buildings

Article
Design and Development of Weatherproof
Seals for Prefabricated Construction:
A Methodological Approach
Kristopher Orlowski *, Kasun Shanaka and Priyan Mendis
Center for Advance Manufacturing of Prefabricated Housing, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne 3010,
Australia; kasun.kristombu@unimelb.edu.au (K.S.); pamendis@unimelb.edu.au (P.M.)
* Correspondence: kristopher.orlowski@unimelb.edu.au; Tel.: +61-490-001-356




Received: 30 July 2018; Accepted: 14 August 2018; Published: 24 August 2018


Abstract: Satisfactory weatherproofing of buildings is vital to maximise their design life and performance
which requires the careful design of external sealing technologies. Systems commonly available have
served well in conventional construction however with many prefabricated systems emerging in the
building industry new and novel means of weatherproofing between panels and modules need to
be developed purpose specific to this application. This paper presents a holistic and fundamental
methodological approach to Design and Development of waterproof seals and has been applied specific
for prefabricated panelised and modular systems. Two purpose specific weatherproof seals are finally
presented. Flow charts of the overview of the suggested methodological approach and the processes
within which include DfMA that have been incorporated into understanding and developing seals for
this practical application. These strategies have enabled a resourceful and holistic set of processes that can
be adapted and used for similar forms of product research in new and developing areas of construction
such as prefabrication. The design and development process is thoroughly investigated and has resulted
in an exploration of the technical challenges and potential solutions which take into consideration factors
from installation limitations to building tolerances.

Keywords: panelised and modular prefabricated construction; weatherproofing and waterproofing;

sealing joints of façade components and walls; Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA),
design and development

1. Introduction
Industrialisation of the construction industry through prefabrication has been noted as an effective
method to achieve higher performance levels through moving more and more processes into a
controlled manufacturing environment [1]. This results in improvements in quality and efficiency as
lean manufacturing principles and automation are introduced [2]. Thus great potential lies in including
as many construction processes in which we can practically complete in such ways.
Prefabrication in the modern construction industry generally comes closed/complete such as in
some panelised or modular systems or open/incomplete such as pods and stick and frame assembly,
however there are also open panelised systems or un-cladded and hence incomplete modular systems,
to fully prefabricate a building it must be complete be it in pieces which require assembling but
complete nonetheless [3]. The most complete systems for walls would be those which include
internal finish to external façade and likewise for floors those which includes from ceiling to flooring
and everything in-between or at least with built in provision for electrical, water, gas and heating,
ventilation and air condition (HVAC) systems.
There are many intrinsic challenges to fully prefabricate a building such as flexibility of design
and method of connections, currently parts of industry have adapted to prefabrication by picking and

Buildings 2018, 8, 117; doi:10.3390/buildings8090117 www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23

There
Buildings 2018,are many
8, 117 intrinsic challenges to fully prefabricate a building such as flexibility of design 2 of 22
and method of connections, currently parts of industry have adapted to prefabrication by picking
and choosing which processes are most valuable to them to incorporate in prefabrication [4]. These
choosing
have whichbeen
generally processes
eitherare mostlabour
major valuable
andtoskill
themintensive
to incorporate in prefabrication
processes such as sawing [4]. and
These have
cutting
generally been either major labour and skill intensive processes such as
which can be replaced with computer numerical control (CNC) machines or simple tasks which aresawing and cutting which
can be
easy toreplaced
automatewith suchcomputer
as nailingnumerical
or gluing.control (CNC) machines or simple tasks which are easy to
automate such as nailing or gluing.
This research study expands on the processes which are currently greatly prefabricated to also
Thisthe
include research
façade, study expands the
specifically on the processes whichbetween
weatherproofing are currently
façadegreatly prefabricated
panels, wall panels to also
and
include theCurrently
modules. façade, specifically the weatherproofing
the convention means of onsite between façade panels,
weatherproofing ofwall
gapspanels
entailsand modules.
setting up
Currently the convention means of onsite weatherproofing of gaps entails
scaffolding to reach work height, manually pushing in a flexible foam backing rod and then setting up scaffolding to
reach work
manually height, amanually
applying pushinggenerally
caulking/sealant in a flexible foamthen
silicone backing rod and
manually then to
tooling manually
achieve applying
the correcta
caulking/sealant generally silicone then manually tooling to achieve the correct
profile are adopted for prefabricated panelised and modular constructions in filling the gaps profile are adopted for
prefabricated panelised and modular constructions in filling the gaps between
between each wall or module [5]. This labour intensive primitive means of weatherproofing does not each wall or module [5].
This
alignlabour intensive
directly with the primitive
values ofmeans of weatherproofing
efficiency in prefabrication. does Quicker
not alignmeans
directlyofwith the values of
weatherproofing
efficiency in prefabrication. Quicker means of weatherproofing specifically designed
specifically designed for prefabricated panelised and modular type of construction and assembly is for prefabricated
panelised
in order. and modular
Design and type of construction
development of new andsolutions
assemblyfor is inpurpose
order. Design
sake is and development
only done when of
new solutionsorfor
conventional purpose
other sakecannot
solutions is onlysuffice.
done when
To fuelconventional or other solutions
design and development cannot suffice.
an understanding of
To fuel design and development an understanding of the design principles and
the design principles and fundamental theory is required along with a purpose specific set of design fundamental theory
is required
criteria along
which are with a purpose of
encompassing specific set of
the entire designmanufacturing
design, criteria which and are encompassing
assembly processes of the[6].
entire
To
design, manufacturing and assembly processes [6]. To evaluate this need
evaluate this need for design and development the flow chart in Figure 1 below is used and for design and development
the flow chart in
demonstrated in Figure 1 belowsections.
the following is used and demonstrated in the following sections.

Figure 1. Evaluating the need for design and development of new solutions.

2. Conventional Solution
Current practice
practicewhich
whichis is considerably
considerably widespread
widespread forfiling
for the the filing and sealing
and sealing of jointsof joints is
is grouting
grouting
and another andis another
the backeris the
rod backer rod and caulking/sealant
and caulking/sealant solution.
solution. Grouting Grouting
involves usinginvolves using a
a cementitious
cementitious material to fully seal and join the gap between two other cementitious
material to fully seal and join the gap between two other cementitious materials [7]. This wet materials [7].
This
tradewet trade easier
is much is much easier
done ondone on horizontal
horizontal joins
joins such assuch
thoseasinthose
bridgein bridge
decks decks [8] where
[8] where the gapsthe
gaps are manually
are manually filled onsite
filled onsite with awith a viscous
viscous cementitious
cementitious grout.
grout. In this In this process
process pre-moistening
pre-moistening the surfacethe
surface is recommended
is recommended to enhanceto enhance the performance
the performance of the
of the bond [9].bond [9]. The limiting
The limiting factors offactors of grouting
grouting is that it
is that it is constrained
constrained to joiningtobetween
joining between cementitious
cementitious surfaces,surfaces, betterfor
better suited suited for horizontal
horizontal and not and not
vertical
vertical gaps and joins and requires onsite manual labor all of which do not lend to
gaps and joins and requires onsite manual labor all of which do not lend to an efficient and versatile an efficient and
prefabrication sealing solution for vertical joins in prefabricated walls and or modules. As for the
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

