LANGUAGE AND COGNITION

By:
Putra Thoyib Nasution
Sahril Mujani
Muhammad Faishol NH

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL

SCIENCES SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY JAKARTA
2018
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background
Language acquisition, the process of learning a native or a second language. Second
language learners (L2) acquire a knowledge of a language of a second language in a fixed order
as a result of a predisposition to process language data in highly specific ways. These claims
stand in stark contrast to behaviorist accounts of second language acquisition (SLA), which
emphasized the importance of environmental factors and first language (L1) interference.
Where language acquisition was concerned, the key concept in the revised thinking about the
process of learning was that of interlanguage. This was used to refer to the systematic
knowledge of language which is independent of both the learners L1 and the L2 system he is
trying to learn. Interlanguage was the theoretical construct which underlay the attempts of SLA
is to identify the stages of development through which L2 learners pass on their way to L2
proficiency.
Language acquisition followed a ‘universal’ route that was largely uninfluenced by such
factors as the age of the learner, the context in which learning took place, or the learner’s L1
background. According to this view of language acquisition, the controlling factor was the
faculty for language that all human beings possess and which was also responsible for L1
acquisition. Inevitably the question arose as to what extent the order of development in
language acquisition paralleled that in L1 acquisition. The validity of the L2 similar to L1
hypothesis has been a recurrent issue in language acquisition. However, although learner
internal factors are powerful determinants of language acquisition, the conviction that they are
capable of accounting for the entire process, which in some circles at least has been suggested,
is not warranted.
To begin with, this paper will briefly consider the background theory in first language
acquisition. It will then examine the notion of interlanguage, before reviewing in some detail
the research upon which claims about a natural route of development have rested. Finally, a
number of caveats regarding the centrality of learner internal processes in accounts of language
acquisition will considered.
B. Identification of the problem

1. What is language and cognition?

2. What is definition of language?
3. What is definition of cognition?
4. What is the function of language and cognition in thinking?

C. Objectives
1. To know language and cognition.
2. To know the definition of language.
3. To know definition of cognition.
4. To the function of language and cognition in thinking.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION
A. Language and cognition
A hallmark of modern cognitive science is the goal of developing a theory of cognition
powerful enough to encompass all human mental abilities, including language abilities. A long-
standing controversy concerns two ways of conceptualizing the architecture (or basic design)
of cognition. One approach proposes that general-purpose processes and mechanisms provide
a foundation for all varieties of human intelligence. We can refer to this as `general purpose'
cognition. Examples of possible universal processes are the ability to induce a category from
exposure to examples (category unity of cognition' or `mental modules' approach. At first
glance it may seem contrary to the interdisciplinary spirit of cognitive science and to the
possibility of a unified theory of cognition. However, the unifying theory is the thesis of
distinct mental modules, which are believed to have evolved to accomplish specific tasks
relevant to mammalian evolution, such as visual exploration, or relevant to human evolution,
such as language use. Much of the appeal of this approach comes from findings in
neuropsychology showing that distinct areas of the brain serve distinct functions such as vision,
language processing, motor coordination, memory, and face recognition. The interdisciplinary
spirit is maintained because advocates of this approach reach out to biological scientists and
evolutionary theorists. Those favoring modularity embrace the principle of converging
methodologies: a theory must have explanatory power in the distinct academic disciplines that
compose the cognitive science. These two approaches to the architecture of cognition
developed out of different philosophical traditions, and have evolved considerably during the
half-century history of cognitive science education and the ability to mentally complete a
known pattern when confronted with a piece of it (pattern completion). Cognitive scientists
free CONCEPTS OF COGNITION AND LANGUAGE quaintly attempt to precisely specify
their proposed mechanisms by implementing them as computer algorithms which can be tested
in artificial intelligence (AI) programs.

B. Language
Human beings can communicate with each other. We are able to exchange knowledge,
beliefs, opinions, wishes, threats, commands, thanks, promises, declarations, feelings – only
 our imagination sets limits. We can laugh to express amusement, happiness, or disrespect, we
can smile to express amusement, pleasure, approval, or bitter feelings, we can shriek to express
anger, excitement, or fear, we can clench our fists to express determination, anger or a threat,
we can raise our eyebrows to express surprise or disapproval, and so on, but our system of
communication before anything else is language. In this book we shall tell you a lot about
language, but as a first step towards a definition we can say that it is a system of communication
based upon words and the combination of words into sentences. Communication by means of
language may be referred to as linguistic communication, the other ways mentioned above
laughing, smiling, shrieking, and so on are types of non-linguistic communication.

