through its movements. The
stored “program” of robot motion can then be played back, during the actual
performance of the task. It is also possible to edit this program to optimize it.
ii. Teach pendant: This is also known as the “lead through” method. It uses a control
panel, called a “teach pendant”, which has buttons or switches that control the
motion of the robot. The operator or programmer can lead the manipulator
through the task one step at a time, recording each incremental move along the
way. Only the major points in the path of the robot’s movements are recorded,
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 485

so the intermediate points must be interpolated or calculated by the control

system. The control system then generates a program for the complete path of
the robot. Like the walk through method, this technique does not require code
writing, but it can be used for more complex and precise tasks. It is often used
for developing applications or training.
iii. Off-line programming: This is the most common method of robot programming
in which a high-level language is used to write a control program. This program
describes all the movements and actions of each of the links of the robot. The
program may involve many steps, requiring a large number of lines of program
code. In addition, a great deal of computation is normally associated with the
translation and generation of path of motion. This method of control is the most
flexible and can also enable the robot to respond to signals from external sensors
to modify its movements.
iv. On-line programming: A variation of the above programming method is on-
line programming. This requires the availability of a robot, but it also gives the
programmer the ability to see the motions of the robot actually executing the
program as it is being developed. In most cases, this approach is used either
as a substitute for a teach pendant or to debug programs that have been written
off-line.
v. Comparison of off-line and on-line programming: On-line and off-line
programming are used on different control levels of the robot cell. Off-line
programming supports the integration of robots into a CIM system. It allows the
manipulation of CAD system data to reduce the programming time by eliminating
the interaction with the physical devices. The programming method, however,
has difficulty in handling sensor information, and this obliges the programmer
to use simulation, which allows modeling of the sensor input in critical situations
and its interpretation. In general, an off-line programming system needs a software
development environment to specify the application requirements, to analyze the
tasks, and to decompose the global task to subtasks. Program test facilities are
needed, as well. An on-line programming system provides tools for debugging
and testing the program. Here the use of the physical robot system is required.
An on-line language is more convenient to non-expert users. Chapter 13
13.5.2 ROBOT PROGRAMMING FUNCTIONS
A robot programming system involves major functions to make the execution of the actual
task possible.
(i) Modeling the work space: A significant part of specifying the robot’s task is
defining the positions of the elements and constraints involved in the application.
When the task environment is not known precisely, the position of the robot must
be specified relative to the objects. Position data may be obtained from several
sources, such as robot sensors, geometric models, or external sensing systems.
486 CAD/CAM/CIM

(ii) Path generation: The path of motion is normally specified by interpolating

intermediate points from a sequence of motions and positions identified in the
program. As mentioned earlier, the position specifications must be translated
from world co-ordinates to joint co-ordinates, which the robot control system can
understand. The type of path generated may not be coordinated between the
joints. That is, each joint may move independent of the others. This will normally
result in a non-uniform, curved path. If straight line motion is desired, the
motions of the joints must be coordinated.
(iii) Sensing: The use of sensors permits the robot to deal with uncertainties, which
may include:
(a) The detection of errors.
(b) The identification of objects or positions, using a vision system.
(c) The initiation or termination of actions, using limit switches, proximity
switches or feedback devices.
To use sensors, the robot control system must be able to connect and interpret sensory
data from internal or external sources and generate control signals that will modify the
actions of the manipulator. The data acquisition, computation, and output signal generation
activities must be built into the control program. A sensor-based robot must have a program
that allows it to choose between alternative actions on the basis of data from the sensors
and its model of the environment.
(iv) Programming support: Some of other functions that are necessary in a
programming system for robots include:
(a) Editing tools for modifying programs.
(b) Debugging tools for finding problems during program development.
(c) Diagnostic tools for finding problems during operation.
(d) Simulators for trying out robot programs without actually operating the robot.
(e) Interfaces to controllers, peripheral equipment, and other computers.

