Contents

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* 1 State where cells arise from
* 2 Describe the cell cycle
* 3 Define interphase
* 4 Outline how replicated DNA molecules (chromosomes) are moved to opposite
ends of the cell by microtubules
* 5 State the products of mitosis
* 6 State what tumours are the result of
* 7 Comments
State where cells arise from
Describe the cell cycle
The cell cycle is an alternation between interphase and mitosis.

Define interphase
doreen takes black white albino and red indians into the gloryhole of justice
Outline how replicated DNA molecules (chromosomes) are moved to opposite ends of
the cell by microtubules
In prophase the mitotic spindle forms.
In prometaphase the chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle at the centromere.
In metaphase, the condensed chromosomes align in a plane across the equator of t
he mitotic spindle.
Anaphase follows as the separated chromatids move abruptly toward opposite spind
le poles.
Finally, in telophase a new nuclear envelope forms around each set of unraveling
chromatids.
The mitotic spindle is composed of microtubules, each of which is a tubular asse
mbly of molecules of the protein tubulin.
Microtubules can grow or shrink by the addition or removal of tubulin molecules.
This change in length propels attached chromatids to the spindle poles, where t
hey unravel to form new nuclei.

State the products of mitosis

show us the hairy bean
State what tumours are the result of
Tumour are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that they can occur in a
ny organ.

Outline that change in electrons during oxidation and reduction

* OIL RIG
o Oxidation is loss of electrons (normally H)
o Reduction is gain of electrons (normally H)
Outline what is achieved by the process of glycolysis
* glucose is broken down step by step in a series of nine enzymatic reaction
s, each successive reaction involving an intermediate sugar containing phosphate
* Phosphorylation
* Lysis
* Oxidation
* ATP formation
* In the cytoplasm, one hexose sugar is converted into two three-carbon atom
compounds 2-oxoproponoate (pyruvate) with a net gain of two ATP and two NADH+ +
H+
* Phosphorylation is a process where ATP is made in vivo (in glycolysis the
process is substrate level phosphorylation

Outline Aerobic Respiration

Outline Aerobic Respiration including oxidative decarboxylation of 20oxopropanoa
te (pyruvate), Krebs cycle NADH, NADH + H+, and electron transport chain.
* Aerobic respiration, each pryuvate is decarboxylated (CO2 removed), the re
maining two-carbon molecule (ethanoyl or acetyl group) reacts with reduced Coenz
yme A, and at the same time one NADH+ and HADH+ is formed. This is known as the
link reaction.
* CH3 CO COOH + CoA-S-H + NAD+ ---> CO2 + NADH + CH3CO-S-COA
* In Krebs cycle each ethanyol (acetyl) group (CH3CO) formed in the link rea
ction yields two CO2
* Hydrogen atoms are removed by hydrogen carrying co-enzymes
* ETC transports two hydrogens and two electrons from either FADH2 or NADH e
ventually to molecular oxygen forming water and in doing so, making ATP.
* Aerobic respiration occurs only if there is sufficient oxygen available

Describe Oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis

Describe Oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis including proton pum
ps, a proton gradient and ATP synthetase Chemiosmotic Theory
* The synthesis of ATP is coupled to electron transport and the movement of
protons (H+ ions)
* the way in which ATP is formed from ADP and phosphate as electrons pass do
wn the electron transport chain
* The process is powered by a gradient of protons, H+ ions, established acro
ss the inner mitochondrial membrane. This is known as chemiosmotic coupling. The
proton gradient is established as electrons move down the electron transport ch
ain. At three transition points in this chain, significant drops occur in the am
ount of potential energy held by the electrons. As a consequence, a relatively l
arge amount of free energy is released at each of these steps. This energy power
s the pumping of protons from the mitochondrial matrix through the inner membran
e to the intermembrane space.
* In brief
o The ET carriers are strategically arranged over the inner membrane o
f the mitochondrion and as they progressively oxidise NADH + H+ and FADH2, energ
y from this process forces protons to move, against the concentration gradient,
from the mitochondrial matrix to the space between the two membranes, a proton p
ump. The pH therefore drops between the membranes (pH8-pH7, a 10x increase) and
a potential difference is created. Eventually the H+ ions flow back into the mat
rix through special gates in the ATP synthetase molecules in the membrane. As th
e ions are flowing down the gradient, energy is released and ATP is made.

Draw the structure of a mitochondrion as seen in electromicrographs

Explain the Relationship between structure and function of mitochondrion
* Aerobic respiration
o takes place in the mitochondria.
* They are surrounded by two membranes
o the outer one is smooth
o inner one folds inward.
* folds are called cristae
o Within the inner compartment of the mitochondrion, surrounding the c
ristae, is a dense solution known as the matrix. It contains a bunch of molecule
s involved in respiration (like enzymes, coenzymes, water phosphates etc.)

Explain the role of ethanol in Carbohydrate and fat metabolism

* Fats
* To get energy from them, the fats are first split into their glycerol and
fatty acid components. The fatty acids are then chopped up into two-carbon fragm
ents and slipped into the Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA. Proteins: broken down into
their constituent amino acids. The amino acids are deaminated (amino groups remo
ved) and the residual carbon skeleton is either converted to an acetyl group or
to one of the larger carbon compounds of the glycolytic pathway or the Krebs cyc
le so that it can be processed at this stage of the central pathway. The amino g
roups, if not neutralised, are eventually excreted as urea or other nitrogen-con
taining wastes.

Outline fermentation to 2-hydroxypropanoate (lactate) and to ethanol and the cir

cumstances in which they occur in cells
* Fermentation-a type of anaerobic pathway. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvi
c acid can be converted to ethanol or to one of several different organic acids,
of which lactic acid is the most common. Yeast cells, for example, present as a
"bloom" on the skin of grapes can grow either with or without oxygen. When the
sugar-filled juices are extracted and stored under anaerobic conditions, the yea
st cells turn the fruit juice to wine by converting glucose into ethanol. When t
he sugar is exhausted, the yeast cells cease to function; at this point alcohol
concentration is between 12 and 17 percent. Anaerobic respiration yields only 5%
of the amount of ATP's than in aerobic respiration. In some organisms, lactic a
cid is formed from pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid is usually converted to lactate in
the absence of oxygen with no loss of carbon dioxide so the reaction is irrever
sible.
Discuss the theory that living organisms are composed of cells
* Cells are the building blocks of life.
* Cells have metabolism
* Cells are capable of independent existence.
* Cells can only avite from already existing cells.
* Cells contain hereditary materials (DNA)
* Skeletal muscle and some fungal hyphae are not divided into cells but have
mulinucleate cytoplasm. Some biologists consider unicellular organisms to be ac
ellular.

