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Solvation is an interaction of a solute with the solvent, which leads to stabilization of the solute species in the solution.
Pure substances - systems with only one component
2 types:
Characteristics of Solutions
1. Distribution of solvent and solute particles is uniform throughout the solution.
2. Components will not separate upon standing.
3. Components cannot be separated by filtration.
4. For any given solute and solvent, many different concentration solutions can be made - up to the solubility limit.
5. A solution may or may not be colorless, but it will be clear. (clear means transparent)
6. Components of a solution may be separated by chromatography, distillation, or fractional crystallization
Type of solutions:
1. Liquid solutions are the most common - solids, liquids, and gases dissolve in liquids to give solutions.
2. Gas solutions - all mixtures of gases are solutions. Why? Mixing is at the molecular level.
3. Solid solutions - anytime solids are mixed, they form heterogeneous mixtures - to make a homogeneous mixture of solids, all
components must be melted and mixed in the liquid phase. ex. alloys like brass, bronze, and steel.
Aqueous Solutions - the most common solutions are those containing water as the solvent. These solutions are called aqueous
solutions.
A concentrated solution has a relatively large amount of a solute per unit of solution, and a dilute solution has a relatively small
amount of the same solute per unit of solution.
Solid
Liquid in solid Dental amalgam Silver (solid) Mercury (liquid)
Solid in solid Steel Iron (solid) Carbon (solid)
Solubility - the maximum amount of a solute that dissolves in a given amount of liquid at a given temperature. A good rule of
thumb for determining the solubility is “like dissolves like”. Solutions form between solute and solvent molecules because of
similarities between them. For most solids the solubility increases with increasing temperature. In contrast, gases are less soluble
in water at higher temperature.
Polar solvents dissolve polar substances, nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar substances.
· Ionic solids dissolve in water because the charged ions (polar) are attracted to the polarwater molecules.
· Nonpolarmolecules such as oil and grease dissolve in nonpolarsolvents such as kerosene.
Solubility of a solute in a solvent depends on:
1. nature of the solute
2. nature of the solvent - “like dissolves like” likeness refers to polarity
3. temperature- For solids and liquids dissolved in liquids, solubility increases with increasing temperature. For gases, solubility in
liquids almost always decreases with increasing temperature. (ex. a bottle of warn coke or beer foams up when you open it.)
4. other dissolved solutes (if any)
A substance that dissolves in a solvent is said to be soluble (when > 1 gram per 100ml of solvent dissolves) in that solvent.
A substance that does not dissolve in a solvent is said to be insoluble (when < 0.1 gram per 100ml of solvent dissolves) in that
solvent. Simple Solubility Rules:
SOLUBILITY RULE: -Nitrate (NO3-) salts are soluble.
All Soluble Except With -Alkali (group 1A) salts and NH4+are soluble.
Chlorates -Cl-, Br-, and I- salts are soluble (NOT Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2
Acetates 2+)
Sulfates Ca Ba Sr Hg Ag Pb (CBS HAPpy) -Sulfate salts are soluble (NOT BaSO4, PbSO4, HgSO4,
Halogens Hg Ag Pb(HAPpy) CaSO4)
Nitrates -OH− salts are only slightly soluble (NaOH, KOH are
Group (IA) soluble, Ba(OH)2,Ca(OH)2 are marginally soluble)
-S2−, CO32−, CrO42−, PO43− salts are insoluble.
Remember the acronym: “CASH N’ Gia.” All these things are
soluble unless they are found with certain elements.
When solid solute (substance or particles) and liquid solvent are mixed, the only reactions are dissolution or crystallization.
A dissolution is the dissolving process of the solid solute.
A crystallization is the opposite, which causes the solid solute to remain undissolved.
Substances whose aqueous solutions are conductors of electricity are called electrolytes.
Substances whose aqueous solutions are not conductors of electricity are called nonelectrolytes.
Weak electrolytes - solutes that are only partially ionized in solution.Some molecular compounds, carboxylic acids, and
amines. In order for a solution to conduct an electric current, ions must be present. Electrolytes produce ions in aqueous
solutions. Nonelectrolytes do not produce ions.
Types of Saturation
Kinds of Saturation:
Saturated Solution - A solution with solute that dissolves until it is unable to dissolve anymore, leaving the undissolved
substances at the bottom.
Unsaturated Solution - A solution (with less solute than the saturated solution) that completely dissolves, leaving no
remaining substances.
Supersaturated Solution - A solution (with more solute than the saturated solution) that contains more undissolved
solute than the saturated solution because of its tendency to crystallize and precipitate.