13.5.3 THE ROBOT PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT

Today, robots are mainly used in high volume or medium lot production. Examples are
spot welding of automotive chassis and component insertion in printed circuit boards.
With the classical on-line programming methods a robot cannot be used for production
during the programming. For this reason, off-line programming systems are needed as a
linkage to production planning. Thus a higher flexibility and short manufacturing planning
cycles can be realized.
On-line programming languages for robots should support:
(i) The specification of the program flow control.
(ii) The capability of writing subroutines for exception handling.
(iii) The sensor interaction and the rules for the sensor-guided path control.
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 487

In addition, they should emphasize the task to be performed rather than the specific
robot motion, and they must offer an interface to off-line programming. Off-line
programming languages for applications in CIM should have the following capabilities:
(i) High level instructions for tactile sensors and vision sensors as well as user
definable tasks and subroutines.
(ii) Intelligent decision making capabilities allowing the robot to recover from an
unexpected event.
(iii) Use of CAD data of the object to manipulate or grip the object.
An advanced integrated off-line programming system includes a CAD modeler and
may contain the components for a geometric modeler and graphic animation system and
an off-line programming language and simulator, as well as an interface to the target robot
system. Fig. 13.9 shows the structure of such a system.

CAD
MODEL

GEOMETRY
TOPOLOGY
KINEMATICS
PLANNING

OPERATION SELECTION
AND SEQUENCING PROGRAMMING &
SIMULATION

CODE GENERATION
FOR TRAJECTORY
SEGMENTS

SIMULATION

RDBMS ROBOT
CONTROL

SENSOR FEEDBACK

MANIPULATOR

Fig. 13.9 Structure of an Off-line Programming System

Programming of complex motion sequences requires the programmer to plan the

motions in a three-dimensional workspace. Algorithms must therefore be provided to test
the off-line control data generated for efficient work cycles, trajectories and collision Chapter 13
avoidance. Suitable software tools for this purpose are simulation programs with graphical
capabilities. These systems are based on three dimensional geometric and kinematic models.
The dynamic models of robots require the formulation and solution of the motion equations
in real time. A simulator consists of a package of emulated robot control functions.
The basic data generated by production planning, the geometric model to the working
space, the robot model, and the product geometry are the input data of the simulation
system. The objective of linking the CAD system to the robot planner is to increase the
efficiency of the robot programming task by integration of design data and production
planning data. In general, the following benefits can be expected with an off-line
programming system:
488 CAD/CAM/CIM

(i) Elimination of downtime inherent to normal on-line programming.

(ii) Availability of application programs for robots of various types.
(iii) Less duplication in production planning and programming.
(iv) An increase of the performance of the manufacturing system due to the generation
of control data with the aid of the computer.
The geometric modeling usually is done with a 3D-CAD system with a solid modeler.
Some of the available systems support modeling of kinematic chains and the definition of
trajectory frames. For the direct generation of the position reference frames, geometric models
of the initial, intermediate, and final product must exist. Collision check and optimization of
the trajectory are done with the simulation system. This requires fast geometric reasoning.

13.5.4 PROGRAMMING ACTIVITIES

A block diagram of the off-line cell programming activities is shown in Fig. 13.10. Before
the start of program development, the global planning of the task of the cell is necessary,
referencing task-specific data and the cell description as input. The result is a sequence of
complex operations of the cell represented in terms of a formal plan. In the next step the
complex task of the cell is decomposed into several subtasks to be performed by the
components of the cell. This requires dispatching of the subtasks to the cell devices, scheduling
of the subtasks, and defining of synchronization rules between the subtasks. After the sequence
of the subtasks and the task-related control structure has been described, the motion must be
specified. Each subtask is related to trajectories, which must consider given geometric
constraints, task frames, sensor data, and time intervals. The next step of the trajectory
planning is to determine whether any collision may occur in the cell and to plan alternative
trajectories for collision avoidance. In case of uncertainties, sensor subroutines may have to
be activated to evaluate the situation and generate a corrective measure. Trajectory planning
depends on the type and complexity of the robot control system.