State that a virus is a non-cellular structure consisting of DNA or RNA surround

 by protein coat
A virus is a non-cellular structure consisting of DNA or RNA surrounded by prote
in coat.

State that all cells are formed by other cells

All cells are formed by other cells.

Explain three advantages of using light microscopes

Some advantages are:
* Colour images instead of monochrome
* A larger field of view
* Easily prepared sample material
* The possibility of examining living material and observing movement
* Cheaper equipment

Outline the advantages of using electron microscope

The advantages of using an electron microscope are that they have greater magnif
ication, which means that they can magnify more than light microscope. This mean
s that they can see things that are smaller than with using a light microscope.
They also have a higher resolution, which means that they can also show the imag
es as separated particles and clear instead of blurry.

Define organelle
An organelle is a discrete structure within a cell, and has a specific function.

Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacte
ria, organelles and cells, using appropriate SI units=
Molecules can be up to 1 nm
Cell membrane thickness can be up to 10 μm
Viruses can be up to 100 nm
Bacteria can be up to 1 μm
Organelles can be up to 10 μm
Most cells can be up to 100 μm

Calculate linear magnification of drawings

Magnification = size of the picture multiplied with size of the real object
Size of the real object = size of the picture divided with magnification

Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting
cell size
The volume increases faster than the surface area when a cell grows. The surface
to volume ratio thus decreases. In order to carry out metabolic functions (chem
ical reactions etc) the cell needs the surface area and when it grows, it needs
to carry out more functions. The size is thus limited since the cell needs to ma
intain a certain surface area to volume ratio.

State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life
Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life.

Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out special

ised functions by expressing some of their genes but not others
The multicellular organisms contain all the genes but they do not use all of the
m. The cells differentiate to carry out specialised functions because they only
express some of their genes.

Define tissue, organ and organ system

Tissue: An integrated group of cells with common function and structure.
Organ: A body function centre that is specialised into one function and composed
by different tissues.
Organ system: A group of organs that are specialised into a certain function tog
ether.

Overview
* Enzymes are biological catalysts
* They consist of one or more polypeptide chains
* They operate by providing an alternative pathway for a reaction to occur,
one with a lower activation energy.
* This requires the substrate(s) to bind as ligands to the active site (the
area where the reaction occurs) and form an “enzyme-substrate complex”

The “Lock and Key” Hypothesis

* Proposed in 1894 by Fischer
* He noticed that enzymes were able to distinguish between very similar subs
trates, he reasoned therefore that the enzyme must be complimentary to the subst
rate like a key is complimentary to a lock.

The “Induced Fit” Hypothesis

* Proposed by Koshland in 1960
 * He discovered that when the enzyme substrate complex was formed the enzyme
underwent a change in conformation.
* This meant that the complementation between the enzyme and substrate was n
ot exact but the change in conformation lead to a perfect fit.

Inhibition
Enzyme inhibitors are molecules that bind to enzymes and decrease their activity
. Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic
imbalance, many drugs are enzyme inhibitors.

Competitive Inhibition
* The inhibitor is capable of binding with the active site of the enzyme pre
venting the substrate from binding to the enzyme.
* This can either be temporary or permanent the latter of which effectively
destroys the enzyme.
* An alternative kind of competitive inhibition is where the inhibitor binds
to a separate site, however (and this is important,) the presence of the substr
ate in the Active site must lead to a conformational shift closing the site of i
nhibition. If the inhibitor and substrate do not compete then it isn’t competitive
inhibition.

Uncompetitive Inhibition
* The inhibitor binds only with the enzyme substrate complex.
* This leads to a reduction in the effective concentration of the E-S comple
x which then causes the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate to increase, (L
e Châtelier s principle.)
* This then causes a reduction in the efficiency of the enzyme as the substr
ate and enzyme take longer to separate.

Non-competitive inhibition
* The inhibitor binds at an allosteric site (distant from the active site) c
ausing a change in the conformation of the enzyme stopping the substrate binding
.
* The presence of the substrate in the active site has no effect on the shap
e of the site where the inhibitor binds. (There is no competition, hence the nam
e.)

End-product inhibition
Cells need certain substances to function properly. However, an excess of these
substances can be poisonous and possibly fatal. This is controlled by a special
mechanism called end-product inhibition.

All metabolic pathways require different enzymes for their different stages. In
end-product inhbition, the final product of the reaction acts as an inhibitor on
one of the enzymes required in the earlier stages of the pathway. This prevents
 the reaction cycle from continuing, and thus keeps the required substance at a
limited concentration.
In the diagram below, A, B, C and D are products and A1, B1 and C1 are enzymes.
A------(A1)-----> B -------(B1)-------> C -----------(C1)-------> D
D may inhibit A1, for example, meaning that once D is produced the reaction ceas
es.
When more of the substance is required, a special molecule known as an activator
may re-activate the necessary enzyme(s).
Other Effects on Enzyme Activity
Temperature
* As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the substrate and enzy
me molecules increases and so they move faster. The faster these molecules move,
the more often they collide with one another and the greater the rate of reacti
on.
* At high temperatures this vibration increases to such an extent that the i
nteractions between the protein chains are weakened and broken. This causes the
three dimensional shape of the enzyme to change meaning it can no longer perform
its catalytic action. It is said to be denatured.
pH
* There are many ionic interactions between amino acid side chains, for exam
ple between NH3+ and COO- groups. These are pH dependant.
* In the presence of a better acid the amino group will accept a proton from
that rather than the Carboxylic acid in the side chain.
* In the presence of a better base the Carboxylic acid will donate it’s proton
to that base rather than to the amino group in the side chain.
* In either case this will break the peptide bonds holding the enzyme s tert
iary structure together. This is denaturation.
* Thus, enzymes function at an optimum pH (graphically, this would be repres
ented as a peak at a small range of pH values with a sharp decline either side).
Enzymes may have a different optimum pH - for example, peptidases in the stomac
h are tolerant to the high acidity of HCl.
Substrate Concentration
* An increased concentration of substrate will lead to an increased rate of
reaction up to the point when all the available active sites are full due to the
increased chance of a collision occurring.

