Water Quality;

Definitions, Characteristics, and

Perspectives
Environmental Engineering (VCB 3033)
CO1: To identify the sources of water and its
impurities and to perform complex design of water
treatment plant to meet the standard limits.

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Amirhossein Malakahmad

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
Objective
 The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the
modern concepts of water quality. The means by
which the nature and extent of contaminants in
water are measured and expressed and
presented along with the source of various
contaminants that find their way into water.
Hydrologic cycle
Water impurities
• Particles larger than molecular size supported by
buoyant and viscous forces within the water.
Suspended • 1 – 100 µm

• Very small particles that technically are suspended but

often exhibit characteristics of dissolved substances.
Colloidal • 10-3 – 1 µm

• Molecules or ions held by the molecular structure of

water.
Dissolved • 10-5 – 10-3 µm
Suspended solids
 Solids suspended in water may consist of
organic or inorganic particles or of immiscible
liquids.

 The materials such as clay, silt and plant fibers

resulted from erosive action of water flowing
surfaces are source of natural suspended solids.

 Domestic and industrial wastewaters are

anthropogenic sources of suspended solids in
the water.
Suspended solids (filterable)
measurement
Example 1

An analysis for suspended solids is run as follow:

(1) a fiberglass filter is dried to a constant mass of
0.137 g; (2) 100 mL of a sample is drawn through the
filter; and (3) the filter and residue are placed in a
drying over 104 °C until a constant mass of 0.183 g is
reached. Determine the suspended solids
concentration in mg/L.
Organic suspended solids
 Once samples have been dried and measured,
the organic content of both total and suspended
solids can be determined by firing the residues
at 600 °C for 1 hour.
 The organic fraction of the residues will be
converted to CO2, water vapor and other gases
will escape. The remaining material will
represent the inorganic or fixed residue.
Example 2

A filterable residue analysis is run on a sample of water.

The dry mass of crucible and filter pad determined to be
54.352 g. 250 mL of the sample is drawn through a filter
pad. The crucible and filter pad weight after drying in oven
at 104 °C was 54.389 g.
i. Determine the suspended solids concentration in g/L.
ii. The crucible, filter pad and solids are placed in a
muffle furnace at 600 °C for an hour. After cooling, the
mass is determined to be 54.367 g. Determine the
filterable volatile (organic) solids of the sample in mg/L.
Temperature
 Water temperature is
affected by air temperature,
storm water runoff,
groundwater inflows,
turbidity, and exposure to
sunlight and discharge of
high-temperature
wastewater into the water
bodies.

Why water temperature is an important

factor in water quality?
Temperature and dissolved oxygen
Turbidity
 Turbidity is a measure of how particles suspended in water
affect water clarity.
 It is an important indicator of suspended sediment and erosion
levels.
 Turbidity can be useful as an indicator of the effects of runoff
from construction, agricultural practices, logging activity,
discharges, and other sources.
 Elevated turbidity will raise water temperature, lower dissolved
oxygen, prevent light from reaching aquatic plants which
reduces their ability to photosynthesize, and harm fish gills and
eggs.
 Measured in NTUs, using a Turbidimeter. For most people,
water with ≤ 5 NTUs looks clear. AWWA recommends that
water to be disinfected should be ≤ 0.1 NTU.
Color
 True color is caused by dissolved compounds in
water. It can be natural or anthropogenic.
 Dissolved and suspended solids (together) cause
color. For example, brown colored water could be
the result of dissolved byproducts of plant
biodegradation or suspended clay particles.
 Color is measured in Platinum-Cobalt units. The
AWWA recommends ≤ 15 Platinum Cobalt units.
This is also the U.S. secondary drinking water
regulation. Color can be measured using light with a
wavelength of 455 nm.
Chemical water-quality parameters