Most or all non-human species can exchange information, but none of them are known
to have a system of communication with a complexity that in any way is comparable to
language. Primarily, they communicate with non-linguistic means resembling our smiling,
laughing, yelling, clenching of fists, and raising of eyebrows. Chimpanzees, gorillas, and
orangutans can exchange different kinds of information by emitting different kinds of shrieks,
composing their faces in numerous ways, and moving their hands or arms in different gestures,
but they do not have words and sentences. By moving in certain patters, bees are apparently
able to tell their fellow workers where to find honey, but apparently not very much else. Birds
sing different songs; whose main functions are to defend their territory or to attract a mate.

Language as defined above is an exclusively human property. Among the characteristics

that make a relatively clear distinction between linguistic and nonlinguistic communication
meaningful, two are particularly important: double articulation and syntax.

C. Components of language

1. Phonology
 English phonology is the sound system (phonology) of the English language, or the study
of that system. Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural
languages.1 Like many languages, English has wide variation in pronunciation, both
historically and from dialect to dialect. In general, however, the regional dialects of English
share a largely similar (though not identical) phonological system.
Phonology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds with
reference to their distribution and patterning. Adjective: phonological. A linguist who
specializes in phonology is known as a phonologist. Etymologically, Phonology from the
Greek, means "sound, voice".
The aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are
organized in languages and to explain the variations that occur. We begin by analyzing an
individual language to determine which sound units are used and which patterns they form--
the language's sound system. We then compare the properties of different sound systems, and
work out hypotheses about the rules underlying the use of sounds in particular groups of
languages. Ultimately, phonologists want to make statements that apply to all languages.
Whereas phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds, phonology studies the way
in which a language's speakers systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express
meaning. There is a further way of drawing the distinction. No two speakers have anatomically
identical vocal tracts, and thus no one produces sounds in exactly the same way as anyone else.
Yet when using our language, we are able to discount much of this variation, and focus on only
those sounds, or properties of sound, that are important for the communication of meaning.
We think of our fellow speakers as using the 'same' sounds, even though acoustically they are
not. Phonology is the study of how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech
sounds.2 When we talk about the 'sound system' of English, we are referring to the number of
phonemes which are used in a language and to how they are organized.3
Phonology is not only about phonemes and allophones. Phonology also concerns itself with
the principles governing the phoneme systems--that is, with what sounds languages 'like' to
have, which sets of sounds are most common (and why) and which are rare (and also why). It

1
April McMahon. An Introduction to English Phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002.
2
David Crystal, How Language Works. Overlook Press. 2005.
3
David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge University
Press.2003.
 turns out that there are prototype-based explanations for why the phoneme system of the
languages of the world have the sounds that they do, with physiological/acoustic/perceptual
explanations for the preference for some sounds over others.4

2. Morphology

A word Morphology is from Greece “morphe “that has meaning “forms”. It means
the morphology is a science of language that focuses on language and how that language
special word formed. Like we see the world “drive” becomes “driver” in here morphology
focuses and concentrate. 5
Morphology is study about a word and how the word formed, as if the example above the
word “drive” and “er” are called morphemes. Therefore, a process in here is called
morphology. Laurel J. Brinton (2002.59-60).
Geert (2005: 7) Said, “In present-day linguistics, the term ‘morphology’ refers to the study
of the internal structure of words, and of the systematic form–meaning correspondences
between words.” The example above explains about morphology specially in forming
word because it to form new word. Morphology and syntax study how the word construct
but morphology study about the word.
The two basic functions of morphological operations are (i) the creation of new words (i.e.
new lexemes), and (ii) spelling out the appropriate form of a lexeme in a particular syntactic
context.” Krirten (2002:12).
Word in English language some time has different meaning and different part of speech if
we add the other word, this called morphology. Morphology is the study of word formation.
Therefore, morphology just study and explains how the word formation. In here
morphology make new word from basic word or we call as morpheme.6
The other literature of definition of morphology:
“Morphology, the study of the internal structure of words, deals with the forms of
lexemes (inflection), and with the ways in which lexemes are formed (word-formation).
New words are made on the basis of patterns of form-meaning correspondence between