versatile prefabrication sealing solution for vertical joins in prefabricated walls and or modules. As
for the backer rod and caulking/sealant solution the procedure begins with a worker who is at the
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 3 of 22
working height for the entire height of a wall which makes it considerably unpractical and
dangerous for taller buildings. The worker must clean both surfaces properly then manually push in
a backer
flexiblerod foamandbacking rod to a specified
caulking/sealant solution the distance
procedurealong the entire
begins with alength
workerofwho the iswall and
at the then
working
manually
height for apply a caulking/sealant
the entire height of a wall (generally
which makessilicone) it along this length
considerably then manually
unpractical tool it tofor
and dangerous
achieve the correctThe
taller buildings. hourglass
workerprofile as shown
must clean in the foreground
both surfaces properly thenon Figure
manually 2. push in a flexible foam
Since rod
backing there to are so manydistance
a specified labour along
intensive steps workers
the entire length ofoften takeand
the wall shortcuts to whichapply
then manually have a
consequences
caulking/sealant later in the buildings
(generally life. For
silicone) along example pushing
this length thenthe backing tool
manually rod too
it tofar in maythe
achieve result in
correct
adhesion
hourglass failure
profileasas the
shownlayer of foreground
in the caulking/sealing must2. not be too thick as not to be able to
on Figure
accommodate
Since there for are
the sotolerances
many labour required when steps
intensive the building/panels
workers often take moveshortcuts
be it due to to thermal
which have
expansion or for dynamic reasons [10]. The adhesion fails and separation
consequences later in the buildings life. For example pushing the backing rod too far in may result in occurs as the
caulking/sealant
adhesion failureisasnot the in theofnarrow
layer hourglass must
caulking/sealing figurenotandbe hence theasincrease
too thick not to bepulling
able to force acting
accommodate
against
for thethe adhesion.required when the building/panels move be it due to thermal expansion or for
tolerances
If the reasons
dynamic rod is [10].
too Thecloseadhesion
to the fails
surfaceand there may occurs
separation not beas enough cohesive force
the caulking/sealant in in
is not the
the
caulking/sealant
narrow hourglass forfigure
such aandnarrow
hencesection. Additionally
the increase if theacting
pulling force wallsagainst
are notthe cleaned
adhesion.properly and
free from
If thedust
rodprior
is tootoclose
installation of the there
to the surface backer mayrodnotandbecaulking/sealant
enough cohesivethen forceseparation will occur.
in the caulking/sealant
Lastly if the
for such width of
a narrow the gapAdditionally
section. varies that is if the tolerances
walls are not arecleaned
not all the same and
properly thenfree
an appropriately
from dust prior
sized backing rod
to installation andbacker
of the appropriately
rod and profiled section must
caulking/sealant then be done otherwise
separation will occur. splitting
Lastlywillif theoccur.
width
Using sealant as the primary means of weatherproofing without further protection
of the gap varies that is the tolerances are not all the same then an appropriately sized backing rod such as a drained
joint
andisappropriately
fundamentally not asection
profiled rigorous mustsolution
be done especially
otherwiseconsidering
splitting will that the Using
occur. joint can onlyasbe
sealant the
inspected from the
primary means outside. The timewithout
of weatherproofing where further
the useprotection
of sealantsuch thatascan be best joint
a drained relied upon in this
is fundamentally
manner is when solution
not a rigorous used between glass considering
especially to glass joint’s thatwhere bothcan
the joint sides
onlycanbebeinspected
easily inspected
from theand the
outside.
design
The timerequires
where openness
the use of[11].
sealant that can be best relied upon in this manner is when used between
Poor
glass workmanship
to glass joint’s where along
bothwith
sidessealant
can be distress are amongst
easily inspected and thethedesign
leading reasons
requires for why
openness a
[11].
buildingPoor will leak [11]. Therefore
workmanship along with there is a need
sealant distressto develop
are amongst newtheseals which
leading do notfor
reasons rely
why asaheavily
building
onwill
workmanship and are able
leak [11]. Therefore theretois be completed
a need to developoffsiteneware seals
required
which fordo prefabricated
not rely as heavilyforms ofon
construction.
workmanship and are able to be completed offsite are required for prefabricated forms of construction.

Figure
Figure Backer
2. 2.Backer rodand
rod andcaulking/sealant,
caulking/sealant, thethe conventional
conventional wayway
to to
fillfill gaps
gaps (1).
(1). Correct
Correct depth
depth andand
tooled profile, (2). Excessive depth of sealant results in adhesive failure over time and (3). Insufficient
tooled profile, (2). Excessive depth of sealant results in adhesive failure over time and (3). Insufficient
depth
depth results
results inin cracking
cracking over
over time
time [5].
[5].

3. 3.
Other Solutions
Other Solutions
There
There maymay bebe
non-conventional
non-conventional means
means which
which could
couldbebe
adapted (or(or
adapted atat
least learnt
least from)
learnt from)toto
solve
solve
the limiting
the limiting requirements
requirementsofofsealing
sealingfully
fullyfinished
finishedprefabricated
prefabricatedwalls
wallsand
andmodules.
modules.
TheThefirst
firstofofwhich
whichwill
willbebediscussed
discussedisisShopfront
Shopfrontframing
framingsystems.
systems.These
Thesesystems
systems are used
are usedinin
podium
podium level/ground
level/ground level façade,
level they
façade, may
they be external
may andand
be external exposed to weather
exposed elements
to weather suchsuch
elements as inas
in a standalone retail outlet or internal such as in shopping centre. There are many varieties of such
systems which vary the frame depth, glazing position (such as flush to outside or centre of frame)
Buildings 8, 1178, x FOR PEER REVIEW
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Buildings 4 of 23 4 of 22