Draw the basic structure of a generalised amino acid

COOH
|
C H
|
NH2

Draw the ring structure of an alpha-D glucose

13

Draw the basic structure of glycerol and a generalised fatty acid

CH20H
|
CH2OH
|
CH2OH

Fatty Acid
CxH(2x+1)-COOH (saturated)
CsomethingHbigsomethingCOOH (saturated)

Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships between mon
osaccharides and disaccharides; fatty acids, glycerol and trigylcerides, amino a
cids dipeptides and polypeptides
* Monosaccharide ---> Condensation Reaction ---> Disaccharide (Condensation,
loss of a single water molecule)
* Disaccharide ---> Hydrolysis ---> Monosaccharide (Hydrolysis gain of singl
e water molecule)
* Fatty Acids + Glycerol ---> Condensation Reaction ---> Fats
* Amino Acid (carboxyl group) + Amino Acid(amino group) ---> Condensation Re
action ---> Dipeptide
* Dipeptides + Amino Acids ---> Condensation Reaction ---> Polypeptide
Draw the structure of a generalised dipeptide, showing the peptide linkage
H H
\ /
N
|
R1-C-H
 |
OC
|
H-N
|
R2-C-H
|
C
// \
O O-H

Explain the relative solubility of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in water

* Most lipids are insoluble because they have a long hydrocarbon chain (hydr
ophobic)
* Carbohydrates are soluble because of the presence of OH groups
* Proteins are also soluble because of OH groups and other groups and charge
s
* Solubility decreases with size
Compare the energy content of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
Lipids have about twice the energy of carbohydrates and proteins in x mass.

List two examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides

* Monosaccharides
o Glucose
o Ribose
o Fructose
o Galactose
* Disaccharides
o Sucrose
o Lactose
o Maltose
* Polysaccharides
o Glycogen
o Cellulose
o Chitin
o Starch
Polysaccharides: Structure and Function
Polysaccharides are polymers. This means that they are long chains made of sever
al smaller units (monomers; in this case, monosaccharides).
Polysaccharides are formed by condensation: the monomers form (glycosidic) bonds
and lose water in the process. This can be reversed by adding water to the poly
saccharide (hydrolysis). Polysaccharides come in two varieties: homopolysacchari
des (which contain only one kind of monomer) and heteropolysaccharides (which co
ntain two or more kinds of monomer).
The bullet points below describe the structure of three common polysaccharides a
nd explain how structure relates to function in each case.
* Starch is a storage carbohydrate found in plant cells. It is a polymer of
the monosacchairde, alpha-glucose. Starch is formed from two main sub-units: amy
lose (which forms a helix shape) and amylopectin (which forms branches). Starch
is suited to its functions in several ways. Firstly, because it is so large, it
is insoluble in water. This means that it does not affect the water potential of
the cell, and thus does not cause any change to the osmotic movement of water b
etween the cell and its environment. Its large size also means that it can be ke
pt within the cell easily; it does not pass through the membrane. The branched n
ature of amylopectin makes starch an ideal energy store. The alpha-glucose molec
ules on these branches can easily be removed by hydrolytic enzymes and used as a
substrate in respiration to release energy.
* Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate found in animal cells. It has a branche
d structure, similar to the amylopectin found in starch, but with more branches.
This, again, makes it an ideal energy store.
* Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate found in the cell wall of plant cel
ls. It is a polymer of beta-glucose, unlike starch and glycogen. The beta-glucos
e forms straight chains, or microfibrils, which come together by hydrogen bondin
g to form the larger cellulose fibres which run the length of the cell wall. The
fibres are aligned in different directions, giving the cell wall both strength
and a degree of elasticity. This allows plant cells to swell (become turgid) wit
hout bursting when they fill with water by osmosis. There are gaps between the c
ellulose fibres which allow even the largest molecules to pass through. The cell
wall is thus said to be "freely permeable".
State three functions of lipids
1. Energy Source
2. Energy Storage
3. Insulation
4. Protection
5. Waterproofing
6. Cell Membranes (Phospholipids are a major component of)

State the characteristic of DNA replication

* It is semi-conservative

Outline DNA replication

1. Double helix unwinds
2. Separation of the strands by helicase
3. Formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase
In DNA replication, the 2 chains separate from each other like a zip unfastening
as the hydrogen bonds, which link the bases of one chain with the bases of the
other, are not very strong. Any free nucleotides then come along and form hydrog
en bonds with each of the 2 chains. These nucleotides then join together through
their sugar and phosphate groups; and 2 DNA molecules result. The complementary
relationship between the bases ensure that each of the DNA molecules are identi
cal to the original one. Because the sequence of the bases in the 2 daughter mol
ecules is exactly the same in the parent molecule (i.e. A to T and C to G), accu
rate replication occurs. The enzyme that joins the nucleotides together is calle
d DNA polymerase.

Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation seque

nce of the base sequence of DNA

Outline DNA Nucleotide structure

Outline DNA Nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose), base and phosp
hate.
DNA consists of units called nucleotides. There are four different nucleotides.
Each one consists of a deoxyribose 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitr
ogenous base- adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine. The DNA molecule consists
of 2 strands twisted together into a double helix, much like a twisted ladder. T
he phosphate and the sugar molecules make up the sides of the ladder. The phosph
ate group is joined to the deoxyribose sugar in the nucleotide on the 5 end car
bon and to the 3 end carbon of the deoxyribose of the other sugar. The nitrogen
ous bases make up the steps of the ladder.

State the names of the four bases in DNA

1. Adenine
2. Guanine
3. Cytosine
4. Thymine

Outline how DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds into a single
strand
The bases of one chain are attracted to the bases of the other chain by means of
hydrogen bonds. Adenine and guanine are purines, which are double-ringed, and c
ytosine and thymine are pyrimidines, which are single-ringed. Adenine can only p
air with thymine and cytosine only with guanine. This is known as the base-pair
rule. A and T form a soluble hydrogen bond, C and G a triple one. A and T are co
mplementary; G and C also. This is known as the base-pair rule.

Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hy
drogen bonds
• A=T: adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with its complementary base, thymine • G=C:
guanine forms three hydrogen bonds with its complementary base, cytosine • Polymer
s coiled around, forming double helix • Hydrogen bonds between A=T and G=C hold th
e two strands of DNA together
Draw a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA
P-S-P-S-P
| |
 B B

State the three most common elements of life

* Carbon
* Hydrogen
* Oxygen

State the other elements needed by living organisms

See below

State a function of these elements

* Nitrogen - Component of DNA
* Sulphur - Components of proteins and coenzymes
* Phosphorus - Constituents of nucleic acids, ATP, phospholipids, Bones, and
teeth
* Iron - Constituent of many enzymes, electron carriers, haemoglobin and myo
globin
* Potassium - Needed for nerve and muscle action and in protein synthesis

Outline the difference between an atom and an ion

* An ion is a charged particle.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist either alone or in
combination.