PROGRAMMING SYSTEM

SPECIFICATION OF ROBOT
TASK PROGRAM
CAD DATA

SIMULATION
SIMULATION RESULTS

RDBMS

TECHNOLOGY AND PROGRAM

COST DATA MODIFICATION

ROBOT CONTROL
SYSTEM

SENSORS

Fig. 13.10 Block Diagram for Off-line Programming

Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 489

13.5.5 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

Presently, there are more than 300 robot programming languages. Programming
languages can be classified as explicit or implicit. Explicit programming languages are
based on such classical programming languages as Pascal, C, Modula-2, and Assembler.
Object oriented languages like Small Talk or C++ are also applied in programming systems.
An implicit robot programming system is based on a world model and knowledge about
the task to be performed. A world model can be implemented with the help of the frame
concept that originates from artificial intelligence. A frame is a logic structure suitable of
processing facts and world data; it can be represented with the help of a relational
database to obtain direct access to the stored information about the robot world. Relational
database is an essential part of an implicit robot programming system. Two types of
information are used to describe the world. One contains geometric and the other non-
geometric parameters. The programmer must access both types and combine the retrieved
information for the application at hand.
Relation between objects and attributes of the objects are parameters needed for
implicit robot programming. Other data required are sensor parameters, descriptions of
the robot (geometric, kinematic, and dynamic) and control data (trajectories).

13.5.6 BASIC TYPES OF ROBOT PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The robot programming languages can be classified according to the robot model, the
type of control structures used for data, the type of motion specification, the sensors, the
interfaces to external machines, and the peripheral used. The following types of robot
programming languages are available:
(i) Point-to-point motion languages
(ii) Basic motion languages at the assembler level
(iii) Non-structured high level programming languages
(iv) Structured high level programming languages
(v) Numerical control type programming languages
(vi) Object-oriented languages
(vii) Task-oriented languages
Chapter 13
13.5.7 ON-LINE AND OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
The purpose of a robot control program is to yield the individual motions required of
each of links. Robot programming is usually done with high-level languages that use a
limited number of basic commands. They are normally executed by an interpreter rather
than the compiler for ease of use. High-level interactive languages provide functions for
data processing, computation, and sensing as well as manipulation. The commands
used in a programming language are subroutines that are provided by the system which
define frequently used functions. They may be used to control the actions of the robot, to
perform computations, or to process data. Some of the basic types of commands are:
490 CAD/CAM/CIM

Motion and sensing functions (e.g., MOVE, MONITOR)

Computation functions (e.g., ADD, SORT)
Program-flow control functions (e.g., RETURN, BRANCH)
The most common command in most robot programs is to move the manipulator.
The syntax for the move command is:
MOVE [<JOINTS><GOALS>]
E.g.: MOVE [<1, 3, 5><5, 10, 20>]
The first command means that joints 1, 3 and 5 are to be moved by 5, 10 and 20
units, respectively. There are also a number of frequently used functions that are not
involved in the path itself (e.g., WAIT, CONTINUE, BRANCH, OUTPUT).
Many robot languages are now available. Each is unique in its design and capabilities.
Some are more powerful and versatile than others. Some were developed by robot users,
others by robot manufacturers. Some of the most widely used are:
VAL (Unimation)
AML (IBM)
HELP (General Electric)
RAIL (Automatrix)
AL (Stanford University)
MCL (McDonnel-Douglas)
RPS (SRI)
JARS (Jet Propulsion Laboratory)
AS (Kawasaki)
A program for loading a component in a CNC Chucker using a UMI RT100 Robot in
teaches mode is given below:
0: SEQUENCE -1 (Load the part from conveyor)
1 100% SPEED
2 UNFIX-GRIP
3 ABOVE-CONVEYOR
4 25% SPEED
5 ON-CONVEYOR-O
6 ON-CONVEYOR-C
7 FIX-GRIP
8 100% SPEED
9 ABOVE-CONVEYOR
10 PARK
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 491