Miscible and Immiscible are terms limited to solutions of liquids in liquids. If two liquids dissolve in each other they form a single
continuous layer (like water and alcohol) and are miscible. Liquids that are not soluble in each other form two distinct layers (like
water and oil) and are immiscible.
3. Particle Size (surface area) = decrease particle size –> increases surface area –>
increases collisions–> faster dissolving.
Decreasing the size of the particles increases the rate of dissolving. When you
breakup a large mass into many smaller masses, you increase the surface areathat is in
contact with the solvent. This allows the solid to dissolve faster.
• Any amount of solute above the line in which all of the solute has
dissolved shows the solution is supersaturated.
• If the amount of solute is above the line but has not all dissolved, the
solution is saturated and the # grams of solute settled on the bottom of the
container = total # g in solution – # g of a saturated solution at that
temperature. (according to the curve)
• Solutes whose curves move downward w/ increased temperature are typically gases b/c the solubility of gases decreases
withincreased temperature.
2. Which of the salts shown on the graph has the greatest increase in solubility as the temperature increases
from 30 degrees to 60 degrees?
3. Which of the salts has its solubility affected the least by a change in temperature?
4. What two salts have the same degree of solubility at approximately 19 oC?
5. How many grams of potassium chlorate must be added to 1 liter of water to produce a saturated solution at 50 oC?
6.Are the following solutions saturated, unsaturated or supersaturated (assume that all three could form supersaturated
solutions)
a. 40. g of KCl in 100 mL of water at 80oC
b. 120. g of KNO3 in 100 mL of water at 60oC
c. 80. g of NaNO3 in 100 mL of water at 10oC
DILUTION AND CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
In the lab, you will often encounter a stock solution which you will need
to dilute to a given concentration for use in a lab
exercise. Dilution consists of adding more solvent to a solution so that
the concentration of the solute becomes lower. The total number of solutes in the solution
remains the same after dilution, but the volume of the solution becomes Figure 1
greater, resulting in a lower molarity, ppm, mg/L, or % concentration.
In Figure 1, the solute is the dots and the solvent is the solid blue. The 1 L beaker on the left
shows the initial concentration, which we might represent as 13 dots/L. The beaker on the right is
the result of dilution of the left beaker. We added more solvent so that the solution's total volume was 3 L. As a result, the
concentration of the diluted beaker is (13 dots)/(3 L), or 4.3 dots/L.
Calculating Dilution
Dilution calculations are simplified by using the following equation:
M1V1 = M2V2
where:
M1 = concentration of the first solution
V1 = volume of the first solution
M2 = concentration of the second solution
V2 = volume of the second solution
Concentration and volume in the equation above can have any units as long as the units are the same for the two solutions.
As long as you know three of the four values from the equation above, you can calculate the fourth. Let's consider a sample
problem:
You have 1 L of a 0.125 M aqueous solution of table sugar. You want to dilute the solution to 0.05 M. What do you do?
To solve the problem, you simply plug in the three numbers you know:
(0.125 M) (1 L) = (0.05 M) V2
2.5 L = V2
Using the equation, you determine that the volume of the diluted solution should be 2.5 L. So we simply add enough water to the
first solution so that the solution's volume becomes 2.5 L.
Dilution Problems:
1. What will be the final concentration of the solution indicated that will result from the following dilutions?
a. 14.0 mL of a 4.20 M Na2CO3 solution is diluted to 86.0 mL.
b. 450. mL of a 1.22 M HCl solution is diluted to 1.26 liters.
2. To what volume should the indicated solution be diluted to produce a solution of the desired concentration?
a. 12.0 mL of a 0.64 M KCl solution to produce a 0.19 M solution.
b. 84.2 mL of a 4.60 M KMnO4 solution to produce a 1.42 M solution.
3. What volume of the indicated solution is needed to produce the volume and concentration of a diluted solution as indicated?
a. 2.73 M NaOH solution to prepare 142 mL of a 0.540 M solution.
b. 0.0076 M SnF2 solution to prepare 25.0 mL of a 0.00027 M solution.