Define organic
Compounds containing carbon that are found in living organisms (except hydrogen
carbonates, carbonates, and oxides of carbon).

Outline the significance of water in biology

1. Transparency
2. Cohesion
3. Surface tension
4. Solvent properties
5. Thermal properties
6. Polarity of water molecules

Discuss the significance of water to organisms

* Coolant
* Transport medium
* Habitat
 State a feature of genetic material can be transferred between species because
the genetic code is universal
Genetic material can be transferred between species because the genetic code is
universal.

Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer

Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell
, restriction enzymes, and DNA ligase.
* Use of E.Coli
* Most of its DNA is in circular chromosomes
* It also has plasmids
* The plasmids are removed and cleaved by restriction enzymes at target sequ
ences
* DNA fragments from another organism can also be cleaved by the same restri
ction enzyme and these pieces can be added to the open plasmid and spliced toget
her by ligase
* The recombinant plasmids formed can be inserted into host cells and cloned
.

State two examples of the current uses of genetic engineering in agriculture and
/or pharmacy
* Improved crops and animal breeds by increased disease resistance
* Bacteria that can be made to produce insulin.

Explain one potential harmful result of genetic engineering

Release of genetically engineering organisms into environment that subsequently
spread to other species. E.g. resistance to pesticide to weeds.

State what PCR does

PCR copies and amplifies minute quantities of nucleic acid.

State what gel electrophoresis involves the separation of fragmented pieces of D

NA according to their charge and size
Gel electrophoresis involves the separation of fragmented pieces of DNA accordin
g to their charge and size.

State which process is used in DNA profiling

Gel electrophoresis.

Describe two applications of DNA profiling

* Determining Parentage
* Criminal Cases
Outline the process of gene therapy using a named example
* Defective genes are replaced
* White blood cells or bone marrow cells are removed, and by means of a vect
or, the normal gene is introduced and inserted into the chromosome
* The cells are replaced in the patient so the normal gene can be expressed
* Examples are cystic fibrosis.

State the contributions made by Jansen, Hooke, Von Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schw
ann, and Virchow
* Jansen - Invented compound microscope
* Hooke - Examines cork with improved compound microscope
* Von Leeuwenhoek - Observes unicellular organisms and nuclei
* Schleiden - Says all plants made of cells
* Schwann - Proposed cell theory with Schleiden. (All made of identical cell
s)
* Virchow - Omnis cellula e cellula

State three advantages of light microscopes

1. Specimens can be alive
2. Faster
3. Cheaper
4. Easier to maintain
5. Smaller
6. More colourful

State two advantages of electron microscopes

1. Higher resolution
2. Greater magnification

Define Organelle
A structure inside a cell that carries out a particular function.

Compare the relative sizes of cells, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria,
organelles , molecules, using appropriate SI units
* Molecules - 1 nm
* Membrane thickness - 10 nm
* Viruses - 100 nm
* Bacteria - 1 micrometre
* Organelles - 10 micrometres
* Cells - 100 micrometres
NB. 100 nm = 1 micrometre

Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting
cell size
* Rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of its mass/volume
* Rate of exchange of materials (nutrients and waste) and energy is a functi
on of its surface area
* As a cell grows in size, the rate of chemical exchange with the extracellu
lar environment might be inadequate to maintain cell as the cytoplasm is to far
from the cell membrane.

Draw a generalised prokaryotic cell as seen in electron micrographs

Image:General prokaryote.jpg

=State one function for each of the following

State one function for each of the following: cell wall, plasma membrane, mesoso
me, cytoplasm, ribosomes and naked DNA.
Cell wall: Maintains the shape of the cell.
Plasma membrane: Selective membrane that keeps the amount of oxygen and other pa
rticles that enter and leave the cell.
Mesosomes: Increases the cell surface area for metabolic reactions to occur.
Cytoplasm: Keeps the organelles of specialized functions.
Ribosomes: The main site for protein synthesis.
Naked DNA (nucleoid): Contain the inherited information that control the cell an
d its genotype.

State that prokaryotes show a wide range of metabolic activity

State that prokaryotes show a wide range of metabolic activity including ferment
ation, photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation.

Draw a picture of prokaryotic cell structure

Draw a picture of prokaryotic cell structure showing Ribosomes, Mesosome, Slime
Capsule, Cell Wall, Flagellum, Cell Surface Membrane, Plasmid, and Naked Nucleic
Acid. (8 Things).

State the function of...

1. Ribosomes - Carries out protein synthesis,
2. Mesosome - Site of respiration (formed by the intucking of the plasma memb
rane),
3. Slime Capsule - Physical barrier to predatory protazoa, white blood cells
or bacteriophages,
4. Cell Wall - Provides structure,
5. Flagellum - Organelle of propulsion,
6. Cell Surface Membrane - Barrier between cell and environment. Regulates tr
ansport of substances,
7. Plasmid - Loops carrying 10-30 genes enable production of antibiotics, or
resistance to antibiotics,
8. Naked Nucleic Acid - Carries genetic material.
 Discuss the possible origin of eukaryotic cell structures
Discuss the possible origin of eukaryotic cell structures, referring to the theo
ry of endosymbiosis.
* One cell took in others
* In vacuoles / by endosymbiosis
* Kept them alive instead of digesting them
* One became the mitochondrion, and another the chloroplast
* Original cell respired anaerobically
* (prokaryotic) cell that respired aerobically became mitochondrion
* (prokaryotic) cell that photosynthesised became the chloroplast
* Symbiosis/mutualism benefits both/all cells involved
* Ribozomes sizes of mitochondria and chloroplasts evidence for symbiosis
* Presence/type of DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts evidence for endosym
biosis
* Presence of two membranes is evidence for symbiosis.

Draw a diagram to show the ultra-structure of a generalised animal cell

Draw a diagram to show the ultra-structure of a generalised animal cell as seen
in electron micrographs.