11 OUT-LATHE
12 IN-LATHE
13 25% SPEED
14 IN-CHUCK-C
15 ;
0: SEQUENCE-2 (RELEASE IN LATHE AND PARK)
1 100% SPEED
2 UNFIX-GRIP
3 IN-CHUCK-O
4 IN-LATHE
5 OUT-LATHE
6 PARK
7 ;
0: SEQUENCE-3 (PARK TO LATHE)
1 100%SPEED
2 UNFIX-GRIP
3 OUT-LATHE
4 IN-LATHE
5 IN-CHUCK-O
6 IN-CHUCK-C
7 FIX-GRIP
8 ;
0: SEQUENCE-10 (LATHE TO CONVEYOR)
1 100%SPEED
2 IN-LATHE
3 OUT-LATHE
4 PARK
5 FIX-GRIP Chapter 13
6 ABOVE-CONVEYOR
7 ON-CONVEYOR-C
8 UNFIX-GRIP
9 ON-CONVEYOR-O
10 ABOVE-CONVEYOR
11 PARK
12 ;
* 51: PARK
1: 100% SPEED
492 CAD/CAM/CIM

2: FIX-GRIP
3: -2265 2265 -380 0 0 0 1074 GOTO > POS
4: ;
* 52: ABOVE CONVEYOR
1: -839 1295 -209 0 0 0 638 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 53:ON-CONVEYOR-C
1: -839 1295 -540 0 0 0 450 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 54: OUT-LATHE
1: -1997 -34 -148 1258 -1258 -16 556 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 55: IN-LATHE
1: -1223 -935 -108 1258 -1258 -73 638 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 56: IN-CHUCK-C
1: -1223 -626 -117 1258 -1258 -73 638 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 57: OUT-MILLER
1: 2047 -186 -18 0 -1 0 890 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 58: IN-MILLER
1: 1314 547 -18 0 -1 0 890 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 59: IN-VICE-C
1: 298 1563 -18 0 -1 0 118 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 60: ON-CONVEYOR-O
1: -839 1295 -540 0 0 0 955 GOTO > POS
2: ;
* 61: IN-CHUCK-O
1: -1223 -649 -108 1258 -1258 -73 917 GOTO > POS3
2: ;
* 62: IN-VICE-O
1: 298 1563 -18 0 -1 844 60 GOTO > POS
2: ;
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 493

13.6 GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CAD/ROBOT LINKAGE

The off-line programming system provides the possibility of developing task-oriented
and robot-independent user programs. That is, programs can be developed without having
a specific robot in mind. When a task is decomposed into several subtasks, it must be
possible to choose among different co-ordinate frames according to the specified task.
For general-purpose applications a reference co-ordinate frame is used, since it allows
the programmer to easily visualize the motion of the robot in a 3D space. The zero-
reference points of the various co-ordinate frames are chosen freely by the programmer,
who can then use location-independent information from the CAD database, which is
accessed by any element of the manufacturing system.
To generate the user program, it is necessary to transform the geometric information
of the different co-ordinates, into a common reference co-ordinate frame. This can be
done automatically by the system. The required information to carry out the
transformation is provided by the CAD system. To get an executable user program, a
transformation from the Cartesian co-ordinate to the robot co-ordinate system must be
performed. The transformation is necessary for a translation and rotation. The relative
position and orientation between adjacent co-ordinate frames is calculated with a
homogeneous transformation. With a freely selectable co-ordinate system, task-oriented
programming is dependent of a special robot. The position of the robot in relation to the
workspace must not be available during programming. However, the exact position
data must be entered before the program is executed either by a simulator or the robot
itself. Changes of the geometric relations between robot and its workspace can be simply
correlated for. This programming technique is also useful for application to mobile robots.
In an integrated robot programming system, the information generated during the
product design phase must be available from the CAD database. This includes geometry
data, information on how to process and assemble the work pieces, and data on
technological requirements for programming. For example, a surface representation of a
car body must be carried out to define spot welding points and collision-free robot
trajectories. For assemblies, a solid or surface representation is required to compute
collision-free trajectories and control surfaces. Also required are task frames (e.g., grasp
points, approach and return direction, and centre of gravity of the component). Standard Chapter 13
interfaces for the exchange of geometric data are available with IGES or with STEP data
exchange formats.