Remember:
(A large amount of heat is released
How to Dilute an Acid (exothermic reaction) when strong
1. Consult Chemical Safety Cards of the acid one wants to dilute. Many of these can easily be acids are mixed with water. Adding
found on the internet. Sometimes several cards are issued, depending on the concentration more acid releases more heat. If you
and additions to the acid. Search for the card that matches the acid to be diluted. These add water to acid, you form an
extremely concentrated solution of
cards give just the safety precautions, they do not explain in depth why you should stick to acid initially. So much heat is
them. If you don't understand the reason behind it study further and make sure you do. releasedthat the solution may boil
2. Do follow the safety precautions! very violently, splashing
3. Wear gloves, safety goggles, roll up sleeves, and tie up long hair. concentrated acid out of the
container! If you add acid to water,
4. Use a pipette to place one drop of the acid into the beaker of water. Never use a mouth the solution that forms is very dilute
pipette with anything, especially acids. Use a graduated (Mohr) or volumetric pipette with a and the small amount of heat
rubber bulb on top. released is not enough to vaporize
and spatter it. So Always Add Acid
5.Allow the solution to cool off. Strong acids may generate lots of heat that may even bring
to water, and never the reverse.)
the diluted acid to the boil. This will cause splattering and may produce corrosive fumes.
Remember AAW.
6. Continue adding the acid in small doses until the acid has been diluted. Allow every time
to cool off. Never add lots of acid to the water at once.
7. Put a stopper on the flask and invert several times
Measuring Concentrations
Concentration as a Mass/Mass Percent
A mass/mass percent gives the mass of a solute divided by the mass of solution, expressed as a percent. The mass/mass
percent is also referred to as the percent (m/m), or the mass percent.
Answer Me
1. What is the percent by mass of 5.0 g of NaCl mixed with 80.0 g of water?
3. What is the percent solution (by volume) when 50. mL of ethanol is diluted to 140 mL with water?
4. Solder flux, available at hardwood stores, contains 16 g of zinc chloride in 50 ml of solution. The solvent is HCl (aq.). What is the
percentage mass by volume of zinc chloride in the solution? 16 g / 50mL = 32% M/V
"Parts per" is a convenient notation used for low and very low concentrations. Generally speaking it is very similar to weight by
weight percentage - 1% w/w means 1 gram of substance per every 100 g of sample and it is (although very rarely) named pph -
parts per hundred. Other abbreviations stand for:
parts per milion (106) Concept of ppm: 1 ppm = 1 part of substance in one million parts of water solution, or
ppm 1/1,000,000
1 ppm = approximately one second in 11.6 days
parts per bilion (109) Concept of ppb: 1 ppb = 1 part of substance in one billion parts of water solution, or
1/1,000,000,000
ppb
1 ppb = approximately one second in 31.7 years
parts per trillion (1012) Concept of ppt: 1 ppt = 1 part in one trillion parts of water solution, or 1/1,000,000,000,000
ppt 1 ppt = approximately 1.6 days out of the present age of the earth (approx
4.5 billion yrs)
Answer Me
1. Find the concentration in ppm of a solution in which 0.0059 g of NaCl has been dissolved making a solution
with a volume of 750 mL.
2. Find the concentration in ppb of a solution in which 9.6 x 10-6 g of NaCl has been dissolved making a solution
with a volume of 2.0 L.
3. An Olympic-size pool is 50 m (164 ft) long, 25 m (82 ft) wide, and 2.0 m (6.6 ft. minimum) deep. It holds 660,000 US gallons or
2,500,000 liters of water. It has 8 racing lanes that are 2.5 m wide with an “empty” lane of 2.5 m in width along each side. (While
there are 10 lanes, only the middle 8 are used for racing.) If 1.0 gram of NaCl is dissolved in the water of a pool of this size, what is
the concentration of the dissolved salt in ppt?
Molarity
Molarity tells us the number of moles of solute in exactly one liter of a solution. (Note that molarity is spelled with an "r" and is
represented by a capital M.)
We need two pieces of information to calculate the molarity of a solute in a solution:
The moles of solute present in the solution.
The volume of solution (in liters) containing the solute.
To calculate molarity we use the equation:
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. What is the molarity of a solution that contains 1.724 moles of H 2SO4 in 2.50 L of solution?
2. What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 25.0 g of HCl (g) in enough water to make 150.0
mL of solution?
3.How many grams of NaOH would you need to add to .35 liters of water to make a 1.50 M solution?
4. A chemist dissolves 98.4 g of FeSO4 in enough water to make 2.000 L of solution. What is the molarity of the solution?
Molality
Molality, m, tells us the number of moles of solute dissolved in exactly one kilogram of solvent. (Note: that molality is spelled with
two "l"'s and represented by a lower case m.)
We need two pieces of information to calculate the molality of a solute in a solution:
The moles of solute present in the solution.
The mass of solvent (in kilograms) in the solution.
To calculate molality we use the equation:
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. If you dissolve 75.0 g of aluminum nitrate (check the formula!) in 750.0 g of water, what is the molality of
the solution?