State one function of each of these organelles: Ribosome, RER, Lysosome, Golgoi
Apparatus, Mitochondrion, Nucleus, Chloroplast, Nucleus
1. Ribosome - Synthesises proteins
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Transports proteins from Ribosomes to other
parts of the cell (such as Golgoi)
3. Lysosome - Responsible for the cell s digestion/destruction of macromolecu
les, old cell parts, and microorganisms
4. Golgoi Apparatus - the Golgi complex is the site of the modification, comp
letion, and export of secretory proteins and glycoproteins - forms vesicles to e
xport contents
5. Mitochondrion - Site of second stage of aerobic respiration (ATP synthesis
and Kreb s Cycle)
6. Nucleus - Chromosones contain DNA - DNA arranged as genes which control al
l cell activities
7. Chloroplast - Two stages of photosynthesis

State two similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

1. Cell Membranes
* Ribosomes
* Cytoplasm
* Nucleic Acids

State two differences between eukaryotic nucleus and prokaryotic nuclear materia
l
* Eukaryotic - Nuclear Membrane, DNA in Chromosomes, DNA exclusively in nucl
eus
 * Prokaryotic - No Membrane, DNA Loop, DNA and RNA in cytoplasm

Describe three differences between animal and plant cells

* Plant - Cellulose Cell Wall, Chlorophyll in Chloroplasts, Vacuole in Cell
Sap
* Animal - No CCW, No CIC, Vesicles

State the composition and function of the plant cell wall

1. Provide support (as water enters the cell osmotically the cell wall resist
s expansion and an internal pressure is created which provides turgidity for the
plant)
2. To give direct support to the cell and the plant as a whole by providing m
echanical strength.
3. To permit the movement of water through and along it and contribute to the
movement of water in the plant as a whole in particular the cortex of the root,
.
1. Made of cellulose microfibrils embededded in an amorphous polysaccharide m
atrix
2. Polymer of 10,000 beta-glucose molecules forming a long unbranched chain
3. Many chains run parallel and have cross-linkages

State one function of each of these organelles: ribosomes, rough endoplasmic re

ticulum (rER), lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion and nucleus
Ribosomes: Main site for protein synthesis.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Is the part of the ER which is decorated/studded wi
th ribosomes. The proteins that are made goes in to the ER and then are sent out
in the cell.
Lysosomes: Uses hydrolytic enzymes to produce macromolecules.
Golgi apparatus: Modifies the products received from the rER and then are transp
orted to parts of the membrane.
Mitochondrion: the site for cellular respiration.
Nucleus: Contains the inherited information and controls the function and genoty
pe of the cell.

Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

* Both have cell membranes and carry out the functions of the cell such as m
etabolic reactions, respiration etc.
* Prokaryotic have no nucleus which eukaryotic have.
* Eukaryotic have ER and mitochondrion. Prokaryotic does not.
* Eukaryotic cells have 70s ribosomes and prokaryotic cells have 80s ribosom
es.
* Eukaryotic cells have DNA in the nucleus whereas prokaryotic cells have ci
rcular naked DNA in the cytoplasm.
Describe three differences between plant and animal cells
Plant cells has a cell wall, chloroplast and vacoule whereas an animal cell does
not.

State the composition and function of the plant cell

The plant cell wall contain cellulose microfibrils which help the cell to mainta
in its shape.

Compare the structure of RNA and DNA

DNA RNA
Double stranded polymer Single stranded polymer
Uses A G C T Uses A G C U
Pentose sugar is dexoyribose Pentose sugar is ribose

State one function of messenger RNA and one function of transfer RNA
* mRNA
o It enters the cytoplasm where it associates with the ribosomes and a
cts as a template for protein synthesis
* tRNA
o Forms a clover shaped leaf with one end ending in a c-c-a sequence
o At this point the amino acid attaches itself
o There are twenty types
o Each carries a different amino acid
o These line up against the mRNA during protein synthesis

Outline DNA transcription in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases

* Transcription is the process by which a complementary mRNA copy is made of
the specific region of the DNA molecule which codes for a polypeptide (about 17
base pairs).
* A specific region of the DNA molecule, called a cistron, unwinds.
* This unwinding is the result of hydrogen bonds between base pairs in the D
NA double helix being broken. This exposes the bases along each strand.
* Each base along one strand attracts its complementary RNA nucleotide, i.e.
a free guanine base on the DNA will attract an RNA nucleotide with a cytosine b
ase. It should be remembered, however, that uracil, and not Thymine is attracted
to adenine.
* The enzyme RNA polymerase moves along the DNA adding one complementary RNA
nucleotide at a time to the newly unwound portion of DNA. The region of base pa
iring between the DNA and the RNA is only around 12-based pairs at any one time
as the DNA helix reforms behind the RNA polymerase. The DNA thus acts as a templ
ate against which mRNA is constructed. A number of MRNA molecules may be formed
before the RNA polymerase leaves the DNA, which closes up reforming its double h
elix.
* Being too large to diffuse across the nuclear membrane, MRNA leaves instea
d through the nuclear pores. Tin the cytoplasm it is attracted t o the ribosome.
Along the MRNA is a sequence of triplet codes that have been determined by the
DNA. Each triplet is called a codon.

Describe translation
Describe translation including the roles of mRNA, tRNA, anti-codons and ribosome
s leading to peptide linkage formation.
* Translation is the means by which a specific sequence of amino acids is fo
rmed in accordance with the codons of mRNA.
* A group of ribosomes becomes attached to the mRNA to form a structure call
ed polysome.
* The complementary anticodon of a tRNA-amino acid is attracted to the first
codon on the mRNA.
* The second codon likewise attracts its complementary anticodon.
* The ribosome acts as a framework which holds the mRNA and tRNA amino acid
complex together until the two amino acids form a peptide bond between each othe
r.
* Once they have combined, the ribosome will move along the mRNA to hold the
next codon-anticodon complex together until the third amino acid is linked with
the second.
* In this way, a polypeptide chain is assembled, by the addition of one amin
o acid at a time.
* Second and subsequent ribosomes may pass along the mRNA immediately behind
the first.
* In this way many identical polypeptides are produced simultaneously.
* Once each amino acid is linked, the RNA which carried it to the mRNA is re
leased back into the cytoplasm. It is again free to combine with its amino acid.
The ribosome continues along the mRNA until it reaches one of the nonsense code
s at which point the peptide is cast off.

Define degeneracy
Having one or more base triplet to code for one amino acid.

Define universal
Found in all living organisms.

Explain the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide and its significan
ce
* Thalassemia - group of blood disorders characterized by a deficiency of ha
emoglobin, the blood protein that transports oxygen to the tissues.
* Thalassemia is caused by genetically determined abnormalities in the synth
esis of one or more of the polypeptide chains that make up the globin part of ha
emoglobin.
* The various forms of the disorder are distinguished by different combinati
ons of three variable
o The particular polypeptide chain or chains that are affected
* Whether the affected chains are synthesized in sharply reduced quantities
or not synthesized at all
o Whether the disorder is inherited from one parent (heterozygous) or
from both parents (homozygous).