a standalone retail outlet or internal such as in shopping centre. There are many varieties of such
which integrates
systems whichwith
varyfixed, sliding,
the frame depth,bi-fold,
glazing automatic doors
position (such asandflushlouvres.
to outsideThey often of
or centre have simpler
frame)
design then curtain wall systems as their as less design requirements for a single
which integrates with fixed, sliding, bi-fold, automatic doors and louvres. They often have simpler level as compared to
multi-level construction.
design then curtain wall systems as their as less design requirements for a single level as compared
to
Themulti-level construction.
next solution discussed is the curtain wall system. Curtain walls differ to shopfront framing
systems inThe next
that solution
curtain discussed
walls can spanis the curtain
many floorwall system.
levels and Curtain
take into walls
many differ
moreto shopfront framing
design considerations
systems in that curtain walls can span many floor levels and take into many more design
such as thermal expansion, building swap, water drainage, thermal performance and lighting.
considerations such as thermal expansion, building swap, water drainage, thermal performance and
“Curtain” in the sense of curtain wall refers to the fact that it is hanging off the building, it does
lighting. “Curtain” in the sense of curtain wall refers to the fact that it is hanging off the building, it
not carry any vertical load except its own and transfers the wind load to the structure. Its fundamental
does not carry any vertical load except its own and transfers the wind load to the structure. Its
nature of being affixed
fundamental nature ofexternally to the
being affixed principle
externally building
to the structure
principle buildingholds a strong
structure holds advantage
a strong in
that it does not rely critically on the structural tolerances for it to be installed
advantage in that it does not rely critically on the structural tolerances for it to be installed successfully and work
to itssuccessfully
designed performance
and work to criteria.
its designedFor performance
this reason curtain
criteria. walling
For this is a popular
reason curtainmethod
walling of
is façade
a
popular method
construction of façade
and is often usedconstruction
in commercial and andis often used in high-rise
residential commercial and residential high-rise
towers.
towers.
Curtain walls are made and assembled primarily in two ways, stick built curtain walls and
Curtain walls.
unitized curtain walls are made and assembled primarily in two ways, stick built curtain walls and
unitized curtain walls.
With stick built systems as shown in Figure 3, the vertical (mullion) and horizontal (transom)
With stick built systems as shown in Figure 3, the vertical (mullion) and horizontal (transom)
members are installed on site often with elements spanning multiple floors and widths, the glazing is
members are installed on site often with elements spanning multiple floors and widths, the glazing
then is
installed on site afterwards. It requires installation by highly skilled workers however the onsite
then installed on site afterwards. It requires installation by highly skilled workers however the
workonsite
allows for greater
work allows fortolerances, this type
greater tolerances, thisof curtain
type wallwall
of curtain is generally
is generallyused
usedon onsmall
small scale or low
scale or
rise buildings.
low rise buildings.

Figure 3. Stick Built Curtain Wall [12].

Figure 3. Stick Built Curtain Wall [12].
Unitized curtain walls come in panelised form with the glazing and framing complete, thus they
Unitized
are curtain
sometimes wallstocome
referred in panelised
as modular system form
or panelwith the glazing
system, an exampleand is
framing
shown in complete,
Figure 4.thus
The they
are sometimes referred to offsite
panels are prefabricated as modular
and liftedsystem or and
into place panel system,
secured and an example
weather proofedis shown in thus
onsite and Figure 4.
reduce the
The panels are installation
prefabricatedtimeoffsite
onsite along with the
and lifted into number
place of andlabourer’s
securedonsite, this system
and weather is mostonsite
proofed used and
in mid to high rise structures due to economy of scale. The curtain wall system
thus reduce the installation time onsite along with the number of labourer’s onsite, this system can be ‘unitized’ in that is
large sections can be made in a manufacturing facility and stacked onto
most used in mid to high rise structures due to economy of scale. The curtain wall system can bea truck and carefully brought
to site and craned into positon. This means that there is less work to be done on site which is beneficial
‘unitized’ in that large sections can be made in a manufacturing facility and stacked onto a truck and
to rapid multi story constructions however between each unitized section a water and weather proof
carefully brought to site and craned into positon. This means that there is less work to be done on
seal is needed to be made. This is usually done with a gasket, foam backing road and sealant or with its
site which is beneficial
own pressure to rapid
plate and cover multi
[5]. Thestory
mostconstructions
convenient of these however
is thatbetween
gasket aseach unitized
it does section a
not require
waterinstallation
and weather to beproof seal is
done from theneeded
externalto bewhich
face made.isThis is usuallyfor
key advantage done with a construction.
multi-level gasket, foam backing
road andThe sealant
gaskets used in these kind of facades are often referred to as ‘pressure plates’ orof‘pressure
or with its own pressure plate and cover [5]. The most convenient these is that
gasket as it
bars’ anddoes
are not require
fastened installation
to the mullion intoorder
be done from
to hold thethe external
glass face which
and elsewhere is keywaterproof
to create advantage for
joints. There
multi-level are some additional positive carry on effects such as acoustic isolation and thermal
construction.
breaks. The region
The gaskets usedininwhich
thesethekindhorizontal
of facadesandare vertical
oftensections
referredmeetto needs special consideration
as ‘pressure in
plates’ or ‘pressure
bars’ and are fastened to the mullion in order to hold the glass and elsewhere to create waterproof
joints. There are some additional positive carry on effects such as acoustic isolation and thermal breaks.
The region in which the horizontal and vertical sections meet needs special consideration in terms of
design especially given that with age and exposure to ultraviolet radiation shrinkage will occur [13].
 Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23

Buildings terms
2018, 8,of117
design especially given that with age and exposure to ultraviolet radiation shrinkage will 5 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23
occur [13].

terms of design especially given that with age and exposure to ultraviolet radiation shrinkage will
occur [13].

Figure 4. Unitized Curtain Wall [12].

Figure 4. Unitized Curtain Wall [12].
The method of affixing and geometry of section may vary however Figure 5a displays the main
Figure 4. Unitized Curtain Wall [12].
Thecomponents
method oftoaffixing and geometry
most systems. The of section
mullion may vary
and transoms however
are the Figure
vertical and 5a displays
horizontal framingthe main
elements
componentsThe respectively,
tomethod
most systems.they house the glazing, which is sandwiched with a pressure plate contains a
of affixing The mullionofand
and geometry transoms
section may varyare the vertical
however Figure 5aand horizontal
displays the mainframing
rubber strip and gasket and compressed by screwing from the outside of the building through the
elements respectively,
components theysystems.
to most house The
the glazing,
mullion and which is sandwiched
transoms withand
are the vertical a pressure
horizontalplate contains a
framing
centre of the pressure plate and into the mullion and transom, then finally a cover or cap is clipped on
rubber strip and
elements gasket and
respectively, theycompressed by
house the glazing, screwing
which is from the
sandwiched outside of the
with a pressure building through
plate contains
the outside of the pressure plates to hide the screws and give the system a finished clean look. A
a the
rubber
centre of strip
the pressureand gasket and compressed by screwing from the outside of the building through the
detailed schematicplate and into
of a variant the
of this mullion
setup is shownand in transom,
Figure 5b. then finally a cover or cap is clipped
centre of the pressure plate and into the mullion and transom, then finally a cover or cap is clipped on
on the outside of the pressure plates to hide the screws and give the system a finished clean look.
the outside of the pressure plates to hide the screws and give the system a finished clean look. A
A detailed schematic of a variant of this setup is shown in Figure 5b.
detailed schematic of a variant of this setup is shown in Figure 5b.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Unitized and Curtain-wall assemblies: (a) General Curtain Wall build up [14]; (b)
Curtain-wall assembly in(a)
a modular construction system [15]. (b)
Figure 5. Unitized and Curtain-wall assemblies: (a) General Curtain Wall build up [14]; (b)
Other than and
seeing what is currently practiced in industry and Wall
identifying a need which would
Figure 5. Unitized Curtain-wall assemblies: (a) General Curtain build up [14]; (b) Curtain-wall
then Curtain-wall
assemblybeinplanned assembly in a modular construction system [15].
a modularout and a project system
construction conducted,
[15].one which has a major component of invention and
product development a thorough review of patents office may be been carried out first to ensure this is
Other than seeing what is currently practiced in industry and identifying a need which would
indeed new work, that there isn’t anything else out there which can be used for this application and
then
Other be planned
seeingout and is
a project conducted, one in
which has a major component ofa invention and would
that than
the developed what
system currently
doesn’t practiced
infringe on prior industry
work. andwith
Starting identifying
the US patentneed which
office and
product development a thorough review of patents office may be been carried out first to ensure this is
then bebranching
planned offoutfrom
and there
a project conducted,
searching one which has a major
for waterproof/weatherproof seals component of invention
specifically designed for and
indeed new work, that there isn’t anything else out there which can be used for this application and
prefabrication
productthat
development construction
a thorough hasreview
yielded ofnopatents
results and thusmay
office no potential
be been conflicts.
carried In
outthis stage,
first to the
ensure this
the developed system doesn’t infringe on prior work. Starting with the US patent office and
industry partner also verified this and the project advancement in this area was established. In this
is indeed new work,
branching that there
off from theresearching
isn’t anything else out there which
for waterproof/weatherproof canspecifically
seals be used for this application
designed for
and thatprefabrication
the developed systemhas
construction doesn’t
yieldedinfringe
no resultson prior
and thus work. Starting
no potential withInthe
conflicts. thisUS patent
stage, the office
industry partner
and branching off from alsothere
verified this and the
searching forproject advancement in this area was
waterproof/weatherproof sealsestablished.
specificallyIn this
designed
for prefabrication construction has yielded no results and thus no potential conflicts. In this stage,
the industry partner also verified this and the project advancement in this area was established.
In this early stage understanding of concepts and deeper thought on the issue was provided by this
thorough patent review of areas next closest, the more notable finds are outlined in Table 1: Findings
of Patent Review. These provided a means to generate an idea on how others have tackled relatable
problems in the past however it was found that since the requirements are different so to the design
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 6 of 22