2. If the molality of a CaCl2 solution is 0.100 mol/Kg, and was made from 500.0 mL of water, how many grams of CaCl2 were
needed to make the solution? (Hint: How do you change mL to g for water?)
3. A commonly purchased disinfectant is a 3.0% (by mass) solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in water. Assuming the density of
the solution is 1.0 g/cm3, Calculate the molarity and molality of H2O2.
Mole Fraction
The mole fraction, X, of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of that component to the total number of
moles of all components in the solution.
To calculate mole fraction, we need to know:
The number of moles of each component present in the solution.
The mole fraction of A, XA, in a solution consisting of A, B, C, ... is calculated using the equation:
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
1.6.80 g of sodium chloride are added to 2750 mL of water. Find the mole fraction of the sodium chloride and
of the water in the solution.
2. Determine the mole fraction of KCl in 3000 grams of aqueous solution containing 37.3 grams of Potassium Chloride KCl.
Boiling-Point Elevation
A liquid boils at the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals atmospheric
pressure.
The presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solution so it is
necessary to heat the solution to a higher temperature in order for it to boil.
The amount by which the boiling point is raised is known as the boiling point
elevation.
The boiling-point elevation is proportional to the concentration of solute particles
expressed as moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
Freezing-Point Depression
The presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the freezing point of a solvent.
In order to freeze the solvent, it must be cooled to a lower temperature in order to compensate for its lower escaping
tendency.
The amount by which the freezing point is lowered is known as the freezing point depression.
The freezing-point depression is proportional to the concentration of solute particles expressed as moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent.
Electrolytes
Since colligative properties depend on the number of particles if the solute is an electrolyte and breaks apart in to multiple ions
then we need to take that in to account when we are doing molality calculations.
We use the van't Hoff factor (i) to measure the extent that the solute breaks apart into ions.
In an ideal solution the van't Hoff factor would be equal to the number of ions the solute breaks apart into, in the real world the
van't Hoff factor is generally less. The van't Hoff factor needs to be measure experimentally. We now need
to add the van't Hoff factor to all the colligative property equations:
Osmotic Pressure
When two liquids, such as a solvent and a solution, are separated by a semipermeable
membrane that allows only solvent molecules to pass through, then there is a net
transfer of solvent molecules from the solvent to the solution. This process is called
osmosis.
Osmosis can be stopped by applying pressure to compensate for the difference in
escaping tendencies. The pressure required to stop osmosis is called osmotic pressure.
In dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the molarity of the
solution and its temperature in Kelvin.
RAOULT’S LAW:
In the 1880s, French chemist François-Marie Raoult made an interesting discovery: when a substance is added to a solution, the
vapor pressure of the solution will generally decrease. This change depends on two variables, the mole fraction of the amount
ofdissolved solute present and the original vapor pressure. Hence, Raoult's Law was established.
Psolvent = XsolventPosolvent
At any given temperature for a particular solid or liquid, there is a pressure at which the vapor formed above the substance is in
dynamic equilibrium with its liquid or solid form. This is the vapor pressure of the substance at that temperature. At equilibrium,
the rate at which the solid or liquid evaporates is equal to the rate that the gas is condensing back to its original form. All solids
and liquids have vapor pressure, and this pressure is constant regardless of how much of the substance is present.
The phase diagram below illustrates the effect of adding a solute to a pure substance.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
1. At what temperature will a solution that is composed of 0.73 moles of glucose in 650.0 mL of water begin
to boil?
2. At what temperature will a sucrose solution, C11H22O10, boil if it contains 175 grams of sucrose in 750 mL of water?
3. At what temperature will an methanol solution, CH3OH, freeze if it contains 55.0 grams of methanol in 1200 mL of water?
4. What is the boiling point of 0.10 M CaCl2? Would the actual boiling point be higher or lower than what you calculated? Why?
Kb = 0.512
5.10 grams of a non-ionic solid (like sugar) are dissolved into 100 mL of water. The freezing point of the water is depressed 3.32 0C.
What is the formula weight of the solid? Kf= 1.86
6. Osmotic pressure can be used to determine the formula weight of a compound and is commonly used to calculate the mass of
proteins. If 1.00 grams of a protein are dissolved in 100 mL of water, the osmotic pressure will be 92.92 torr. What is the formula
weight of the protein? Assume i = 1
7. Why do road crews throw salt on the road when it snows? How does it do it?
Pass unchanged through a membrane Pass unchanged through a membrane Separated by membrane
Types of Colloids:
A common method of classifying colloids is based on the phase of the dispersed substance and what phase it is dispersed in. They
types of colloids includes sol, emulsion, foam, and aerosol.