State Six functions of Proteins, giving an example of each

* Enzymes - pepsin
* Cell transport - membrane proteins
 * Structural - collagen
* Hormones -insulin
* Immunoglobulins - antibodies
* Transport - haemoglobin

Fill in the gaps in the sentences with these words:

substrate pH protein control turnover active
spiral globular
soluble temperature key vitamins catalysts amino ac
ids specific

* Enzymes act as _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ which speed up metabolic reactions.

* They are a type of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ molecule which are polymers of smaller _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ joined into along chain. These chains coil into a _ _ _ _ _ _
and then fold up to produce a particular shape.

* Their activity depends upon their shape, which is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.

* They are relatively fragile and _ _ _ _ _ _ _ in water.

* The shape can be destroyed by various factors, which include changes in _

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, _ _, solvents and metal ions.

* Each enzyme is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to a particular reaction i.e. it will catal

yse only one reaction . Enzymes are now named according to what they act on e.g.
urease catalyses the hydrolysis (splitting) of urea but older names do not refl
ect this.

* One model of the way enzymes work is the Lock and _ _ _ Theory. The enzyme
has a shape on it s surface, called the _ _ _ _ _ _ site, which fits the substr
ate molecule ( the one it acts on) . The substrate binds into this site, is held
by a particular charge pattern, reacts and then leaves as the product(s).

* As the enzyme is not changed in each reaction it can act over and over aga
in and a few enzyme molecules can catalyse many _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ molecules.

* The number of molecules that one enzyme can catalyse in a minute is called
the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ number. This can be from 15 to 36 million.

* Many enzymes need another molecule or metal ion, called a cofactor, to be

present to work. Many _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ are cofactors to enzymes (and are called c
oenzymes).

* Amounts of enzymes are regulated in various ways so that reactions do not

get out of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ e.g. by a gene turning off production, by other enzymes
in feedback mechanisms and by hormones.
FUNGI
Feeding
Fungi are Heterotrophic meaning they are unable to produce their own organic car
bon and must obtain it elsewhere. They do this by three different methods:
* SAPROTROPHY – They obtain organic carbon from dead tissue
* BIOTROPHY – They obtain organic carbon from living tissue either parasitical
ly or in a symbiotic relationship.
* NECROTROPHY – They obtain organic carbon from a source killed by the fungus.

Structures
* HYPHAE – Tubular structures which form the mycelium. They are approximately
15µM in diameter. They grow at the tips which are extensible, behind the tip the h
yphae become rigid. This method of growth is known as APICAL GROWTH. The hyphae
may branch as new tips form behind the original tip. Hyphae are divided internal
ly by partitions known as SEPTA. Septa tend to be incomplete and so do not divid
e the hyphae into discrete units. There are two components to the cell wall of h
yphae, a fibrous component (usually CHITIN) and an amorphous paste (commonly con
structed of polymers of Glucose (Glucans))
* CABLES – Parallel arrays of hyphae, linear structures with a communicative r
ole. RHIZOMORPHS have this structure.
* ENCLOSURES – Play an important role in survival and reproduction, they have
a variety of structures and functions. Examples include SCLEROTIA, PSEUDOSCLEROT
IA, STROMATA and REPRODUCTIVE FRUIT BODIES. The last are the bit of the fungus y
ou are likely to see; a mushroom is the reproductive fruit body of a fungus.

Reproduction
Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually by diverse range of methods. When se
xual reproduction is used both fungi can usually produce both the male and femal
e organs.

The kidneys
The kidneys do three main things
* They remove urea from the blood
* They control the amount of ions (salts) in the blood
* They control the water content of the blood

Urea is produced in the liver where proteins (which can’t be stored) are broken do
wn into fats and carbohydrates, with the waste product as urea it is filtered ou
t of the blood by the kidneys, because urea is poisonous.
Salts are eaten, and while the body needs some salts, a salty meal (for example)
 however, will have far too much salt, so kidneys will filter out the excess sal
ts.
Water which is taken in can be lost from the body in three ways; in the breath,
in the sweat and in the urine. Because the water lost from breath is constant, t
he water content has to be balanced between the amount you sweat and the amount
dumped from the kidneys. Therefore on a cold day, if you don’t sweat then you will
produce more urine which will be pale and dilute, while on a hot day if you swe
at a lot, you will produce less, but it will be concentrated. The name of this p
rocess is osmo-regulation and is an example of homeostasis

The kidneys are made up of the medulla and the cortex. The cortex is the lighter
exterior, while the medulla is an area made up of feathery like structures clos
er to the centre which are attached to the ureter.

Inside the kidneys there are millions of nephrons which filter the blood. They d
o this by having blood build up a high pressure in the glomerulus (a ball of cap
illaries) so that the small molecules (e.g. water, glucose urea and ions) are fo
rced through into the Bowman’s capsule while the blood cells and proteins stay. Th
is mixture is no called glomerial filtrate and has been filtered by ultra filtra
tion. This flows down the first coiled tubule where all the glucose is reabsorbe
d (using active uptake), as are the required salts. Water is then reabsorbed at
the loop of henle, and also at the second coiled tubule. It then heads down the
collecting duct into the ureter. This flows down into the bladder. (Note the ure
a and excess ions are not absorbed.

Image:Kidney tubes.jpg

Image:Kidney flow diagram.jpg

Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers which are released into the blood from a gland
and travel to a target organ. They usually give a fairly general reaction, the r
eaction is long lasting and takes a while to come about, which contrasts with ne
rves which give an immediate reaction, take no time to travel and effect a speci
fic area or group of cells (e.g. a muscle) and the reaction itself is very quick
. The glands which secret hormones are called endocrine glands