of the seal and so the only notable finding was the assurance that the design developed did not
overlap with any existing patents. This is important as one of the expected outcomes of this project
is the commercialization of the seal solution developed for the waterproofing between panels in
prefabricated construction.

Table 1. Findings of Patent Review.

Title Citation Summary/Finding

Expansion joint method and system [16] Sealing system for airplanes it too much expensive
Connecting system [17] Too difficult to attach to wall panels and installation too slow
Expansion joint [18] Access from external face needed
Pavement expansion joint and joint seal [19] Excessive force along with access from external needed
Sealing strip [20] Access from external face needed
Panel for curtain walls and method of jointing
[21] Fitting a panel onto a gasket from the outside of the building
corners of the same
Simplified low insertion force sealing device
[22] Access from external face needed
capable of self-restraint and joint deflection
Good for handling tolerance but access from external
Sealing member [23]
face needed
Ring seal [24] Too difficult to install and position
Interesting concepts and flexible design but time heavy and
Method of forming weathertight seal [25]
access from external face needed
Spring loaded compliant seal for high
[26] Too costly and not appropriate design for this application
temperature use
A very similar field of use however access from exterior
Joiner for vertical joint for external wall members [27]
face needed
Curtain-wall assembly [15] Too much manual work and installation is time heavy
Flexible design but needs access from external face and
Expansion joint gasket [28]
installation is time heavy
Joint sealing device [29] Excessive force along with access from external needed

A strong effort has been made to pair the prominent developments filed to patents offices with
literature published after the time of filing to get an academic research perspective on the area,
particularly on what is of interest to academia at large. In this way it was possible to verify that this
was indeed a practicable and well justified project to undertake for industry—university collaboration
along with how much emphasis shall be placed on either patents or literature. Table A1 shows the
prominent literature in this area, it was easily concluded that literature did not match the patent
submission and that the content and focus of them are fundamentally different. In short, with the
patents focus was in the design whereas with the literature focus was on a very narrow highly specific
field mainly to do with material behaviour. It was found that there is a gap in literature to address
the design of seals, the development of them let alone specific solutions for prefabricated purposes.
Table A1 below displays the most closest pieces of literature on this topic however it was found that the
knowledge gap was clearly evident and that for the design and development of seals for timber based
prefabricated panelised construction attention had to be focused from the basic principles behind the
theory of weatherproofing and work on from there.

4. Fundamental Theory
In designing new waterproof seals looking at previous and conventional solutions only enables
incremental changes and improvements. Since the very nature of prefabrication construction is
fundamentally different than that of conventional means it begs us to look into the fundamental
theory. In understanding the fundamental theory vast comprehensive lists of possible designs such as
that in can be simplified to a much more tangible amount of working principles.
Waterproofing can be accomplished in many forms but can be categorized as shown in Figure 6
they work on at least one of three fundamental levels:
Buildings 8, 1178, x FOR PEER REVIEW
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Buildings 7 of 237 of 22

Waterproofing can be accomplished in many forms but can be categorized as shown in Figure 6
• Structural integral
they work on at leastprotection
one of three fundamental levels:
• Barrier
•
protection
Structural integral protection
• Drained
• protection
Barrier protection
• Drained protection

Figure
Figure 6. Waterproofing—BS.8102:2009
6. Waterproofing—BS.8102:2009 ‘Protectionofofbelow
‘Protection belowground
groundstructures
structures against
against water
waterfrom
from the
the ground’
ground’ [3]. [3].