4
Geoffrey S. Nathan, Phonology: A Cognitive Grammar Introduction. John Benjamins. 2008
5
http://belajarbahasabule.blogspot.com/2010/10/morphology.html
6
http://rezqizone.wordpress.com/2010/11/17/makalah-morphologi-oleh-rezqi-soewarno/
 existing words Paradigmatic relationships between words are therefore essential, and
morphology cannot be conceived of as ‘the syntax of morphemes’ or ‘syntax below the
word level’.7

Kinds of Morphemes
1. Free Morphemes
Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words. They may be lexical
morphemes ({serve}, {press}), or grammatical morphemes ({at}, {and}).
A morpheme is free if it is able to appear as a word by itself. It is bound if it can only
appear as part of a larger, multi-morphemic word. Every morpheme is either free or
bound. Free morphemes are also referred as roots.

2. Bound Morphemes
Bound morphemes can occur only in combination—they are parts of a word.
They may be lexical morphemes (such as {clued} as in include, exclude, preclude) or
they may be grammatical (such as {PLU} = plural as in boys, girls, and cats).
Bound morphemes are also referred to as affixes, among which there are prefixes, infixes,
and suffixes.

Prefix
Prefix is a letter or group of letters attached to the beginning of word that party
indicates its meaning. For example, the word prefix itself begins with a prefix-pre, with
generally means before. Understanding of the common prefixes can help deduce the
meaning of new words that we encounter. However, some of prefixes (such as in-) have
more than one meaning. Agus mortoyo et al (2012: 3-4)

7
http://www.englishindo.com/2011/02/morphology-pembukaan.html.
 Prefix Meaning Example
a, an Without Amoral
Ante Before Antecedent
Anti Against Anticlimax
Auto Self Autopilot
Circum around Circumvent
Co with Copilot
Com- con with Companion, contact

Contra Against Contradict

De Off, away from Devalue
Dis Not Disappear

Suffix
Suffix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the end of a word to form a new
word or to alter the grammatical function of the original word. For example, the verb read
can be made into the noun reader by adding the suffix –er; read can be made into the
adjective by adding the suffix – able. Agus mortoyo et al (2012: 3-4)

Suffix Meaning Example

-acy State or quality Privacy
-al Act or process of Refusal
-ance, ence State or quality of Maintenance, eminence

-dom Place or state of being Freedom, kingdom

-er, -or One who Trainer, protector
 -ism Doctrine, belief Communism
-ist One who Chemist
Ity,-ty Quality of Veracity
-ment Condition of Argument
-ness State of being Heaviness
-ship Position held Fellowship
-sion, -tion State of being Concession, transition

3. Syntax
Based on the experts, Syntax is a central component of human language. Language
has often been characterized as a systematic correlation between certain types of gestures
and meaning. It is not the case that every possible meaning that can be expressed is
correlated with a unique, unanalyzable gesture, be it oral or manual. Rather, each language
has stock of meaning-bearing elements and different ways of combining them to express
different meaning, and these ways of combining them are themselves meaningful. (Robert
and Valin, 2001). Syntax can thus be given the following characterization, taken from
Matthews (1982:1) the term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun
which literally means ‘arrangement’ or ‘setting out together’. Traditionally, it refers to the
branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate
inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence. Similar to
the explanation of Matthew, Robert and Van Valin (2001) expresses the essence of itself
as the following syntax: “First and foremost, syntax deals with how sentences are
constructed, and users of human language employ a striking variety of possible
arrangements of the element in sentences”.
Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are
constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its
goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for
producing the sentences of the language under analysis. (Chomsky, 2002)
The study of syntax is the study of how words combine to from phrases and ultimately
sentences in languages. Because it consists of phrases that are put together in a particular
way, a sentence has a structure. The structure consists of way in which the words are
organized into phrases and the phrases are organized into larger phrases. The study of
phrases and sentences structure is sometimes called grammar. (Tserdanelis and Wong,
2004)
The syntax of a language is the set of properties which determine the construction
of sentences in that language. If a sentence is constructed according to those properties it
is well formed or grammatical. If a sentence is constructed in violation of those properties
it is ill-formed or ungrammatical. The study of syntax involves uncovering those properties
of language which are involved in the construction of grammatical sentence in particular
languages. (Hawkins, 2001)
Syntax is the system of rules and categories that allows words to be combined to
the form of sentence. The data that linguists use to study syntax consists primarily of
judgments about grammaticality of individual sentence. Roughly speaking, a sentence is
considered grammatical if speakers judge it to be a possible sentence of their language.
(O’grady, at all.,1989)
Syntax is that part of our linguistics knowledge which concerns the structure of
sentences. Knowing a language also means being able to put words together to form
sentences to express our thoughts. (Fromkin and Rodman,1983)
From the experts’ explanation above we can conclude that syntax is the study of
internal structure of sentences. In this case, it explains how words are arranged become
phrases and clauses for constructing sentence. It is commonly we call structure. Structure
manages how words can be combined with another for creating good sentence.