 Water has been called the universal solvent and

chemical parameters are related to the solvent
capabilities of water.
 Total dissolved solids, alkalinity, hardness,
fluorides, metals, organics, and nutrients are
chemical parameters of concern in water quality
management.
Total dissolved solids (TDS)
 The expression, “total dissolved solids” (TDS),
refers to the total amount of all inorganic and
organic substances – including minerals, salts,
metals, cations or anions – that are dispersed
within a volume of water.
 By definition, the solids must be small enough
to be filtered through a sieve measuring 2 µm.
 TDS concentrations are used to evaluate the
quality of freshwater systems.
 TDS concentrations are equal to the sum of
positively charged ions (cations) and negatively
charged ions (anions) in the water.
Sources of TDS
 Sources for TDS include agricultural run-off,
urban run-off, industrial wastewater, sewage,
and natural sources such as leaves, silt,
plankton, and rocks. Piping or plumbing may
also release metals into the water.
Health effects
 While TDS is not considered a primary pollutant,
high TDS levels typically indicate hard water and
may lead to scale buildup in pipes, reduced
efficiency of water filters, hot water heaters, etc.,
and aesthetic problems such as a bitter or salty
taste. The EPA recommends treatment when TDS
concentrations exceed 500 mg/L, or 500 parts per
million (ppm) it is considered as pollutant.
 A high TDS concentration may indicate elevated
levels of ions that do pose a health concern, such
aluminum, as arsenic, copper, lead, nitrate and
others.
Ion balance
 It is frequently desired to know more about the composition of
the solids in water that is intended for use in potable supplies,
agriculture and some industrial processes.
 The sum of the anions should equal the sum of cations. A
significant imbalance suggests that additional constituents are
present or an error that has been made in the analysis of one
or more or the ions.
Table 1. Common ions in natural water


 Test for common ions are run on a sample of
water and the results are shown below. If a 10 %
error in the balance is acceptable, should the
analysis be considered complete?

Constituents

Ca2+ = 55 mg/L HCO3- = 250 mg/L

Mg2+ = 18 mg/L SO42- = 60 mg/L
Na+ = 98 mg/L Cl- = 89 mg/L
 Alkalinity
 The Alkalinity or the buffering capacity of
water refers to how well it can neutralize
acidic pollution and resist changes in pH.
 Alkalinity measures the amount of
alkaline compounds in the water, such as
carbonates, bicarbonates and
hydroxides. These compounds are
natural buffers that can remove excess
hydrogen, or H+, ion.
pH of Drinking Water
 Aquatic organisms benefit from a stable
pH value in their optimal range. To The pH of drinking water
maintain a fairly constant pH in a water generally is not a health
body, a higher alkalinity is preferable. concern. However, acidic
High alkalinity means that the water body water can leach metals
has the ability to neutralize acidic from plumbing systems
pollution from rainfall or basic inputs from which can cause health
problems.
wastewater.
Measurement
Alkalinity, reported as mg/L CaCO3, is measured
as the amount of acid (e.g., sulfuric acid)
needed to bring the water sample to a pH of 4.5.
At this pH, all the alkaline compounds of the
sample are “used up”.
Equivalence and equivalent
 The equivalence of an element or radical is
defined as the number of hydrogen atoms that
element or radical can hold in combination or
can replace in reaction. In most cases, the
equivalence of an ion is the same as the
absolute value of its valance.
 An equivalent of an element or radical is its
gram molecular mass divided by its equivalence.

Example 4: How many grams of calcium will be required to

combine with 90 g of carbonate to form calcium carbonate?
Equivalence and equivalent
 An equivalent of one substance is chemically
equal to an equivalent of other
substance. Therefore, the concentration of a
substance can be expressed as an equivalent
concentration of another substrate.