The first fundamental method of waterproofing is that of Structural integral protection. The
The
basisfirst fundamental
of structural method
integral of waterproofing
protection is that
is such that if the of Structural
structure integral
has no gaps protection.
of voids The basis
water cannot
of structural integral
seep through. protection
In façades is suchthe
or roofing that if the structure
simplest has no gaps
form of structural of voids
integral waterwould
protection cannotbe seep
through. In façades
overlapping or roofing
of panels, the simplest
this aims to createform of structural
a continuous integral
structure whichprotection would
prevents water be overlapping
ingress.
of panels,Thethisnext
aimsfundamental method of waterproofing
to create a continuous structure which is barrier protection.
prevents water Barrier
ingress.protection is the
application of an impermeable material to fill a void/gap or
The next fundamental method of waterproofing is barrier protection. Barrier cover an exposed or at protection
risk area. Inis the
building construction a typical example of this would be membranes commonly known as building
application of an impermeable material to fill a void/gap or cover an exposed or at risk area. In building
wraps. Another example of barrier protection is the conventional foam backing road and
construction a typical example of this would be membranes commonly known as building wraps.
caulking/sealant method for filling gaps between panels such as concrete precast panels.
Another example of barrier protection is the conventional foam backing road and caulking/sealant
The final fundamental method of waterproofing is via drained protection. Drained protection
method for fillingagaps
encompasses cavitybetween panels such
for any ingressed water astoconcrete
channel precast panels.
its way down and out without it making its
The final fundamental method of waterproofing is via drained protection.
way inside a building, simply put water takes the path of least resistance and drained Drained protection
protection is
encompasses
giving it this path. This form of waterproofing can be found in many double skin/walled structures its
a cavity for any ingressed water to channel its way down and out without it making
as it ensures
way inside that in worse
a building, simply case
putscenarios that water
water takes will not
the path buildresistance
of least up betweenandskins/walls.
drained protection is
giving it this path. This form of waterproofing can be found in many double skin/walled structures as
5. Design Principles
it ensures that in worse case scenarios that water will not build up between skins/walls.
5.1. Moisture Flow
5. Design Principles
Reducing the flow of moisture is a key component in sealing joints and thus understanding the
5.1. Moisture Flow the types is important to design. There are four primary methods for moisture to flow
theory behind
through a building, they are: Bulk moisture, capillary action, air transported moisture and vapour
Reducing the flow of moisture is a key component in sealing joints and thus understanding
diffusion.
the theoryBulkbehind the types is important to design. There are four primary methods for moisture
moisture transfer is the first major form of moisture flow. Bulk moisture refers to the flow of
to flow through
liquid, a building,
this has the greatestthey are: Bulk
immediate moisture,
capacity to causecapillary
damage andaction,
failureair
oftransported
performance. moisture
Generally and
vapour diffusion.
three factors must all be in play in order for bulk moisture transport to occur, they are: (1) Source of
Bulk
water,moisture transfer is theinfirst
(2) a void/penetration the major form
buildings of moisture
envelop and (3)flow. Bulkforce
an acting moisture
such as refers to the
gravity flow of
or air
pressure
liquid, inthe
this has which to drive
greatest the movement
immediate of moisture.
capacity to cause In damage
general practice the key
and failure of isperformance.
to seal the building
Generally
threeenvelop
factors and
mustto direct
all be the waterin
in play away from
order forthe building
bulk [30]. In
moisture designingto
transport ofoccur,
a sealing solution
they are: (1)it would
Source of
require addressing at least one of the formally mentioned requirements for bulk moisture
water, (2) a void/penetration in the buildings envelop and (3) an acting force such as gravity or air to occur.
The next form of moisture flow is that of capillary action. Water has the ability to travel against
pressure in which to drive the movement of moisture. In general practice the key is to seal the building
gravity in in porous materials or in small gaps between non porous materials through surface
envelop and to direct the water away from the building [30]. In designing of a sealing solution it would
tension effects, this behaviour is called capillary action. Methods in which to counter the effects of
require addressing at least one of the formally mentioned requirements for bulk moisture to occur.
capillary action are: incorporating a plastic or other impermeable material to form a capillary break
The
or tonext form
add an air of moisture
space or voidflow islarge
that is that enough
of capillary action. action
for capillary Waternothastothe ability
occur [30]. to travel against
In designing
gravity in in porous materials or in small gaps between non porous materials through surface tension
effects, this behaviour is called capillary action. Methods in which to counter the effects of capillary
action are: incorporating a plastic or other impermeable material to form a capillary break or to add an
air space or void that is large enough for capillary action not to occur [30]. In designing and developing
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 8 of 22

a sealing solution
Buildings one
2018, 8, should
x FOR consider capillary action and note that in testing it may take some
PEER REVIEW time
8 of 23
to occur as the process can be slow.
and developing
Another a sealingofsolution
form of transfer moisture oneisshould
that viaconsider
the meanscapillary
of airaction and note
movement. that
The in testing itof a
importance
may take some time to occur as the process can be slow.
building envelop to be airtight is important not just for energy efficiency but also for waterproofing as
Another form of transfer of moisture is that via the means of air movement. The importance of a
small amounts of water often known as humidity, the higher the humidity the more moisture there is
building envelop to be airtight is important not just for energy efficiency but also for waterproofing
in the air, thus the
as small infiltration
amounts of water ofoften
air leads
known to as
thehumidity,
infiltrationthe of water.
higher theThis occurs
humidity thethrough
more moisturea process
called condensation
there is in the air, thus the infiltration of air leads to the infiltration of water. This occurs throughupon
which is the name of the process that turns humid air into droplets of water a
contactprocess
with a called
cold surface. Therefore
condensation whichthe ratename
is the of condensation
of the processisthatdependent on how
turns humid humid
air into dropletsthe air
of is,
how cold theupon
water contacting
contactsurface
with a is with
cold respect
surface. to the humid
Therefore the rateair,
of the area of exposure
condensation and the
is dependent time of
on how
exposurehumid
[30]. the airare
Seals is, ideally
how cold the of
made contacting
an insulatingsurface is withand
material respect to thetohumid
can work prevent air,airthetransported
area of
moistureexposure
by keepingand the moisttimeairof on
exposure [30]. Seals
the external arebuilding
of the ideally made of an insulating material and can
envelop.
work to prevent air transported moisture by keeping moist air on the external of the building
The final form of moisture transfer is that of vapour diffusion. Vapour pressure differential and the
envelop.
permeability of a material leads to small amounts of moisture to pass through a building envelop even
The final form of moisture transfer is that of vapour diffusion. Vapour pressure differential and
if therethe
arepermeability
no holes orofleaks. To slow this process and thus to help prevent this transfer of moisture
a material leads to small amounts of moisture to pass through a building envelop
to the building
even if there are no holes ordiffusion
elements, vapour leaks. To retarders are installed
slow this process and thuswithin theprevent
to help walls. In thiscolder
transfer climate
of
where heating
moistureoftothe thebuilding occurs, pressure
building elements, differential
vapour diffusion drivesare
retarders vapour
installedfrom the the
within inside to In
walls. thecolder
outside
and thus vapour
climate retarders
where heatingare often
of the installed
building on the
occurs, interior
pressure face walls.
differential drivesThe opposite
vapour fromis true
the insidefor to
warmer
the
climatesoutside
whenand thus vapour
cooling retarders are
of the building oftenthe
occurs, installed
pressureon the interior face
differential walls.vapour
drives The opposite
fromisthe true for
outside
warmer climates when cooling of the building occurs, the pressure differential
to the inside and thus vapour retarders are often installed on the exterior face walls [30]. In designing drives vapour from the
outside toathe
and developing seal inside and thus vapour
it is important to note retarders are often installed
the geographical locationoninthe exterior
which the face
seal walls
will be [30].
usedIn in
designing and developing a seal it is important to note the geographical location in which the seal will
along with the permeability of the material in question to provide the best sealing solution.
be used in along with the permeability of the material in question to provide the best sealing solution.
5.2. Joint Design
5.2. Joint Design
Design principles for waterproof seals is fundamentally linked with joint design simply for the
Design principles for waterproof seals is fundamentally linked with joint design simply for the
fact thatfact
common issuesissues
that common of filling, connecting
of filling, or or
connecting eliminating
eliminatinggaps
gapsareare water proofingmeasures.
water proofing measures.
A complete and comprehensive collection of joint design is found in the ‘Façade Construction
A complete and comprehensive collection of joint design is found in the ‘Façade Construction
Manual’ by Herzog [31]. Figure 7 displays the collection of possible joint design, such material
Manual’ by Herzog [31]. Figure 7 displays the collection of possible joint design, such material offers offers
great inspiration for design
great inspiration and and
for design development
development of waterproof
of waterproofseals.
seals.