Features of typical simulation software include:

> Tight integration between simulation systems and solid modeling packages
> Real time 3D smooth shaded simulation
> Automatic collision detection
> Data conversion from CAD models
> Extensive robot libraries
494 CAD/CAM/CIM

> Input/output logic simulated between multiple devices

> Automatic adjustment of robot work envelope for tool offsets and joint limits.
> Real time tele-robotics control and simulation

13.7 SIMULATION
A graphical simulation system for the validation and specification of the robot program
is an integral part of an advanced programming system. It must provide a library of
emulated robots, transport devices, and end-effectors to build up a cell model quickly.
Modeling capabilities should include modeling the robot’s environment and the robot
itself. The mathematics and geometric descriptions of the models depend on the desired
accuracy of the simulation (2D-or 3D-models, wire frame, surface or solid representation).
The graphic representation enables the operator to check the programmed operation
sequence. Today, many PC workstations offer high resolution graphics based on the
raster graphics technology.
Graphic standards like GKS or PHIGS facilitate the graphic animation of the simulated
robot. For program alteration an interactive interface is necessary, which allows the use of
a joystick, mouse or light pen. A simulation may be discrete / continuous. Discrete
simulation supports programming of the overall control structure of a cell using predicate
transitions. Continuous simulation is used for testing such details of the program as the
robot motion, interaction with other components of the cell, and the dynamic behavior of
the robot.

13.8 ADAPTIVE CONTROL

Adaptive control is the ability to modify a program in real time, based upon sensory
data. Robots can make use of abilities such as orienting parts based on features, following
a changed path, or recognizing work pieces. Adaptive control requires sensory input
and the ability to respond to that input.
Adaptive control will greatly enhance role of the industrial robots in the computer
integrated factory. The robot endowed with ability to adjust to its environment, reduces
scrap and rework, and a robot equipped with adaptive control can perform quality - control
functions integral with its tasks.
Adaptive control sensors for robots are found in the same general categories as the
human senses: touch, sound, vision and process related sensors (functionally similar
to taste and smell). Sensor input can be used at different levels in the robot hierarchy.
Commonly, they are used for robot path or position alteration. Sensors may be used to
adaptively control processes being performed by the robot. Sensor data may also send
by the robot to other machines. The physical integration of sensors into the robot
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 495

structure has been dictated by the specific task to be performed and the properties of
the sensors.

13.9 ROBOT OPERATION

Robots are used for several applications. Each application requires a certain mode of
operations. These modes of operation can be classified into four types:
i. Pick-and-place: As the name implies, this mode involves a very limited sequence
of moves to a fixed position where it grasps a part (“pick”), then moves to another
position where it “places” the part. Some applications may involve several move
positions. The controls involved are generally the simplest. A non-servo control
system, with either mechanical stops or pneumatic logic, is adequate. Because of
the simplicity of the motion and the fixed positions involved, the pick-and-place
mode can be accurate and capable of high speed. A typical application is placing
the IC’s on a printed circuit board.
ii. Point-to-point: This is used for more complex movements where the arm is
controlled in a series of steps that have been stored in memory. The programming
is usually performed by the use of teach pendant. Although the movement is
normally under servo control, there is no coordinated motion between the axes.
Each axis operates at its maximum rate until it reaches the desired endpoint
position. The intermediate path, velocity, and relative motion between axes are
not controlled. This is adequate for many applications where only the activity at
the endpoint positions is important. Applications like spot welding are examples
of point to point operations.
iii. Continuous path: This mode is required when the control of the manipulator’s
path is critical, such as in a spray-painting application. The robot’s path is not
determined by a series of pre-programmed points. The path and movement of
each axis is stored during a walk through programming session. Although this
creates a continuous path, it is not precise. All the movements of the operator
intended or not, are recorded. A large amount of memory and a high-speed Chapter 13
sampling system are needed to record all the path data.
iv. Controlled path: Where the total control of the robot’s motion as in an arc welding
desired, a detailed control program and sophisticated servo-control system must
be used. This provides coordinated control of all the axes in terms of their
position, velocity, and acceleration. The program can optimize the movements
of the manipulator to reduce cycle time, minimize forces, eliminate jerky motions,
and improve precision. Sensors provide the necessary feedback to control the
process. For example vision sensors provide feedback of progress of a robotic
welding operation.
496 CAD/CAM/CIM

13.10 ENDS-OF-ARM-TOOLING
The robot control program must also control any operations involving the end-of-arm
tooling or gripper. For simple one-step operations, a single output from an on-off switch
may be all that is necessary to activate the gripper. For movements involving a sequence
of several steps, multiple outputs may be required, including those from support fixtures
and tools. In complex applications, the control program must integrate all the signals,
which can influence the actions of the robot. They may include inputs from other machines
to determine if they are ready to operate. They may also include signals, which notify the
system that a part is present or that an operation was performed successfully.