Example 5: Express the following concentrations as

mg/L of CaCO3:
95 mg/L Ca2+ 3.5 x 10-3 mol/L NaOH
221 mg/L Ca(HCO3)2 1.0 x 10-2 mol/L Al3+
Hardness
 When water passes through or over deposits such
as limestone, the levels of Ca2+, Mg2+, and HCO3–
ions present in the water can greatly increase and
cause the water to be classified as hard water.
 Hardness classified as carbonate and noncarbonate
hardness, depending upon the anion with which it
associates.
 The hardness equivalent to the alkalinity is
carbonate hardness and any remaining is
noncarbonate hardness.
 Carbonate hardness precipitate readily at high
temperature.
 Impacts
 Hardness does not pose a health risk.
 But hard water can be a nuisance due to
the mineral buildup on plumbing fixtures
and poor soap and detergent performance.
 It often causes aesthetic problems, such as
an alkali taste to the water that makes
coffee taste bitter, build-up of scale on
pipes and fixtures than can lead to lower
water pressure, build-up of deposits on
dishes, tools and laundry basins, difficulty
in getting soap and detergent to foam, and
lowered efficiency of electric water heaters.
Use
 Total hardness in freshwater is usually in the range
of 15 to 375 mg/L as CaCO3. Calcium hardness in
freshwater is in the range of 10 to 250 mg/L, often
double that of magnesium hardness.

Soft < 50 mg/L as CaCO3

Moderately hard 50-150 mg/L as CaCO3
Hard 150-300 mg/L as CaCO3
Very hard > 300 mg/L as CaCO3
Fluoride
 Traces of fluorides are present in many waters;
higher concentrations are often associated with
underground sources. Concentrations of
approximately 1.0 mg/L in drinking water help to
prevent dental cavities in children.
 Fluoride is often added to drinking water supplies
if sufficient quantities for good dental formation
are not naturally present.
 When fluoride concentrations in drinking water
exceed 2.0 mg/L it can result in discoloration of
teeth.
Minor inorganic constituents
Several minor inorganic constituents are sometimes a significant
health concern or diminish water quality. Examples include
copper, chromium, nickel, mercury, strontium, and zinc. Some of
these constituents are the result of the surrounding natural
environment, while others are present due to human activities.
Organics
 Organic constituents found in water can either be naturally occurring
or associated with human activities.

 Natural organic matter (NOM) in water is the result of the

complexation of soluble organic material derived from biochemical
degradation of vegetation in the surrounding environment. NOM
occurs in all waters and is measured as total organic carbon (TOC).

 Anthropogenic organic constituents found in water are associated

with industrial activity, land use by agriculture, urban runoff, and
municipal effluents from wastewater treatment plants. Most of these
organic contaminants are classified as synthetic organic chemicals
(SOCs).

 Representative SOCs are found in fuels, cleaning solvents, chemical

feedstocks, and herbicides and pesticides.
MICROBIAL CONSTITUENTS
 Potable water must be free from pathogenic microorganisms. As just one
example of the global magnitude of the problem, the WHO reports that
diarrhea contributed 4.7% of the global burden of disease in 2011. Of that
4.7%, approximately 88% was caused by unsafe water, sanitation, and
hygiene.
 Pathogens are microorganisms that cause sickness and disease.
Pathogens include many classes of microorganisms, among them viruses,
bacteria, protozoa, and helminths.

 Because there are many different water-based pathogens, monitoring and

detecting all of them would require a prohibitive amount of resources.
Consequently, indicator organisms (such as coliforms) have been identified
and are used to monitor the microbial water quality.
 While the total coliform test can provide a good indication of fecal
contamination, it cannot prove that the source water is safe. Other methods
must be used to confirm the absence of longer-surviving organisms such as
viruses and spores.
Water Quality Standards
 To protect public health, EPA established primary drinking-
water standards by setting health-based maximum
contaminant level goals (MCLGs) and maximum contaminant
levels (MCLs) for a large number of pollutants.
Developing a drinking-water standard
from toxicity data

Where:
maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs)
RfD (reference dose) as an estimate of a daily
oral exposure to the human population
(including sensitive subgroups) that is likely to
be without an appreciable risk of harmful
effects during a lifetime."

