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7A Summary Sheets

Cells and their functions


All living things are made from cells. There are two basic types of cell:

Animal cell Plant cell

Cells are very small. A microscope is used to see them.

To use a microscope you:


i Place the smallest objective lens over the hole in the stage.
ii Turn the focusing wheel to move the objective lens close to the stage.
iii Place the slide on the stage.
iv Adjust the light source or mirror.
v Look into the eyepiece lens
vi Turn the focusing wheel until what you see is clear (in focus).

A microscope makes things appear bigger. It magnifies things. There are two lenses in a microscope. To
work out the total magnification you multiply the magnification of the objective lens by the magnification
of the eyepiece lens.

The object you want to look at using a microscope is called the specimen. It has to be thin to let light get
through it. It is placed, with a drop of water, onto a slide. A coverslip is put on top. The coverslip stops the
specimen from drying out, holds it flat and stops it moving. A stain might be used to help you see parts of
the cell.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Some cells have special shapes. They are adapted to do certain jobs.

Cilated epithelial cells are found Muscle cells are able to change Nerve cells (neurones) are long
in tubes leading to the lungs. The length. This helps us to move. so that messages can be carried
strands at the top (cilia) wave around the body quickly.
about to move dirt out of the
lungs.

Root hair cells in plant roots take Palisade cells in plant leaves are
water out of the ground quickly. packed with chloroplasts to help
The root hair gives the water the plant make food.
more surface to get into the cell.

A group of cells that are the same, all doing the same job, is called a tissue (e.g. muscle tissue). A group of
different tissues working together to do an important job makes an organ. For example the heart is an organ
and is made of muscle tissue and nerve tissue.

Organs have very important jobs:

Organs often work together in organ systems.

Some important organ systems:


Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Organ system Organs Job
Breathing system Windpipe (trachea), lungs Takes air into the body
Circulatory system Heart, blood vessels Carries oxygen and food around the body
Digestive system Mouth, gullet, stomach, intestines Breaks down our food
Flower Stamen, carpel Used for sexual reproduction in plants
Nervous system Brain, spinal cord, nerves Carries messages around the body

Sex cells are produced by the reproductive organs. In plants, these are contained inside flowers. Sex cells
are used for sexual reproduction which needs two parents. The offspring from sexual reproduction are
different from the parents; they are new varieties.

The pollen grains need to be carried to the stigma of another flower. They can be carried by insects or the
wind. The carrying of pollen from an anther to a stigma is called pollination.

Once on the stigma, a pollen grain grows a pollen tube which enters the ovule containing an egg cell. The
nucleus from the pollen grain then joins with the nucleus inside the egg cell. This is called fertilisation.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7B Summary Sheets
Reproduction
Reproduction produces new living things (offspring). In sexual reproduction the nucleus in a male sex
cell joins (fuses) with the nucleus in a female sex cell. This is called fertilisation and produces a fertilised
egg cell. When fertilisation happens outside an animal’s body it is called external fertilisation. Animals
that use this method produce a lot of eggs since some will be eaten by other animals. Humans use internal
fertilisation.

The fertilised egg cell grows into an embryo and the embryo eventually becomes a new living thing. Sexual
reproduction needs two parents. The offspring from sexual reproduction are different from the parents; they
are new varieties.

The human reproductive systems


Humans have reproductive organs so that they can reproduce. The ovaries and testes produce sex cells.

Puberty and adolescence


The reproductive organs get bigger and start to make sex cells at puberty. This is a time when major
physical changes occur in our bodies. These changes are caused by sex hormones.

Changes in boys Changes in girls


• voice deepens (‘breaks’) • underarm hair grows
• shoulders get wider • breasts develop
• hair grows under arms, on face and on chest • ovaries start to release egg cells
• pubic hair grows • hips get wider
• testes and penis get bigger • pubic hair grows
• testes start to make sperm cells • body smell increases
• body smell increases

Adolescence is the time when puberty is occurring and emotional changes happen.
It starts between the ages of 10–15 and ends at about 18. The changes start sooner
in girls. After puberty, men produce sperm cells for the rest of their lives. Women stop releasing egg cells at
the age of 45–55. This is called the menopause.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
The menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle starts with menstruation (the loss of the uterus lining and some blood through the
vagina). It takes 28–32 days for each cycle. About 14 days after menstruation starts, an egg cell is released
from an ovary. This is called ovulation. If the egg cell is not fertilised, the uterus lining starts to break down
and the cycle starts again.