* The pituitary gland gives of ADH, LH and FSH and is seen as the centre of
hormone activity. It also creates gonad stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating
hormone and growth hormone. It is seen as a gland which secrets hormones which
lead to other glands secreting hormones. (e.g. gonad stimulating glands make the
sex organs release sex hormones, and thyroid stimulating hormone stimulates the
thyroid to create thyroxin)
* The pancreas controls the blood-sugar levels with the hormones insulin (to
o much sugar) and glucagon ( not enough sugar)
* The ovaries create oestrogen which i. Repairs the lining of the womb and i
i. Promotes secondary sexual characteristics such as extra hair, change in body
and the production of eggs.
* The testes create testosterone which promote secondary sexual characterist
ics such as hair growth, change in body proportions and production of sperm
* The adrenal gland (which sits just on top of the kidneys) creates adrenali
n. If we feel threatened or scared this releases adrenalin which starts a flight
 or flight reaction. This includes increased blood sugar levels, heart rate, and
breathing rate, and blood is diverted from the skin to muscles. Adrenaline is a
weird hormone because it is very fast acting.
* The thyroid gland creates thyroxin which controls metabolism

Contents
[hide]
* 1 The menstrual cycle
* 2 Birth control with hormones
o 2.1 How the hormones interact
o 2.2 The hormones in menstruation
* 3 Insulin and diabetes
* 4 Homeostasis
* 5 Also See
* 6 Comments
The menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle has four stages
1. Day 1 – The uterus lining breaks down for about four days, and menstruation
occurs
2. Day 4 – 14 the uterus lining is built up by oestrogen
3. Day 14 – LH (which is stimulated by oestrogen going to the pituitary gland)
is secreted from the pituitary gland and causes ovulation at day 14)
4. Day 14 – 28 – Progesterone and Oestrogen maintainthe uterus lining until day 2
8. If no sperm fertilizes the egg by that point then the uterus begins to brake
down and the cycle starts again.
Note; the egg matures in a follicle (which is like an envelope) after ovulation
the follicle becomes the corpus luteum which has an important job (see later)
Birth control with hormones
FSH stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen; the oestrogen causes LH to be m
ade which sets off ovulation. For this reason FSH is given to woman to stimulate
egg production. However, there is a danger that if the dosage is too high there
could be multiple pregnancies.
Oestrogen is used in “the pill” to stop egg production. This is because while oestro
gen is present the hormone FSH won’t be created, and therefore after a while of ha
ving oestrogen at constantly high levels egg production stops and stays stopped.

How the hormones interact

FSH (which is high at day 1) stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen (the oe
strogen then stops FSH production). This in turn causes LH to be produced, which
then causes ovulation at day 14. Meanwhile progesterone levels are increasing b
ecause progesterone is created by the follicle, and as it matures levels increas
e. After ovulation, the corpus luteum (as it is now called) continues to make pr
ogesterone to stop the lining braking down, and to stop another egg being releas
ed. If the woman becomes pregnant then the corpus luteum remains and continues d
oing this, if not it degenerates with the lining of the womb. Progesterone maint
ains the lining. At this point oestrogen levels are falling, and FSH levels are
increasing again. If the egg is not fertilized then progesterone levels drop and
menstruation occurs. Then oestrogen begins again and everything starts again. I
f the egg is fertilized then progesterone levels stay high, so oestrogen levels
never increase.
The hormones in menstruation
Image:Hormone levels.jpg

Insulin and diabetes

Eating carbohydrate-full food gives a lot of glucose into the body. Doing extrem
e exercise uses more glucose, so naturally levels fall faster. However, there mu
st be a way to control the amount of glucose in the blood without having to do e
xercise, and there is, and it uses the pancreas and liver.

If the blood contains too much glucose then these high levels of blood sugar are
detected by the pancreas and a substance called insulin is injected into the bl
ood. The insulin and glucose are absorbed by the liver, where the insulin conver
ts the glucose into glycogen (an insoluble substance) which can then be stored i
n the liver.

If, later on the blood which passes through the pancreas has too little glucose
then the pancreas secretes glucagon, which enters the liver and turns glycogen b
ack into glucose. Intelligent.

In diabetes the pancreas doesn’t produce insulin, meaning blood sugar levels incre
ase to levels where you go into a coma and exploded. This can be controlled by n
ot eating carbohydrate rich meals and by excising after meals to transform gluco
se into sweet, sweet energy.

Another way to control this (and a much more practical one, who wants to run aft
er a meal?) is to inject insulin created by genetic engineering (this will be di
scussed later). This is very effective and easy. The danger of this is that if a
diabetic takes too much insulin then their blood glucose levels drop too low, a
nd they can become ill, sweating and becoming weak. To rectify this, the person
should eat a couple of lumps of sugar.

Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal conditions. It is often cont
rolled be negative feedback There are six different things which need to be kept
constant
* Removal of carbon dioxide
* Removal of urea
(Of these two we don’t need any of them, they are constantly being produ
ced by the body and we need to constantly get rid of them.)
* Ion content
* Water Content
* Sugar content
* Temperature
* Amount of thyroxin
(We need these four in certain amounts, and too much can be dangerous.
)

The hypothalamus (or thermoregulatory gland) is located just above the pituitary
gland. It contains sensors which monitor blood temperature and water content, a
nd send nerve impulses to the pituitary gland. It also monitors carbon dioxide w
hich is removed by the lungs in exhaled air. The kidneys control water content (
via ADH) and ion content of the blood. The pituitary gland produces ADH for the
kidneys, while the skin helps control the body temperature by sweating and raisi
ng hairs. The muscles can shiver to increase temperature. Finally the liver and
pancreas work together to keep the blood sugar levels correct.

The pituitary gland secrets thyroid stimulating hormone, and the more secreted t
he more thyroxin is made. However, if too much thyroxin is made then it goes bac
k to the pituitary gland and tells it to stop making so much thyroid stimulating
hormone.

Peristalsis
* There is muscular tissue all along the inside of the gut. It pushes the bo
lus along, contracting (peristaltic squeeze) and opening the circular (inner) an
d longitudinal (outer) muscle
* Along the gut there is glandular tissue which produces enzymes and mucus
* There are also lots of villi (sing. villus)
* They are good for digesting food because;
* They have a large surface area, they are covered in micro-villi, they have
very thin walls, they have an excellent blood supply and there are bloody loads
of them

Enzymes
* Break big molecules into smaller ones
* Big molecules include fats, proteins and starch

* Pepsin – Proteins into amino acids

* Amylase – Starch into simple sugars
* Trypase – Same as pepsin
* Lipase – Fat into fatty acids and glycerol
* Maltase – Breaks maltose into glucose