The RSC is the relative source contribution

Example 6 - EPA is decided to include the perchlorate
(ClO4-) in its primary drinking-water standards table.
The following data for perchlorate are available:

RfD = 0.7 mg per kg of body weight per day (0.7

mg/kg/day)
RSC = 0.62

Calculate maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) for

perchlorate. Assumes the default values for body weight
to be 70 kg and drinking-water ingestion rate is 2 L/day.

More information on perchlorate, see "http://water.epa.gov/drink/contami- nants/unregulated/perchlorate.cfm"

Sag curve
Biodegradable organics
 Biodegradable materials consists of organics that can be
utilized for food by naturally occurring microorganisms
within a reasonable length of time.
 Although some of biodegradable organics can cause
color, taste and odor problems, the principle problem
associated with them is a secondary effect resulting from
the oxygen consumption of microorganisms for
biodegradation of organic compounds.
 In aerobic environments, the end products of microbial
decomposition of organics are stable and acceptable
compounds.
 Anaerobic decomposition results in unstable and
objectionable end products.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
 The amount of oxygen consumed during microbial
utilization of organics is called BOD.

 The BOD is measured by determining the oxygen

consumed from a sample placed in an air-tight
container and kept in a controlled environment for a
preselected period of time.
 In the standard test, a 300-mL BOD bottle is used and
the sample is incubated at 20 °C for 5 days in absence
of light.
Time for BOD test
 Theoretically an infinite time is required for complete
biological oxidation of organic matter.
 But for practical reasons, 5 days was used since
large percentage of the total BOD is exerted in 5
days.
 5 days BOD values only represent a portion of the
total BOD values.
 For most industrial and municipal wastewater, the 5-
day BOD value is about 70 to 80 percent of the total
BOD.
BOD and oxygen-equivalent relationships
BOD and oxygen-equivalent relationships
 Environmental engineers are more interested
on BOD exerted.
 Test using dissolved-oxygen measurements use
5-day result to total or ultimate BOD (yt) or BOD
at some other time:

 y = BOD at any time, t

 L0 = total or ultimate BOD
 k = being determined experimentally
Reaction constant, k

The value Θ is 1.047.

Reaction constants
Example 7: The BOD5 of a wastewater is
determined to be 150 mg/L at 20 °C. The k
value is known to be 0.23 per day. What would
be the BOD8 if the test were run at 15 °C?
Method for Measuring BOD

 Basis: Determinations of dissolved oxygen

Methods:
▫ a) Direct method for 5-day BOD < 7 mg/l
▫ b) Dilution method for samples >> 7 mg/l
BOD test
 Polluted water is mixed with clean aerated
water
 The mixture is poured into a bottle which is
sealed so that there is no air above the liquid.
 The microorganisms in the polluted water
consume oxygen, and it is necessary to ensure
that oxygen is present for the process within the
5-day.
 If the oxygen is depleted, or if its concentration
become lower than 2mg/L in final measurement,
the measuring result cannot be used and
therefore samples are required to be diluted.
BOD test
 Based on 5-day oxygen demand and the
volume of polluted water in the laboratory
flask, the BOD can be calculated:

 DOI, DOF = initial and final dissolved oxygen,

mg/L
 P = decimal fraction of sample in the 300-ml
bottle
Example 8 : Calculation of BOD values
The BOD of a wastewater is
suspected to range from 50 to 200
mg/L. Three dilutions are prepared to
cover this range. The procedure is
the same in each case. First the
sample is placed in the standard
BOD bottle and is then diluted to 300
ml with organic-free, oxygen-
saturated water. The initial DO is
determined and the bottles tightly
stoppered and placed in the
incubator at 20 °C for 5 days, after
which the DO is again determined. If
the third value is disregarded (the
final DO being less than 2 mg/L),
calculate the average BOD.
BOD test disadvantages

 Long bioassay period, minimum of 5 days

 Depending on microorganisms
 Laborious exercise
 Will not suitable for complex organics, e.g. lignin
 Not able to use for process control in wastewater
treatment plants
 Procedures are diverse and results are not
consistent