Figure
Figure 7. Schematic
7. Schematic of Joint
of Joint sealingprinciples
sealing principles [32].
[32].
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 9 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23

It
It may
may be be interesting
interesting to to note
note that
that Figure
Figure 77 has
has aa vastly
vastly comprehensive
comprehensive assortment
assortment of of sealing
sealing
principles
principles yet on first appearance conventional solution is not present however on closer analysis the
yet on first appearance conventional solution is not present however on closer analysis the
conventional solution of foam backing rod and caulking makes perfect use of two
conventional solution of foam backing rod and caulking makes perfect use of two principles outlines principles outlines
in
in the
the ‘Façade
‘Façade Construction
Construction Manuals’
Manuals’ overview
overview of of sealing
sealing joints.
joints. These
These are
are shown
shown enlarged
enlarged below
below in in
Figure 8, the sealing compound which is the caulking and porous gasket which
Figure 8, the sealing compound which is the caulking and porous gasket which is the foam backing is the foam backing
rod
rod of conventional
of the the conventional solution
solution respectively.
respectively. The analysis
The analysis of this
of this has has understanding
drawn drawn understanding and
and learning
learning which will be applied in the conceptualisation stages of the design and
which will be applied in the conceptualisation stages of the design and development of a new seal, development of a
new seal, specifically it has shown that one does not need to limit their design to make
specifically it has shown that one does not need to limit their design to make use of just one joint use of just one
joint
sealingsealing principle,
principle, in factinadvanced
fact advanced solutions
solutions may work mayonwork on the principles
the principles of two orof twoprinciples
more or more
principles
in tandem. in tandem.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Conventional
Conventional solution
solution components:
components: (a)
(a) Sealing
Sealing compound
compound (caulking);
(caulking); (b)
(b) Porous
Porous gasket
gasket
(foam
(foam backing
backing rod)
rod) [32].
[32].

6.
6. Design
Design Objective
Objective
In
In designing
designing aa new new solution
solution itit isis recommended
recommended that that even
even at
at the
the conceptual
conceptual stage
stage thought
thought should
should
be
be placed upon how the final outcome must perform. Defining all the certaintiesrestraints
placed upon how the final outcome must perform. Defining all the certainties and early
and restraints
on narrows
early the scope
on narrows the and
scope helps
andprovide a boundary
helps provide in whichintowhich
a boundary build to
a solution. One suchOne
build a solution. certainty
such
that can be made to practically all projects is that the new design must meet
certainty that can be made to practically all projects is that the new design must meet the relevant codes the relevant codes and
standards. For Australia the relevant standard is called ‘AS4284: Testing
and standards. For Australia the relevant standard is called ‘AS4284: Testing of Building Facades’, of Building Facades’, it
primarily
it primarily compromises
compromises ofof three
threetests onon
tests a representative
a representative sample
sample section
sectionofof
a façade.
a façade.
The first of which is the Air Infiltration test. This involves
The first of which is the Air Infiltration test. This involves testing of the façade testing of the with
façade with
both both
negative
negative
and positive andpressure
positiveofpressure
−150 Paof and−150+150PaPaand +150 Pa the
respectfully, respectfully,
air leakagethe airforleakage
rate rate for all
all air-conditioned
air-conditioned buildings should not 2 exceed 1.6 L/m2 2·s and 8.0 L/m2·s for all non-air-conditioned
buildings should not exceed 1.6 L/m ·s and 8.0 L/m ·s for all non-air-conditioned building [31].
building
The [31].
second test is the static pressure test where a static pressure of magnitude 300 Pa and 0.3 Ws
(where Ws is the test
The second is the wind
designed static pressure)
pressure test where athe
whichever static pressure
greater ofused
will be magnitude
with water300 Pa and 0.3
sprayed to
Ws (where Ws is the designed wind pressure)
2 whichever the greater
the external face of not less than 0.05 L/m ·s. The first 5 min will be water sprayed with zero applied will be used with water
sprayed
pressure,tothen the 15
external
min offace water of sprayed
not less withthan the0.05applied
L/m2·s. pressure
The firstthen
5 min will 5bemin
a final water sprayed
of water with
sprayed
zero
withoutapplied pressure,
the applied then 15during
pressure, min ofthis water
time sprayed with the
observations areapplied
to be madepressure
from then a final 5face
the internal minand
of
water sprayed without the applied
any water ingress and damage is to be recorded. pressure, during this time observations are to be made from the
internal
Theface
finaland
testany water
is the ingress
dynamic and damage
pressure is toisbetorecorded.
test which be performed after successful completion of
the static pressure test. In each stage the pressure cyclesisbetween
The final test is the dynamic pressure test which to be performed after successful
the designated pressures as completion
described
of the static pressure test. In each stage
in Table 2, the full details are outline in the standard. the pressure cycles between the designated pressures as
described in Table 2, the full details are outline in the standard.
Table 2. Cyclic pressure test pressures [31].
Table 2. Cyclic pressure test pressures [31].
Stage Pressure Value
Stage Pressure Value
11 0.15 ××Ws
0.15 Wsto 0.3 ××Ws
to0.3 Ws
2 0.2 × Ws to 0.4 ×Ws
3
2 0.2 × Ws to 0.4 ×Ws
0.3 × Ws to 0.6 × Ws
3 0.3 × Ws to 0.6 × Ws

7. Lessons Learnt from Past Solutions

7. Lessons Learnt from Past Solutions
In designing new waterproof seals much can be learnt from the challenges encountered in creating
In designing new waterproof seals much can be learnt from the challenges encountered in
past solutions. Tackling the weak areas that is the points and methods of failure right at the early
creating past solutions. Tackling the weak areas that is the points and methods of failure right at the
design stage many problems can be avoided down the track.
early design stage many problems can be avoided down the track.
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 10 of 22

Experts with considerable experience in facades note that there are a number of weak areas
and conditions which should be kept in mind when designing a solution [32]. Some of the most
prominent points of interests to consider have found to be as follows: The joints between the walls and
floor, deformation of the building because of applied and dead loads, manufacturing, production and
assembly related tolerances, dynamic, horizontal floor displacements caused by wind pressure/suction
or seismic actions, changes of length due to differing materials and temperatures and finally water
penetration through wind driven rain causing pressure on the surface where surface tension and
capillary effected water seeps through narrow joints [33]. These areas will be particularly considered
in the design and development of new sealing solutions.