Sex
The sperm cells enter the vagina during sexual intercourse. Semen (sperm cells mixed with special liquids
from the glands) is forced out of the penis and into the top of the vagina. This is called ejaculation. The
semen is moved into the top of the uterus and the sperm cells can swim down the oviducts.

Egg cells and sperm cells are adapted to their functions.

Pregnancy
If the egg cell meets a sperm cell in an oviduct fertilisation can occur. The fertilised egg cell divides to form
a ball of cells (an embryo). The embryo travels to the uterus where it sinks into the soft lining
(implantation). The woman is now pregnant. Once it has developed all its organs (after about 10 weeks) it
is called a fetus. It takes about 40 weeks (9 months) for a fertilised egg cell to grow into a baby ready to be
born. This time is called the gestation period.

The fertilised egg cells of many animals grow and develop outside their parents. This is called external
development. Humans use internal development and produce less offspring than animals using external
development since the growing embryos are protected inside the mother.

While inside the uterus, the fetus is supplied with oxygen and food by the placenta. The placenta also gets
rid of waste (especially carbon dioxide) from the fetus. The cord (or umbilical cord) connects the fetus to
the placenta.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
If a mother smokes, drinks too much alcohol or takes drugs while pregnant she might damage the baby. The
baby might be premature.

Birth
When the baby is ready to be born, the uterus starts contractions and the woman goes into labour. The
muscles of the cervix relax. The baby is pushed out head first through the cervix and the vagina. After birth,
the baby starts to breathe and the cord is cut. The scar left behind is the navel. After this the placenta is
pushed out of the uterus. This is the afterbirth. The baby is fed on milk, often from the mother’s breasts
which contain mammary glands that produce milk. The milk contains antibodies which help destroy
microbes that might cause a disease in the baby.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7C Summary Sheets
Habitats
A habitat is the area where an organism lives. The surroundings of an organism are called its environment.
The conditions in an environment are caused by physical environmental factors. Examples include how
light it is and what the temperature is. Smaller areas in a habitat are called microhabitats.

Where you can find a certain organism in a habitat is known as the organism’s distribution. A community
is all the plants and animals in a habitat.

Jack rabbits are adapted to living in a desert habitat.

Animals and plants are adapted to where they live. This means that they have certain features that allow
them to survive in a habitat. For example, fish are adapted to living under water. They have gills to take
oxygen out of the water, fins to swim with and streamlined bodies to help them move easily through the
water. Here is another example:

Physical environmental factors change from day to day (daily changes). Animals that only come out at
night are called nocturnal animals (e.g. an owl).

Physical environmental factors change over the year (seasonal changes). Organisms adapt to these changes.
When it starts to get colder, some birds migrate to warmer countries where there is more food. There are
other ways plants and animals cope. Look at the picture to discover some of these.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Organisms are in competition with each other. Animals compete for food and space. Plants compete for
light, water and nutrients (mineral salts).

Feeding relationships
An animal that hunts other animals is a predator. What it hunts is its prey. We can show what eats what on
a food chain. Different words are used to describe what the organisms do in a food chain.

producer consumers

herbivore carnivore carnivore


prey for the robin prey for the
sparrowhawk
predator of the predator of the
caterpillar robin
top predator

grass ⎯⎯⎯→ caterpillar ⎯⎯→ robin⎯⎯⎯⎯→ sparrowhawk

Food chains are joined to form food webs. Food webs can also show omnivores (animals that eat both
plants and other animals).

Plants are producers because they can produce their own food. Energy from the Sun is used to help them do
this. This light energy is turned into chemical energy in the producer. When a consumer eats a producer, the
consumer gets the chemical energy.

Food chains and food webs show how energy flows through a community.

Animals that are predators have adaptations that allow them to catch their prey. Animals that are prey have
adaptations for avoiding being eaten!

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Many predators have... Many prey have...
forward facing eyes to look out for prey. eyes on the sides of their heads so that they can
keep a lookout behind them.
large, sharp claws. some form of protection (e.g. horns, spines or
armour).

Often, animals have adaptations for eating, either in or on their mouths:

You can find evidence of what has been eating something by:

• seeing it happen
• finding animal droppings or footprints near a damaged plant or dead animal
• finding teeth marks in a damaged plant or dead animal.