Basic idea of syntax

1. Word ordering and meaning
The order of words in a sentences or phrases is connected to its literal meaning. The basic
underlying word order in an English sentence is subject-verb-object (S-V-O). (Murcia and
Freeman,1999). Consider the English sentences:
a. Joe writes poetry
The factors determine the meaning of sentences: (1) the selection of words plays a role in
determining the literal meaning of the sentences, (2) the orders of words play a role the
literal meaning of the sentences. (Tserdanelis and Wong, 2004). See the two examples:
a. The mat is on the cat
b. The cat is on the mat
2. Ambiguity
As we have studied before, there is factor determining what a sentence means. Consider
the following examples:
a. Can you tell me the time?
b. We had the president for dinner.
c. We need more intelligent administrators.
d. Pat shot the soldier with a telescope.
All three sentences are ambiguous-that is, they have more than one meaning. The first
sentences are ambiguous because it can be used either as a straightforward question (“are
you able to tell me the time?”. we call this pragmatic ambiguity. The second sentence is
ambiguous because the expression has for dinner can mean either “host for dinner” or “have
for dinner”. This type of ambiguity is called lexical ambiguity. The third sentence, this
sentence also has two meaning. On one meaning, we need administrators who are more
intelligent. On the other meaning, we need a greater number of intelligent administrators.
The type of ambiguity is called structure ambiguity. (Tserdanelis and Wong, 2004).

Phrase Structure
a. Lexical categories
In English the main categories are Nouns(N), Verb(V), Adjectives(A), Prepositions(P), and
Adverbs (Adv).
b. Phrasal categories
The phrasal categories are built up from the lexical categories (their head) in the ways that
we have already illustrated. The phrasal categories are NP (noun phrases), VP (verb
 phrases), AP (adjective phrases), PP (preposition phrases), AdvP (adverb phrase).
(Tserdanelis and Wong, 2004)
a. Noun phrases is any phrase which can act as a complete subject, object, etc. in a
sentence; e.q. “The big red block”, “The Most of the three coaches”.
b. Verb phrases is basically a verb plus its complement (s); e.g. “gave the parcel to the
clerk”
c. Prepositional phrases may be required (for instance, by a verb that it comes after) to
contain a particular preposition.
d. Adjective phrases usually consist of single adjectives, but it is possible for these to
be accompanied by an indication of degree ad some number of adverbs as modifier, as in
“very commonly used”.

4. Semantics
Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in
all its formal aspects. Words have several types of meaning.

The aim of serious semanticists is to explain and clarify the nature of meaning. (Hurford,
Heasley and Smith, 2007)

Semantics deals with:

a. Words meaning

Language is used for communication. In communicating, speakers or writers

communicate meaning to listeners or readers. The nature of the meaning of a word is its
referent. The referent of a word can be an object, an event, a state, a process, or an action
here in this world. Word meaning can also say lexical meaning (Lyons, 1985): the meaning
of lexemes depends upon the of sentences in which they occur. (Sutrisno, 2012)

Examples:

hot is: [ a state of having a high temperature]

to sew is: [ an action of working with a needle and thread

b. Sentence meaning
 According to Hurford, Heasley and Smith (2007), sentence meaning is what a sentence
means, i.e. what it counts as the equivalent of in the language concerned. According to
Lyons (1985) as in Sutrisno (2012), the meaning of sentence is the product of both lexical
and grammatical meaning (the meaning of the constituent of lexemes and of the
grammatical constructions)

Examples:

1. This is a beautiful garden flower

2. This is a beautiful flower garden

In sentence (1) the focus is on flower, where as in sentence (2) the focus is on garden. It
is clear that the conceptual meaning of the sentence depends on the reference and the
structures of the words.

c. Utterance meaning

Speaker meaning is what a speaker means (i.e. intends to convey) when he uses a
piece of language. (Hurford, Heasley and Smith, 2007), In communication, the meaning of
an utterance is not only determined by the conceptual meaning of the sentence but also by
paralinguistic features such as stress, pitch, intonation, juncture, body movements, head
movements, hand gestures, eye-contact, and the distance between the interlocutors.