8. Define Development Need, Objective, Scope and Industry Motivation

In developing a new product a clear and verified need is required to justify one such development.
The need in the case of mid-rise prefabricated construction lies in the fact that conventional means
of water proofing are being used in a method of construction which nature is profoundly different.
Quicker and less labour intensive solutions which ideally do not require the use of scaffolding for
installation or even access from the external face at all would greatly benefit this form of construction.
This need has been verified with industry partners who are working in collaboration on this project.
Modern prefabricated construction systems do not require scaffolding for assembly of the structure
and the erection time is so fast that the time spent waterproofing on site is similar to the time spent to
install the entire structure on site.
Systems of weatherproofing which allow the seals to be constructed in a factory instead of onsite
generally perform better due to the increased quality control, surface preparation and cleaning and
closer supervisions of the sealing process [33].
Clear and measurable objectives are required not just for evaluation purposes but also aid in
creating a solution driven design.
The objectives placed for this design and development are as follows:

• To be installed without the use of scaffolding, cranes, overhanging harnesses. Simply put the seal
is not installed from the external face by any means
• To consume less time than the convention means of foam backing rod and caulking
• To be less dependent on skilled labour and human workmanship then conventional means
• To be made versatile so as to work with many different structural forms of façades
• To meet AS4284: Testing of Building Facades requirements

The overall goal of this research is to deliver a verified sealing solution specific for waterproofing
between prefabricated panels/modules. This solution is to be surpass the conventional means in a
number of ways such as: Ease of assembly/installation, required access for installation, time and
labour required. The focus of this project is to develop such a solution, understand, model and verify
its performance in waterproofing in conditions as outlined in AS4284 (2006), specifically against the
ingress of water under static pressure conditions and the ingress of water under dynamic pressure
conditions. Thus the scope of this project is limited to the development of a novel seal which is better
suited for panelised prefabricated construction which meets the aforementioned performance aspects
of waterproofing.
Mid-Rise Prefabricated timber construction has had a major increase of support with the
Australian new deem to satisfy (DTS) regulations allowing for timber based structures as outlined in
the National Construction Code (NCC) to go up to 25 m through a DTS approach. This has caused
timber based prefabrication companies to look at higher levels of construction and in this a need for
more appropriate sealing solutions.
The developer of any project above 2 or 3 levels constructed in complete panelised or modular
form with the whole façade already affixed has a great opportunity to save on cost and time if a new
method of weatherproofing is developed. This is because with these complete prefabricated systems
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 11 of 22

where the façade is also preassembled and fixed to the structure prior to lifting, the need for scaffolding
and hence external access can be removed entirely if they have a novel connection system which can
be operated from within the buildings floor area and if waterproofing the façade and joints between
panel to panel or module to module at the exterior face can be done in an unconventional manner
from within the building envelope.
The former point (connections) has been developed by industry members in their own manner
which have resulted in a number of tightly held patents and papers such as ‘Connections for
steel–timber hybrid prefabricated buildings. Part II: Innovative modular structures’ [34], the latter
point (weatherproofing) is still widely done by conventional means and is not yet outlined or studied
in literature.
Thus the primary requirement for an ideal solution to waterproofing in these types of mid-rise
prefabricated construction is if the waterproofing can be done without the need to be outside the
building envelop, that is to have a midrise project without the need for any scaffolding at all.
This first of all is the most major cost advantage and will also directly save time, apart from this
restriction on installation other notable desirable requirements are ease and speed of installation so as
not to delay lifting and robustness to perform in a satisfactory manner over a range of possible tolerance
stacks which timber based panelised prefabricated construction systems have from manufacturing
to installation.

9. Outline Design Criteria

The full possible design criteria for waterproof and weatherproof seals and their influencing
factors are needed to be identified and be inclusive of specific requirements for use in panelized and
modular forms of construction in order to have a feel for the domain of consideration. These will now
be outlined.
External conditions; UV radiation—leading to potential change in colour over time and potential
change of stiffness over time, Temperature and temperature change—not to degrade under heat and
not to change shape under heat, Humidity and humidity change, Rainfall, Wind pressure, Combined
action of wind and rain (wind driven rain), Potential dust, dirt and grime, Chemical resistance—Air
pollution and cleaning products.
Internal conditions; Suction pressure, Temperature (condensation risk), Air tightness (not
permeable to air), Water tightness (not permeable to water), Ability to relieve vapour pressure, Sound
transmission—Airborne sound and Structure-borne sounds.
Interaction between External and Internal conditions; Pressure and suction pressure combination,
Tolerances—Production, Erection/Assembly, Deflection of components, Bowing, Creep, Tolerance
stack up (the sum of tolerances), Allow air to enter/escape (ventilation), Prevent the condensation
of water, Capillary water movement, Allow for differential movements—Deflections before, during
and after installation, Long term creep, Dynamic movements, Expansion and shrinkage movements,
Horizontal and vertical joints and their movements externally with their relation internally and
vice-versa, Force transfer—element by element and supporting construction element, Allow drainage
of runoff and infiltrated water, Allow/block passage of light and protection against frost damage
(non-absorbing material).
Other; Mass customization and versatility, in order to be a viable solution for many projects and
not a one off solution, Allow relative movements—Tolerance, wall displacement further apart (gap
larger and smaller), Tolerance, wall displacement out of plane (walls not lining up exactly, one slightly
forward and one slightly backwards), compensation for tolerances: Manufacturing tolerances, erection
tolerances, movement tolerances, Transportation to site—Damage resistance to abrasion, Damage
resistance to impacts (rocks), Assembly—handling not to cause damage and ease of installation, Service
life of the building—Design life, Maintenance required and ease of maintenance and susceptibility to
insect and bird attack.
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 12 of 22

10. Method Overview

Once the design and development can be justified as per the process previously displayed in
Figure 1 an explored thereafter the design and development can take place. A high level overview
from the justified position of required design and development is displayed in Figure 9. This starts
with design and 2018,
Buildings ending with
8, x FOR PEERaREVIEW
continuous loop of monitoring and evaluation, verification 12 ofand
23 tailored
manufacturing. From the design stage (expanded upon in Figure 10) comes the development stage
from the justified position of required design and development is displayed in Figure 9. This starts
(expandedwithupondesignin and
Figure 11),
ending after
with the development
a continuous stageand
loop of monitoring a evaluation,
model (may be physical
verification or digital) of
and tailored
the generated proposedFrom
manufacturing. solution is created,
the design evaluation
stage (expanded upon is
in next
Figureconducted
10) comes theand iteratively
development cycled back
stage
(expanded
to the design stageupon
untilintheFigure 11), afteristhe
decision development
made stage ato
to proceed model (may manufacturing,
sample be physical or digital) of thehere small
form
generated proposed solution is created, evaluation is next conducted and iteratively cycled back to the
scale and large scale testing can be conducted on a representative manufactured prototype, further
design stage until the decision is made to proceed to sample manufacturing, form here small scale and
refinementlarge
may be testing
scale madecan to be
theconducted
design, on once refined further
a representative manufacturing
manufactured can take
prototype, further place, full scale
refinement
testing which
may may
be made nottoofthebeen possible
design, once refinedwith sample
further manufacturing
manufacturing may full
can take place, now take
scale place,
testing whicha successful
result leadsmay
to not
fullofscale
been possible with sample
manufacturing andmanufacturing
adoption to may now take
projects toplace,
which a successful result leads
are monitored andto evaluated
full scale manufacturing and adoption to projects to which are monitored and evaluated with
with learnings continuously incorporated back to the design and the development processes.
learnings continuously incorporated back to the design and the development processes.

Figure 9. High level overview flowchart of the method used.

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 13 of 22
Figure 9. High level overview flowchart of the method used.

11.
11. Design
Design Process
Process
The design
design process
process used
used in
in this
this project
project is
is aa 77 step
step method
methodas
asillustrated
illustratedin
inFigure
Figure10
10below.
below.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. The
The Design
Design Process
Process broken
broken down
down to
to its
its components.
components.