We can use this evidence to draw food chains and webs for habitats.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7D Summary Sheets
Variation and classification
Variation
A species is a group of organisms that can reproduce with one another to produce offspring that will also be
able to reproduce. The differences between organisms are known as variation. There is variation between
different species and between members of the same species.

There is variation between different species. Lions There is variation between members of the same species.
and tigers are different species. Tigers have stripes, lions All tigers have different patterns of stripes.
do not.

Sometimes there is a relationship or correlation between two features. A relationship is normally best
shown on a line graph. The line will go steadily up or steadily down.

Variation can have environmental or inherited causes.

Relationship: people with longer arms have longer middle fingers.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Environmental variation
An organism’s surroundings are known as its environment. The conditions in an environment are called
environmental factors. Plants are affected by environmental factors like the amount of light, the amount of
water, the amount of warmth and the amount of mineral salts in the soil.

The cress seedlings on the left have not had enough light. The plant on the left has not had enough water. It has
wilted.

Animals are also affected by environmental factors. Humans who get sunburnt or have scars are examples.

Inherited variation
This is caused by features being passed from parents to their offspring.

In humans, natural eye colour and natural hair colour are both examples of inherited variation.

Classification
There are so many species that we need to put them into groups. This is called classification.

The first set of groups that organisms are divided into are called kingdoms. The two largest kingdoms are
the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. The main difference between these two kingdoms is that
plants can make their own food and animals cannot.

The animal kingdom is divided into other groups. The vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. There
are five sorts of vertebrate. There are another eight groups which are all invertebrates. The most important
groups to know about are in bold type.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
The plant kingdom is also divided into groups.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7E Summary Sheet
Acids and alkalis
Indicators are coloured dyes which often come from plants such as red cabbage and beetroot. Acids make
indicators change colour. Litmus is an indicator which turns red in acids. Common acids include vinegar
and lemon juice. Fizzy drinks, pickles and spicy sauces also contain acids. Stronger acids such as sulphuric
and nitric acids can be more dangerous. Often they are corrosive.

Alkalis have a different effect on indicators to acids. Litmus turns blue in alkalis. Alkalis can also be
corrosive. Weak alkalis include soap and toothpaste.

Bottles in the laboratory and tankers carrying chemicals on the road all have to carry hazard warning labels
to show when there is a chemical hazard. Some of the common warning signs are:

toxic (poisonous) harmful (irritant) corrosive flammable

The strengths of acids and alkalis can be measured on the pH scale, which runs from 1 to 14. pH numbers 1
to 6 are acids, 7 is neutral, and 8 to 14 are alkalis. You can find out the pH number using a universal
indicator, or by using a pH meter.

Alkalis can cancel out acids, making them neutral.

Neutralising reactions can be important:

• in gardening and agriculture, to make sure the soil is the correct pH


• when dealing with insect stings and bites
• to control indigestion caused by excess acid in the stomach
• to keep foods such as jam at the correct pH.

7F Summary Sheets
Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Simple chemical reactions
Chemical reactions
In a chemical reaction a new substance is always formed. Most chemical changes are not easily reversed;
they are irreversible. In a physical change no new substance is formed. Melting and evaporation are
examples of physical changes. Physical changes are usually reversible.

You can tell that a reaction has occurred if there is a colour change or when a gas is given off. Most
chemical reactions also involve an energy change. This is usually in the form of heat, but can also involve
light being given off (for example, when something burns).

Reactions of acids
Some metals react with acids, and hydrogen gas is produced. When acids react with chemicals called
carbonates, carbon dioxide gas is given off. Carbonates are found in rocks such as limestone or marble, and
in some cooking ingredients and indigestion tablets.

You can test the gas made in a reaction to find out what it is:
• Hydrogen burns with a squeaky pop if a lighted splint is held near the test tube.
• Carbon dioxide will put out a lighted splint, and it makes limewater turn milky.
• Oxygen makes flames burn more brightly, and will relight a glowing splint.

Burning
When a metal burns, the metal combines with oxygen from the air to form a chemical called an oxide. We
can show this using a word equation. The chemicals that you start with are called the reactants. The
chemicals at the end are called the products.

magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide


reactants → products

Fossil fuels contain a lot of carbon and hydrogen. When they burn they use up oxygen from the air and
produce water and carbon dioxide. We can show the reaction using a word equation. Energy is in brackets in
this equation because it is not a chemical substance.

fuel + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Fire
A fire needs three things to keep burning: fuel, oxygen and heat. We show these three things on the Fire
Triangle.