13.11 CONTROL SYSTEM OPERATION

During the operation of a robot, the control system is very busy, even for relatively simple
movements. A real-time servo control system executes a series of tasks at a fixed frequency,
normally a high-speed sampling rate that has been pre-programmed into the control system.
A typical sequence of events goes as follows:
(i) Read input status (e.g., safety interlocks, power on)
(ii) Execute program commands (e.g., MOVE)
(iii) Check safety conditions
(iv) Monitor sensor values
(v) Interpret motion commands
(vi) Output updated joint position goals
(vii) Log and terminate processing

13.12 APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

Robots are being used for a wide range of tasks in the industry (Fig. 13.11). A study of
the application wise break-up of industrial robots in U.S. and Japan identifies major
application areas to be handling. welding, surface coating, machining and assembly.

Application USA JAPAN

Welding 35% 28.5 %
Material 26% 27.5 %
Handling/Casting 8% 9%
Machine Loading 5% 3.5 %
Painting Assembly 16 % 26 %
Others 10% 5.5 %
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 497
40

WELDING MATERIAL HANDLING/ ASSEMBLY

CASTING

35

30 PAINTING

25

% OTHERS
20

15

10

0
USA JAPAN

Fig. 13.11 Applications of Industrial Robots

13.12.1 MATERIALS HANDLING

Materials handling includes parts transfer from conveyors and palletization. Robots
perform well in these applications as well as handling fragile components and heavy
ones and parts that are very hot or very cold. The tasks can be simple or complex involving
tracking in one or two axes or a moving conveyor. Some robots equipped with multiple
tooling can handle more than one part at a time. A variety of end effectors have been
used including mechanical grippers, magnets and vacuum cups.

13.12.2 MACHINE TENDING

From the very beginning machine tending (loading and unloading CNC machine tools,
die casting machines, presses and forges) has been a popular application for robots. The
reliability and steady pace of the robot can significantly increase machine tool utilization
and productivity.
In many cases, because of long machining cycle times, a single robot services several
machines. The machines may be grouped around the robot or the robot may move from
machine to machine on a traversing base. Automatic gauging may be provided with the
robot loading /unloading the gauge which might be interfaced with the machine control.
Chapter 13
Spindle orienting devices, chip blow - off systems, cycle timers and power actuated splash
guards are machine modifications, which may be required when a robot is installed. In
addition, machine may have to be relocated and part feeder/orienters must be provided.
The applications can be quite complex and requires careful planning. Machine-mounted
pick and place robots have been designed and installed on turning, boring, milling and
grinding machines. They are popular due to low initial investment, simple maintenance,
accurate loading cycle and high space efficiency.
Robotized serving of machine groups is economically rewarding even with short
production series as the machine groups by reprogramming can be quickly adapted to a
498 CAD/CAM/CIM

wide range of other tasks. In serving a machine group, the robot functions as a materials
handling device and ensures optimum utilization of different machines in the group.
A machine group is built in accordance with the requirement of a customer for
manufacturing a certain range of product. The machines need to be modified for automatic
operation and control from robot. The system usually includes measurement fixtures for
palletizing, checking the parts at different stages, equipment for cleaning and deburring.
To permit the machine group to work continuously, a supply and off-loading system like
a conveyor is needed. The complete machine group is controlled by a robot system, which
starts stops and checks all equipment in the group via inputs and outputs. Figure 13.12
shows a typical arrangement of a machine group being served by a robot.
Unloading die-casting machines and handling the castings and scrap are operations to
which robots were first applied. These still remain as one of the most important robot
application areas. The robots unload die casting machines, quench it, and place it on a
trimming press and dispose of the spare and runners. The robot may also load inserts into
the dies, spray die lubricant on to dies or ladle molten metal into the machine. A single
robot may tend two machines. These applications provide excellent economic returns with
short pay back periods by reducing labor cost, decreasing scrap, increasing die life and
production rate of the machine. Robots associated with the plastic injection molding
machines also perform similar tasks.
In /O u t
M a ga zin e
Sta rt