Examples: “It’s one o’clock”, can be interpreted as “It’s really one o’clock” or “It’s time
to have lunch” or “It’s time to stop the lecture.” so the meaning does not only depend the
reference, conceptual sentence but also context, gestures, intonations etc.

D. Definition of cognition

What is cognition? The word comes from the Latin root cognoscere, which means “to
know”. When we talk about cognition, we are usually referring to everything that is related to
knowledge. In other words, the accumulation of information that we have acquired through
learning or experience. The most accepted definition of cognition is the ability to process
information though perception (stimuli that we receive through our different senses), knowledge
acquired through experience, and our subjective characteristics that allow us to integrate all of this
information to evaluate and interpret our world. In other words, cognition is the ability that we
have to assimilate and process the information that we receive from different sources (perception,
experience, beliefs…) to convert them into knowledge. Cognition includes different cognitive
processes, like learning, attention, memory, language, reasoning, decision making, etc., which
form part of our intellectual development and experience.
Different disciplines have studied cognition, like neurology, psychology, anthropology,
philosophy, and even information sciences. However, it was cognitive psychology that started to
look into how processing information influences behavior and what relation different mental
processes had in the acquisition of knowledge. Cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950's
as the opposition to the prevalent behaviorism of the time. Authors such as Piaget and Vigotsky
revolutionized the scientific panorama with their theories about development and cognitive
learning, which are still relevant today. Starting in the 60s, interest in cognition and cognitive skills
grew exponentially, and the research that it generated allowed us to learn more about these
processes. Advancements in neuroimaging allow us to contribute physiological and
neuroanatomical understanding to these studies, which are important for understanding mental
processes and how they influence our behavior and emotions.

E. Cognitive process
What are cognitive processes? We can understand cognitive processes as the
procedures we use to incorporate new knowledge and make decisions based on said
knowledge. Different cognitive functions play a role in these processes: perception,
attention, memory, reasoning. Each of these cognitive functions work together to integrate
the new knowledge and create an interpretation of the world around us.

1. Perception as a cognitive process

 Cognitive perception allows us to organize and understand the world through
stimuli that we receive from our different senses, like sight, hearing, taste, smell, and
touch. While most people are familiar with the common senses, there are some other,
less-known senses, like proprioception (stimuli which unconsciously perceives our
position in space and judge’s spatial orientation) and interception (which is the
perception of our organs in our bodies. It is what allows us to know when we're hungry
or thirsty). Once the stimuli are received, our brain integrates all of the information,
creating a new memory.

Perception is how we draw conclusions from sensory experiences. Two people

may perceive the same sensory experience differently. Imagine two people walk into a
restaurant and one person smells pumpkin pie while the other smells fresh baked biscuits.
It turns out they are both right as the chef is cooking a Thanksgiving feast. Our
perception of things can be altered by our interests, past experiences.

2. Attention as a cognitive process

Attention is the cognitive process that allows us to concentrate on a stimuli or

activity in order to process it more thoroughly later. Attention is a fundamental
cognitive function for the development of daily situations, and it is used in the majority
of tasks that we carry-out day-to-day. In fact, it has been considered a mechanism that
controls and regulates the rest of the cognitive processes: from perception (we need
attention to be able to pay attention to the stimuli that don't reach our senses) to learning
and complex reasoning.
What is one of the first things that children must master when they begin
school? Paying attention. Attention is a cognitive process. Being able to focus and pay
attention is the foundation of learning, as one must focus on the subject--for example,
the ABCs--in order to retain it. The visual perception skill of visual attention is what
allows us to cut out distractions in the environment in order to focus on what is
important. For example, a child with poor visual perception might not be able to focus
on the teacher if there is a colorful bulletin board and ticking clock also within eyesight.

3. Memory as a cognitive process

 Memory is the cognitive function that allows us to code, store, and recover
information from the past. Memory is a basic process for learning, as it is what allows
us to create a sense of identity. There are many types of memory, like short-term
memory, which is the ability to retain information for a short period of time (remember
a telephone number until we can write it down on paper), and long-term memory,
which are all of the memories that we keep for a long period of time. Long-term
memory can be broken into smaller groups, declarative memory and procedural
memory. Declarative memory consists of the knowledge that was acquired through
language and education (like knowing that World War II ended in 1945), as well as
knowledge learned through personal experiences (remembering what my grandma used
to make for me). Procedural memory refers to learning though routines (learning how
to drive or ride a bike). Other types of memory are auditory memory, contextual
memory, naming, and recognition.