If any one of these three things runs out, the fire will go out.

Fire extinguishers are used for putting out fires. There are different types of fire extinguisher, and it is
important always to use the correct sort for a particular fire. Sand or fire blankets can also be used to put out
fires.

Water is often used to put out fires, because it takes away the heat. However, water should never be used on
oil or petrol fires, because it makes the burning fuel spread out.

Foam, powder or carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishers work by stopping oxygen getting to the

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7G Summary Sheets
Solids, liquids and gases

• Solids are made up of particles that are very close


together and are held tightly together by strong
SOLID bonds.
• Solids cannot be squashed, do not flow, have a fixed
shape and volume, and have a high density.
• Liquids are made up of particles that are fairly close
together; the bonds between the particles are weaker
than the bonds in solids.
LIQUID • Liquids cannot be squashed, flow quite easily, and
have a fixed volume but no fixed shape.
• Although they are dense, liquids usually have a lower
density than solids.

• Gases are made up of particles that are well spread


out, with no bonds between them.
• Gases are quite easy to squash, flow easily, have no
GAS fixed volume and no fixed shape.
• Gases have a lower density than liquids.

SOLID

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
LIQUID

GAS

Diffusion
The natural mixing of substances is called diffusion. Diffusion occurs because particles in a substance are
always moving around. Diffusion is fastest in gases, and slower in liquids. Diffusion in solids is extremely
slow.

Pressure in gases
Pressure is caused by particles hitting the walls of the container they are in. If the pressure becomes too
great for a fixed container to hold, it will burst.

The pressure may increase because:


• the container has been squashed, making the volume smaller; this means that the particles will be
hitting the walls more often.
• the number of particles has been increased, which means there are more particles moving around to hit
the walls.
• the temperature of the particles has increased, so they will move around faster and hit the walls harder
and more often.
If the particles are in a container which is flexible, like a balloon or a syringe, an increase in pressure will
make the volume increase.

The idea of particles is a theory that scientists use to explain observations. Scientists use theories to make
predictions, and test the predictions to find out if they are correct. If the predictions are not correct, then the
theory may have to be changed to help to explain the new evidence.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7H Summary Sheets
Solutions
Some solids dissolve in water to make a solution. These solids are soluble. A solution is made from a
solute (solid) and a solvent (liquid). When a solution is formed, the liquid is always clear (transparent).

Solids that do not dissolve are insoluble. When an insoluble solid is mixed with water, the water goes
cloudy. Sometimes the solid will sink to the bottom of the water.

The total mass of a solution equals the mass of solvent added to the mass of solute.

Water is the most common solvent. It is easily available, cheap, and dissolves a lot of different solutes.

Other liquids (e.g. white spirit, ethanol) can also be used as solvents. Solutes which are insoluble in water
may dissolve in other solvents.

If you keep adding solutes to a solvent, you will get to a point where no more will dissolve. A saturated
solution cannot dissolve any more solute. More solid will dissolve if you add more solvent (e.g. water) or
increase the temperature.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Mixtures can be separated using different methods:

Method Used to separate Apparatus used Examples


Filtering (Filtration) Solid particles which • Tea leaves from
do not dissolve from a cup of tea
the liquid they are in • Sand from a
mixture of sand
and water

Evaporation Dissolved substances • Salt from salt


from a solution solution

Distillation The liquid from the • Water from salt


(Evaporation dissolved solid in a solution
followed by solution or one liquid • Alcohol from a
condensation) from a mixture of mixture of
liquids alcohol and
water

Chromatography The colours can be • The colours


separated from a found in ink
mixture of colours • The food
colourings
found in fruit
juice

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7I Summary Sheets
Energy resources
Energy is needed to make things happen. There are different kinds of energy, such as light energy and heat
energy that we get from the Sun, and electrical energy.

We need fuels to provide energy in our homes, factories and for transport. A fuel is something which can
release heat energy.

Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels:
• are made from plants and animals which were trapped in mud and rocks millions of years ago
• include coal, oil and natural gas
• are non-renewable (they take millions of years to form, and so our supplies will run out)
• produce gases which cause pollution when they are burnt
• are relatively cheap to obtain
• contain chemical energy which changes to heat energy when they are burnt
• originally got their energy from the Sun. The plants that became coal got their energy from the Sun,
and the animals that became oil got their energy from plants which got their energy from the Sun.
Electricity is not a fuel. It has to be generated using other energy resources.

How coal is formed.

How oil and natural gas are formed.

Making fossil fuels last longer


We can make fossil fuels last longer by using less energy. We could walk or cycle whenever we can, or use
a bus instead of using a car. Walking and cycling would make us fitter and healthier, and there would be less
pollution if there were not as many cars on the roads. We could also save energy by keeping our houses
cooler and wearing more clothes.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Renewable energy resources
Renewable energy resources:
• include solar, wind, tidal, wave, biomass, geothermal and hydroelectricity
• do not produce harmful gases
• can be expensive
• will not run out.

Energy in food
Humans and other animals need energy to live. We get our energy from chemical energy stored in food. We
need to choose our food so that we get the right amount of energy. If we eat too much we could get fat and
become unhealthy. If we do not eat enough we will get thinner and may become ill.

The unit for measuring energy is the joule (J). There is a lot of energy stored in food, so we usually measure
the energy in food using kilojoules (kJ). 1kJ = 1000J.

Energy from the Sun


Most of the energy resources we use originally came from the Sun. Only geothermal energy, nuclear power
and tidal power do not depend on energy from the Sun.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7J Summary Sheets
Electrical circuits
Electricity is a flow of electrons. Electricity can flow through conductors but not through insulators.
Metals are good conductors of electricity.

Circuits
A complete circuit is needed for electricity to flow.

We use symbols when we draw circuits:

Component Symbol Component Symbol

cell variable resistor

battery of cells motor

bulb ammeter

switch fuse

resistor

The current is the amount of electricity flowing in the circuit. The units for current are amps (A). Current is
measured using an ammeter.

The resistance of a circuit is a way of saying how easy or difficult it is for electricity to flow.

• high resistance = hard for electricity to flow = small current


• low resistance = easy for electricity to flow = large current

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Circuits can be series or parallel circuits.

Series circuit Parallel circuit

• If one bulb breaks, all the others go off. • If one bulb breaks, the bulbs in the other branches
• The current is the same everywhere. stay on.
• If you put more bulbs in they will be dimmer, because • The current splits up when it comes to a branch. The
it is harder for the electricity to get through. The current in all the branches adds up to the current in
resistance of the circuit is higher. the main part of a circuit.
• The voltage from the cell or power pack is divided • If you add more bulbs they stay bright. It is easier for
between the components. the current to flow with more branches, because there
are more ways for the electrons to go.
• The voltage is the same across all the branches of the
circuit.

Electricity and heat


• When electricity flows through a wire, the wire can get hot.
• Hot wires are used in electric fires, irons and cookers.
• A fuse is a thin piece of wire that melts if too much electricity flows through it. It is used for safety.

Electricity and your body


Electrical signals in your body travel along nerves. If an electrical current passes through your body you
may get an electric shock. This could burn you, or stop your heart or lungs working.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7K Summary Sheets
Forces and their effects
Forces are pushes or pulls.

Forces can:

• change the shape or size of an object


• change the speed things are moving (make them move faster or slower)
• change the direction of a moving object.

The units for measuring force are newtons (N).

Friction is a force caused by two things rubbing together. Air resistance and water resistance are kinds of
friction. They are sometimes called drag.

Upthrust pushes things up. Solid things, like your chair, give you upthrust. Things float in water because of
upthrust.

Contact forces need to touch the thing that they are affecting. Examples of contact forces are:

• friction
• air resistance
• water resistance
• upthrust.

Some forces do not need to touch the thing that they are affecting. They are called non-contact forces.
There are three non-contact forces:

• magnetism
• gravity
• static electricity.

Balanced forces

The upwards and downwards forces on this balloon The forces here are balanced. The girl will not move,
are balanced. The balloon will not move. and neither will the wall!

A rocket in space does not need to use its engine to keep moving. There is no air in space, so there is no air
resistance to slow it down.

If you are floating in a swimming pool, your weight and the upthrust are balanced.
Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Density and floating
You can decide if something will float by working out its density. Density is the mass of a certain volume of
something, and it can be calculated using this formula:

density =

The units for density are g/cm3.