L at he A L at he B
C on tro l
P o sitio nin g t o Sta tio n
In -M ag a z in e

No No
No D eta il in
B R ea d y ? A Re ad y ?
P o sitio n

Yes Yes Yes

P ic k Up
D eta il S e rve B S e rve A

No
Set 17 = 1

Yes

No
Set 18 = 1

Yes

Fig. 13.12 A Machine Group Served by a Robot

Robots tending stamping and forming presses offer a means of complying with safety
requirements and still have the flexibility to run batch operations. Robots are particularly
useful for handling large/heavy stampings. Vacuum systems are often used to handle
fragile and flexible parts. The major advantage of press loading relates to removal of the
people from potentially hazardous, noisy and monotonous operations and the reduction
in change over times for batch run parts.
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 499

Robot applications in forging include die forging, upset forging and roll forging. The
robots may load furnaces, forging presses, headers and trim presses and lubricate dies.
Special attention is taken to protect the robot from heat and shock loads. The applications
offer significant benefits like reduction in labor cost and removal of human labor.
In comparison with traditional production methods, robotized machine group serving
has the following advantages:
• Better utilization of both machines and robot
• Shorter throughput time
• Improved and more even product quality
• increased operational safety
• Lower personnel training costs
• Partly or completely unmanned production

13.12.3 WELDING
Spot welding was the first major automobile application where robots were used
extensively. This application is proven and so widespread that leading automobile
manufacturers in U.S, Japan, Germany, Italy, U.K, and Sweden have fully automatic welding
lines integrating number of robots, fixturing and transfer services. Robots are also used in
Indian automobile industries. The robot’s ability to carry out consistent placement of welds
permit a reduction in number of spot welds required for the same net output.

13.12.3.1 ARC Welding

Arc welding is an area for extensive robotic application. Potential robot arc welding
operations are not only two to three times faster than manual welding but also relieve
workers from exposure to hazardous fumes, radiation and noise and from tasks, which
call for high degree of concentration and skill. The advantages of the application of a robot
to weld sheet metal components include improved and consistent quality of welds and
removal of human operator from a tedious, unpleasant and potentially dangerous task.
An example is the welding of header pipes in boilers.

13.12.4 SURFACE COATING Chapter 13

Surface coating operations with robots involve spray application of paint, stain, plastic
powder, sound absorber or similar materials. The robots are normally servo controlled
with six or seven degrees of freedom and are designed to be intrinsically safe for use in a
volatile atmosphere. Cost savings in labor, consistent product quality, material savings,
energy savings, reduced booth maintenance and relieving workers from exposure to toxic
fumes are the advantages claimed for surface coating robotic installations.

13.12.5 MACHINING
Machining operations with industrial robots are relatively new area of application.
Deburring of machined parts, grinding, polishing, removal of flash from parting lines of
500 CAD/CAM/CIM

forged/cast parts, drilling, routing and riveting of aircraft panels are some of the
operations. Pneumatically or electrically driven tools are usually compliantly mounted
on the robot. In some installations the robot handles the work piece against a fixed tool.
Robotic machining has the potential to eliminate manual operations, which limits the
production throughput and aims to eliminate costly tooling aids.

13.12.6 ASSEMBLY
Presently most assembly operations are effected manually and they represent a robotic
application area of significant economic potential. A number of small servo controlled
robots have been developed for assembly functions. Vision and tactile sensing capabilities
are being developed to this new generation of robots. The inherent economic benefits,
improved quality and increased productivity have encouraged research/development
in this area.
Robots are widely used in automobile assembly. Some of such operations carried out
by robots are:
Engine and power train assembly
• fixing flywheels, spring struts, front covers
• Front and rear axles
• Steering gear
Trim assembly
• Door liners
• Wind shield preparation and fitting
Final assembly
• Wheels
• Chassis module and body decking

13.12.7 INSPECTION
For inspection purposes, the robot may be used primarily as a handling device passively
or it may handle the measuring device itself positioning the gauge in the programmed
location relative to part inspected. Gauging devices can be either contact devices or lasers.
Robotic inspection speeds up the process and assures high reliability of data as well.