4. Thought as a cognitive process

Thought is fundamental for all cognitive processes. It allows us to integrate all of

the information that we've received and establish relationships between events and
knowledge. To do this, it uses reasoning, synthesis, and problem solving (executive
functions).

5. Language as a cognitive process

Language is the ability to express our thoughts and feelings through spoken word.
It is a tool that we use to communicate and organize and transmit information that we
have about ourselves and the world. Language and thought are developed together and
are closely related, they mutually influence each other.
6. Learning as a cognitive process

Learning is the cognitive process that we use to incorporate new information into
our prior knowledge. Learning includes things as diverse as behaviors or habits, like
 brushing our teeth or learning how to walk, and knowledge that we learn through
socialization. Piaget and other authors have talked about cognitive learning as the process
of information entering our cognitive system and changing it.
Learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, is a cognitive process that becomes more
difficult with poor visual perception. It was mentioned earlier that deficits in visual
perception can make it difficult to make sense of what one reads. Deficits in visual
perception can also make it hard to tell the difference between foreground and background-
-also known as figure ground skills in visual perception--like seeing white letters on a
chalkboard in school or distinguishing between the black letters on the white background
on a page in a book. Considering that reading is one of the main ways that we acquire
knowledge, it is evident how important visual processing is to learning.

F. Function of language and cognition in thinking

l) Do we think with language, it is just a communication device used for expression
of completed thought*? What is a difference between language and cognition? Chomsky!
1995)suggested that these two abilities arc separate Mid independent. Cognitive linguistics
emphasizes a single mechanism for both (Croft and Cruse. 20O1). Evolutionary linguistics
considers the process of transferring language from one generation to the next one
(Cangclosi and Ruisi, 2002; Christiansen and Kirby. 2003; llurford. 2008). This process is
a "bottleneck" that forms the language. Brighton ct al. (2005) demonstrated emergence of
compositional language due to this bottleneck. Still, none of these approaches resulted in a
 computational theory explaining how humans acquire language and cognition. Here I
discuss a computational model overcoming previous difficulties and based on a hypothesis
that language and cognition arc two separate and closely integrated abilities. I identify their
functions and discuss why human thinking ability requires both language and cognition.

Anions fund.imfni.il mechanism* of cognition arc mental representations, memories

of object and events (I'eilovsky.2001, 2006a), The surrounding world is understood by
matching menial representations It) patterns in sensor signals. However, mathematical
modeling of this process since the 1950s met with difficulties. The first difficulty is related
to a need to consider combinations of sensor signals, objects, and events. The number of
combinations is very large and even a limited number of signals or objects form a very
large number of combinations, exceeding all interactions of all elementary particles in a
lifetime of the Universe (I'erlovsky, 2009a, 2012c). Cognitive representations of situation* and
abstract concepts ini-ti.ill'. cii.st in vague SfetCS. Throughout the rest of life, language guides
acquisition of cognitive re j> resent at ions from experience. Vague cognitive representations
become more crisp and concrete. Chinking involves both language and cog¬nition,,ind as we
djtcuM later thinking about abstract ideas usually involves lan¬guage more than cognition, not
too differ¬ent from thinking by children.

CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION

Cognition includes thought processes and ways to reason. A particularly important concept
in this unit is that of mental set or functional fixedness. Imitation is our inherent way of learning
new things and we learn our earliest lessons by imitation. As children we spend a lot of our time
imitating action from our social surroundings and incorporating them into our language.
Cognitivist positions see language development as the consequence of more general cognitive
mechanisms, which are themselves determined by biologically pre-programmed processes.
Interactionist models see social-cultural factors as the most important determinants of learning
mechanisms underlying all of child development, including language, cognitive, and social
development. With respect to initial equipment, then, cognitivist models postulate a general
cognitive capacity allowing the infant to construct a gradually more complex representation of the
world as a result of underlying endogenous processes. In comparison, interactionist models equip
it with an initial capacity for interpersonal interaction, allowing for complex forms of
communication, which provide exogenous factors driving the child’s construction of the world. In
both cases, language plays an important role in providing a powerful symbol system for the child's
epistemological constructions or for its interactions with other members of its culture.
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