The density of water is 1g/cm3. If an object has a density less than 1g/cm3 it will float. If its density is
greater it will sink.

Measuring forces
Elastic materials will stretch with a force and then return to their original shape when the force is taken
away.

Materials like Plasticine will stretch with a force but they will not return to their original shape afterwards.
Plasticine is not elastic.

Springs are used to measure the size of a force because they are elastic. A big force stretches a spring further
than a small force. Force meters have springs inside them.

This force meter is


measuring a force
of 1 N.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Weight and mass
Your mass is the amount of substance in your body. Your mass is measured in kilograms (kg).

Your weight is a force caused by gravity pulling on your body. The newton (N) is the scientific unit used to
measure forces, and so it is also used as the unit for weight.

Wherever you take an object, its mass will not change but its weight depends on the force of gravity. An
object on the Moon would have a smaller weight than on Earth, because the Moon’s gravity is not as strong
as Earth’s.

On Earth, gravity pulls on every kilogram of mass with a force of 10 N.

Friction
Friction is a contact force. Friction can:

• slow things down


• wear things away
• produce heat
• make a noise.

Friction is sometimes helpful, for instance: Friction is not always helpful:

• your shoes grip the floor because of friction • parts of engines wear away because of
• tyres and brakes use friction friction
• pencils write because of friction. • friction makes bicycles harder to pedal.

Friction can be increased by using rough surfaces, or by using materials like rubber that have a lot of
friction.

Friction can be reduced by using smooth surfaces, or by lubrication. Things like oil or grease are
lubricants, and help things to move past each other easily.

Speed
To measure how fast something is travelling you need to measure the distance it travels and the time taken.
Units of speed are km/h or m/s or mph. The units for speed depend on the units you have used to measure
the distance and the time.

Stopping distances
A moving car takes some time to stop. The distance it travels while the driver is deciding whether to stop is
called the thinking distance, and the distance it travels while it is slowing down is called the braking
distance. If you add the two distances together you get the stopping distance.

Stopping distances are longer if the road is wet or icy, if the car has worn tyres, or if the driver is tired or has
been drinking alcohol.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
Distance/time graphs
A journey can be shown on a distance/time graph. This graph shows a person running, then stopping for a
rest, then walking slowly. The steeper the line on the graph, the faster they are moving.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
7L Summary Sheets
The Solar System and beyond
We live on a planet called the Earth. The Earth gets heat and light from the Sun. The Earth spins on its axis
once every 24 hours. The side of the Earth facing the Sun has daylight, and it is night on the side facing
away from the Sun.

The Earth orbits around the Sun. It takes one year to go around once. A year is actually 365.25 days long, so
every four years we have a leap year, when an extra day is added.

The Moon is a satellite of the Earth. It orbits the Earth once every 28 days. This is called a lunar month.

We can see the Moon because it reflects light from the Sun. The Moon seems to change shape during the
month. The different shapes are called phases of the Moon. The phases happen because we cannot always
see all of the part that is lit by the Sun.

Sometimes the Moon blocks the light from the Sun. When this happens we get a solar eclipse. If the Moon
goes into the shadow of the Earth we get a lunar eclipse.

A solar eclipse. A lunar eclipse.

The Earth’s axis is tilted. When the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun it is summer in the UK.
Days are longer than nights, and the Sun is higher in the sky. The Sun’s rays are more concentrated, so it
feels hotter.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002
There are nine planets orbiting the Sun, and lots of asteroids. Most of the planets have moons orbiting
around them. The Sun, the planets and their moons, and the asteroids make up the Solar System.

The nine planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. You can
remember the order of the planets using this sentence ‘My Very Easy Method Just Sums Up Nine Planets’.

Planets do not make their own light. We can sometimes see the planets because they reflect light from the
Sun.

The Sun is a star. It is a ball of gas that gives out large amounts of heat and light energy. The Sun is like the
stars you can see in the sky at night. The stars do not look very bright because they are a lot further away
than the Sun. People often group stars into patterns called constellations.

The Sun is one of millions of stars in our galaxy, which is called the Milky Way. There are millions of
galaxies in the Universe.

The stars are a very long way from Earth. Scientists measure distances to the stars using light years. A light
year is the distance that light can travel in one year.

Adapted from Exploring Science for QCA Copymaster File 7 © Pearson Education Limited 2002

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