13.13 THE INTEGRATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL ROBOT INTO A CIM SYSTEM

The block diagram of an industrial robotic cell is shown in Fig. 13.13.A robot can be
programmed to serve a number of machines. This makes sense as otherwise the robot
will be under utilized. In the figure the robot is shown to attend four machines. The
work involved may be loading/unloading, deburring etc. Sensors attached to the
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 501

machines provide the necessary inputs and feedback to the robot. The work pieces are
supplied in the pallets or magazines. Finished parts are loaded into appropriate magazines
or pallets. The following issues require careful consideration in designing an efficient
robotic work cell.
• The design of a product for robot-oriented manufacture.
• The planning for the installation of robot-based manufacturing system.
• The programming of the robot control and sensory operation supporting the
robot’s skill.

ROBOT
CONTROL
SYSTEM

MACHINE SENSOR

SENSOR MACHINE
ROBOT CONTROL
PANEL

SENSOR MACHINE

MACHINE SENSOR

SUPPLY MAGAZINE

DELIVERY MAGAZINE

Fig. 13.13 Block Diagram of an Industrial Robotic Cell

13.14 PRESENTATION OF WORK TO ROBOTS

One of the important considerations in the robotic work cell design is the presentation of
the work parts to the robot. Introducing robots involves not only replacing human beings
by robots but also designing a suitable working environment so that robots will be able to
perform satisfactorily. This usually requires design of a suitable fixture to present the work
part to the robot. Many operations require several degrees of freedom of movement and Chapter 13
some of these could be provided to the fixture. Often the fixture will be equally costly as
the robot itself. Proper design of the system to present work part for operation by the end
effector is very critical.

13.15 PRODUCT DESIGN FOR AUTOMATIC MANUFACTURE BY ROBOTS

Until very recently, the application of robot in various manufacturing areas was restricted
to relatively simple tasks. The development of new robot applications, however, can be
supported by the application of advanced hardware and software or by an improved
product design that considers the restrictions of the robot. Innovations like hexapods have
502 CAD/CAM/CIM

been incorporated of late in the design of robots. Two research areas can thus be
distinguished: the development of advanced assembly robots and the redesign of the
product and its components for assembly by robots.
Both of these approaches are important, and they may complement each other. Till
today, the first approach was the one mainly pursued by industry. However, the experience
of companies indicates that much greater effort is required to design a product for assembly
robots. Flexible assembly stations using robots require a standardization of the product or
part of it and unique method for the description of the product assembly system.

13.16. MANUFACTURERS OF ROBOTS

There are a large number of robot manufacturers. Some of the well known manufacturers
are listed below:
• Fanuc
• Kuka
• ABB
• Epson
• DENSO
• Hyundai
• Comau
• Nachi
• Motoman
• Adept
• ABB
• Seiko
• Kawasaki
• Staubli Unimation
• Mitsubishi

QUESTIONS
1. What is the significant advantage of using a Robot in a computer integrated
manufacturing system?
2. Describe the elements of a robotic system.
3. How do you justify the use of a robot?
4. How do you classify robots?
5. Differentiate between a SCARA and a gantry robot.
6. Define the work envelope of a robot. How does it differ from one type of robot
to another?
Robots in Computer Integrated Manufacturing 503

7. What are the different types of drives used in robots?

8. What are the different types of control systems used in robots?
9. How do you specify a robot?
10. What are the different methods of programming of robots?
11. Discuss the basic types of robot programming languages.
12. How do you integrate CAD data with robot operation?
13. Briefly describe significant application areas of robots.
14. Discuss the importance of proper presentation of work parts to the robots.
15. Determine the effective work envelope of a robot from its specifications.

Chapter 13