1. Sol is a colloidal suspension with solid particles in a liquid.
2. Emulsion is between two liquids.
3. Foam is formed when many gas particles are trapped in a liquid or solid.
4. Aerosol contains small particles of liquid or solid dispersed in a gas.
When the dispersion medium is water, the collodial system is referred to as a hydrocolloid. The particles in the dispersed phase
can take place in different phases depending on how much water is available. For example, Jello powder mixed in with water
creates a hydrocolloid. A common use for hydrocolloids is in the creation of medical dressings.
Dispersed Dispersion
Examples
phase medium
Solid Solid Colored glasses, rock salt, porcelain, alloys.
Classification of Colloids
Colloids can be classified as two types they are the lyophilic or reversible and lyophobic or irreversible. If water is the dispersion
medium, the terms used are hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
Lyophilic colloids: A colloidal system that can be made readily by simple warming or shaking the substance in a suitable solvent is
known as lyophilic colloid. Substances that form lyophilic colloids include gelatin, starch, proteins, gum and rubber. Lyophilic
colloids are also termed as reversible colloids as on evaporating the dispersion medium such as water, the substance or the
residue can be again reconverted into colloidal state simply by addition of the liquid i.e. water. These solutions are quite stable
and cannot be easily precipitated.
Lyophobic colloids: colloids formed with difficulty are termed as lyophobic colloids. These colloids are formed by substances such
as As2S3 , Fe(OH)3, gold and other metals which are sparingly soluble and thus their molecules do not pass readily into colloidal
state. Lyophobic colloids are known as irreversible colloids since the residue cannot readily be reconverted into sol by ordinary
means. These solutions are readily precipitated and hence are not stable. To form colloidal dispersion of such substances it is
necessary to add a third substance called an emulsifier or peptizing agent, also called surfactants which consist of molecules
which are attracted to both the dispersed phase and dispersing medium.
PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDS:
Heterogeneous character – colloidal particles remain within their own boundary surfaces which separate them from the
dispersion medium.
Brownian Movement – Robert Brown, a Scottish naturalist, discovered in 1827 that pollen grains’
placed in water do not remain at rest but move continuously and randomly. Brownian motion is the
zig –zag movement of colloidal particles continuously and randomly
Adsorptive Property – the ability of a substance to hold another substance on its surface is referred to as
adsorption. Because colloids have large surface areas as compared with those of bulk matter, colloids have the
ability to adsorb or attach ions from a solution.
Adsorbate– adsorbed layer
Adsorbent – adsorbing medium
Kinds of Adsorption:
Chemisorption - the bond between surface and adsorbed particles (molecules or ions) is fairly strong, resembling chemical bonds
and difficult to break.This kind of adsorption is normally irreversible.
Physisorption – a weaker kind of adsorption involves only van der Waal’s forces and adsorbed materials can usually be removed
again.
Dialysis, Hemodialysis and Electrodialysis – dialysis is the process of separating solute particles from colloidal
particles by means of a parchment paper or semipermeable membrane. In a dialysis unit, the movement of ions
across membranes can be speeded up by applying an electric current through the electrodes introduced in the
solution. This method is very fast and is known as eletrodialysis. Hemodialysis uses artificial kidney machine
where blood is pumped from the body to a filter made of tiny plastic capillaries. An alternative system the
peritoneal dialysis uses the body’s own membrane as a filter,and the fluid drained in and out of the abdomen
replaces the kidneys in getting rid of the body’s poison and excess water.
From the options below, choose the principle involved in behaviour/ applications of colloids for nos. 1 -5.
a. adsorptive property
b. Brownian movement
c. Electrical property
d. Tyndall effect
1. purification of blood
2. removal of particulates to filter impurities
3. use of charcoal to filter impurities
4. use of egg white as antidote to poisoning
5. describes the erratic movement of colloid.
7. Give examples for colloidal systems in which the dispersed phase is gas and the dispersion phase is liquid.
a. Foam, froth, soap leather.
b. Unknown.
c. Gases in metals
d. Gases accumulated in a pumice stone.
8. Give examples for colloidal systems in which the dispersed phase is liquid and the dispersion phase is also a liquid.
a. Curd, cheese.
b. Milk, cream.
c. Jellies
d. Mist
Explain: Why do advertisements say that margarine ‘tastes like butter” or “has butter”. How is margarine different from butter?
Similar to butter?