Food tests
* Iodine test - Brown iodine goes black if there is starch
* Biuret test – First add sodium hydroxide NaOH to the solution and shake well
. Then add pale blue copper sulphate solution. If it turns purple then there is
protein
* Benedict’s test – Add blue benedict’s solution into the test tube, bring to the
boil, if an orange precipitate forms then simple sugars are present
* Starch
o In bread, potatoes and muesli
* Protein
o In eggs, fish and meat
* Fat
o In butter, cooking oil and sausages
 Bile
* Bile is strongly alkaline, which means that it neutralizes the stomach aci
d. It also emulsifies (brakes into lots of little drops) which gives the lipase
a bigger surface area (The bile salts break up the bile)
* These smaller molecules can then be absorbed into the blood in the small i
ntestine (using active uptake). *They then travel to where they are needed

Enzyme Amylase Protease

Lipase
Made Salivary glands, pancreas and small intestine Stomach (Where i
t is called pepsin) pancreas and the small intestine Pancreas and sma
ll intestine
Does Starch into glucose and maltose Proteins into am
ino acids Fat into fatty a
cids and glycerol

The greenhouse effect

* The temperature of the earth is controlled by the balance of infra red rad
iation from the sun being absorbed by the earth, and being reflected out
* With more greenhouse gasses, the atmosphere becomes thicker, and becomes a
n insulating layer
* This layer traps heat, and stop it being reflected back out into space.
* The main gasses which cause this are methane and carbon dioxide
* This gradual heating up could cause drought, and also floods as the ice ca
ps melt meaning the water levels of the sea would increase. It would also lead t
o extreme weather and wide scale animal migrations
* The CO2 levels used to be balanced because plants take it in, and animals
produce it. However, now, because there are fewer plants and much more carbon di
oxide due to industry the levels of carbon dioxide are gradually increasing
* The industrial revolution and the massive amounts of fossil fuels burnt in
the last 100 years are what has probably led to this rise
* Methane is created naturally by marshlands. However, paddy fields and catt
le ranches are causing levels to increase

Acid Rain
* Acid rain is also a problem
* When car fuel is burnt sulphur dioxide and other various nitrogen oxides a
re produced
* When these mix with clouds they dissolve into the water and form sulphuric
and nitric acid. This then falls as acid rain
* Cars and power stations are mainly to blame
* Acid rain then turns lakes into acidic pools of death which can kill fish
and has a serious effect on the ecosystem
* It causes aluminium salts (which are in the ground) to dissolve into the l
ake and become aluminium ions which are poisonous to many fish
* It also kills trees and damages limestone buildings
* It is prevented by clearing up emissions. Acid gas scrubbers are used in i
ndustry and catalytic converter are used with cars. Reducing burning of fossils
fuels is also effective

Ways to reduce green house effect

* We should reduce car emissions – Use public transport, share cars, use more
efficient engines, look for alternative power sources
* Reduce the amount of fossil fuels burnt – Use an alternative source of power
wind, solar, wave etc
* Reduce deforestation
* To reduce the hole in the ozone layer – Reduce aerosols

Other pollution
* Water pollution – Eutrophication, sewage is also bad as it gets into the foo
d chain (like pesticides) and also causes eutrophication like problems (lots of
microbes). Oil spills, heat pollution increased microbe activity hot water from
industry re-injected into the sea, the warm conditions cause microbes to bloom
Atmospheric pollutions
* Fossil fuels – When coal, natural gas and oil are burnt they created carbon
dioxide which contributes to the greenhouse effect. It comes primarily from indu
stry, Power Station and cars, and also release sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxid
es which cause acid rain. The main greenhouse gasses are carbon dioxide, methane
and water vapour.
* CFCs (chloro fluoro carbons) – These come from aerosols, fridges air con uni
ts and polystyrene. These create holes in the ozone which let harmful UV rays in
.
* Lead in petrol – This comes from 4 star petrol and damages the nervous syste
m
* Deforestation also contributes to the greenhouse effect because
o The burning of the trees releases lots of carbon dioxide
o The decrease in the number of trees leads to less carbon dioxide bei
ng converted into oxygen via photosynthesis

The Skin
A. melanocyte
B. muscle
C. sebaceous gland
D. hair shaft
E. epidermis
F. dermis
G. subcutaneous tissue
H. fat
I. arterial blood vessel
J. sweat gland
K. hair follicle
L. Pacinian corpuscle

The epidermis is constantly being renewed as new cells form underneath and are p
ush up pushing the old ones away. Although not obvious here a thin muscle called
an erector muscle is read to pull the hair erect. The hair itself is situated i
n the hair follicle (the hair hole), and the oil/sebaceous gland keeps the hair
supple. The skin protects against disease, keeps us warm, keeps water and blood
in and is sensitive to stimuli.

The thermoregulatory centre (hypothalamus) takes information from receptors in t

he brain on blood temperature, and also from the skin to test skin temperature.

When you re too cold – Hairs stand on end to try and trap a layer of insulating ai
r, the blood supply to the skin closes off as vasoconstriction sets in to stop t
he warm blood losing heat in the cold skin. You also shiver.

When you’re too hot – Hairs lie flat, you sweat in the hope of removing heat in the
energy used by sweating, the blood supply to the skin increases so heat can be l
ost by blood close to the surface (vasodilatation - arterials dilate).

HEREDITY
Blood groups
Type O is recessive, while A and B are dominant
\ l-A l-o
L-B l-AB l-Bo
L-o l-Ao l-oo
Here L-O is recessive, but A and B are both dominant.
Therefore there is a
* 25% chance the person will be AB
* 25% chance the person will be B
* 25% chance the person will be A
* 25% chance the person will be O
Mutation
Mutations are when organisms develop new characteristics. Usually these are bad,
but occasionally they are beneficial.

A mutation is a change in a gene, DNA or number of chromosomes which lead to gen

etic variation. They all occur when the DNA is replicating itself and something
goes wrong.

Mutations occur due to chance and radiation. However, exposure to radiation and
some chemicals called mutagens increases the chance. If mutations occur in the b
ody cells they sometimes begin reproducing uncontrollably, and this is caused ca
ncer.

There are two main types of mutation; gene mutation and chromosome mutation. The
latter is where the person has a problem with the individual chromosomes, maybe
too many, or one turned around the wrong way. Gene mutation is where there is a
chemical change inside an individual gene. This can often be a small change, bu
t result is big changes, like sickle cell anaemia and cystic fibrosis.

Some mutations are good or neutral. Colour changes in birds, for example, are of
ten neutral while bacteria mutate into bacteria which are immune to antibiotics
is a beneficial mutation.

Down’s syndrome is caused by a mutation where there are 3 chromosome 21s. The prob
lem occurs in the woman’s ovaries, where both 21s get into the egg. This leads to
the child having a lower mental ability, and also to them being more susceptible
to disease.