12. Development Process

12. Development Process
The development process is the most crucial and intricate part of the project, Figure 11 outlines
The development process is the most crucial and intricate part of the project, Figure 11 outlines this
this in detail. As a foundation to the development process a robust design process must first be
in detail. As a foundation to the development process a robust design process must first be completed
completed which resulted in the preliminary evaluation of potential solutions. To move to the
which resulted in the preliminary evaluation of potential solutions. To move to the Development
Development stage selection of one or two of these potential solutions must be made to develop
stage selection of one or two of these potential solutions must be made to develop upon. In this case a
upon. In this case a solution which is in the form of a gasket seal which installed prior to the wall
solution which is in the form of a gasket seal which installed prior to the wall being sent out to the
being sent out to the factory and inherently compressed during installation of the wall through
factory and inherently compressed during installation of the wall through appropriate connection and
appropriate connection and the sheer weight of the wall as it is craned into place has been chosen as
the sheer weight of the wall as it is craned into place has been chosen as a potential solution to develop.
a potential solution to develop. Another potential solution is of a multi-component nature in which a
Another potential solution is of a multi-component nature in which a carefully design rigid plastic
carefully design rigid plastic extrusion is slid down from above into a railing of an aluminium
extrusion is slid down from above into a railing of an aluminium extrusion. Both potential solutions
extrusion. Both potential solutions will be discussed later in further detail.
will be discussed later in further detail.
After choosing the potential solutions DfMA and development principles and processes as per
After choosing the potential solutions DfMA and development principles and processes as per
Figure 12 are then adopted, these form the fundamental key in the overall development of a
Figure 12 are then adopted, these form the fundamental key in the overall development of a successful
successful practical solution which can be implemented whilst minimizing the unexpected
practical solution which can be implemented whilst minimizing the unexpected difficulties.
difficulties.
From here tailored solution specific steps follow, the examples given of the rubber gasket seal and
From here tailored solution specific steps follow, the examples given of the rubber gasket seal
the rigid plastic sliding seal have entirely different strategies of development which have purposefully
and the rigid plastic sliding seal have entirely different strategies of development which have
chosen to best meet the practicalities of their respective solutions and to offer a comparison of
purposefully chosen to best meet the practicalities of their respective solutions and to offer a
approaches. The two processes for development proposed is a rapid prototyping and iterative testing
comparison of approaches. The two processes for development proposed is a rapid prototyping and
and refinement strategy for the sliding seal and a computational design strategy for the rubber gasket
iterative testing and refinement strategy for the sliding seal and a computational design strategy for
seal. Both these strategies are valid and serve their purpose well when paired with the correct proposed
the rubber gasket seal. Both these strategies are valid and serve their purpose well when paired with
solution. The computational design strategy as shown in Figure 11 after the DfMA block for the gasket
the correct proposed solution. The computational design strategy as shown in Figure 11 after the
seal was chosen due to the range of compressibility that the material undergoes to form a water proof
DfMA block for the gasket seal was chosen due to the range of compressibility that the material
seal. This means that once the properties of the rubber material are established a variety of geometries
undergoes to form a water proof seal. This means that once the properties of the rubber material are
and levels of compression can be modeled via mechanical finite element software for the deformation
established a variety of geometries and levels of compression can be modeled via mechanical finite
shape and reactionary forces. The strategy the gasket employs in resisting water pressure is that of a
element software for the deformation shape and reactionary forces. The strategy the gasket employs
physical barrier which is complete by the desired expansion of the compressed rubber. This expansion
in resisting water pressure is that of a physical barrier which is complete by the desired expansion of
is in the range of approximately 5 mm for the gasket developed thus manufacturing tolerances is not a
the compressed rubber. This expansion is in the range of approximately 5 mm for the gasket
primary concern. A fluid dynamic model can then be prepared on the basis of the deformed shape and
developed thus manufacturing tolerances is not a primary concern. A fluid dynamic model can then
hence a water pressure applied, this pressure can be increased until such a stage in the model where
be prepared on the basis of the deformed shape and hence a water pressure applied, this pressure
the fluid causes the reactionary force of the rubber gasket to the opposite side of the wall to drop to
can be increased until such a stage in the model where the fluid causes the reactionary force of the
zero, so a clear strategy in this model can be executed. Furthermore, the gasket seal comes in the form
rubber gasket to the opposite side of the wall to drop to zero, so a clear strategy in this model can be
which is rolled up and has an adhered adhesive tape on the back which can be peeled off and then
executed. Furthermore, the gasket seal comes in the form which is rolled up and has an adhered
applied to the end of the wall in the factory thus negating much of the concerns about installation
adhesive tape on the back which can be peeled off and then applied to the end of the wall in the
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 14 of 22

and fitment. Therefore, since the primary concern and interest is the desired stiffness and geometry a
computational approach was most appropriate as it satisfies these concerns and provides an efficient
means to confident manufacturing. As for the rigid plastic sliding seal, rapid prototyping, testing and
iteration is by far the more appropriate development method as not only an accurate computational
method difficult to achieve for waterproofing with such small levels of deformation the very principle
of the design is that it allows for water to pass its point of contact and drain down the joint as the
sealing principle is entire different, with the gasket solution it was a physical barrier and with the
sliding seal it is a drained protection. After eliminating a computational strategy for this proposed
solution a rapid prototyping one is chosen. This is not just because of ruling out a computational
solution but also because of concerns over the design and functionality of the potential solution in from
concept to installation. For example one concern is the manufacturing capabilities of plastic extruders
to form complex dies and tight extrusions which are uniform and with minimal variation, another
concern is the flexural rigidity and shape of the extrusion profile together with the material selection
and finally another major concern is the installation, although it can be done from within the footprint
of the building and not require scaffolding there may be the potential issue of the extrusion developing
a kink if it gets snagged on a damage aluminium railing and or due to an excesses of applied force
potentially due to the level of friction is may experience as it gets installed. These concerns lend to the
rapid prototyping development as outlined under the DfMA block for the sliding seal in Figure 12.
The early involvement of manufacturers along with getting a hands-on feel with a variety of samples
of their extrusion from past and current runs results in a much more realistic appreciation for the task
at hand and firmer position on the eventual solution which would conform with the tolerances and
capabilities. With this understanding along with the fact that the material in question is rigid-plastics
3D-printing work can be done on proposed geometries which can be evaluated. This strategy can lead
to confidence in making the financial commitment to tooling a custom die and running extrusions
noting that a geometry should be selected such that the rigidity of the plastic may be used as the
mechanism for softening or stiffening the fingers of the sliding seal or at the least further refinement
of the existing die by cutting away more material but not visa-versa. The goal of development is
manufacture and it is been shown that for this application not one specific set of process is to be taken
but rather a general set which is then tailored to best satisfy the inherit properties of the proposed
solution and the concerns and unknowns behind it.
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 15 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23

Figure 11. The Development process broken down to its components.

Figure 11. The Development process broken down to its components.
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

Buildings 2018, 8, 117 16 of 22

Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

Figure 12. The DfMA (Design for Manufacture and Assembly) and Development process.
Figure 12. The DfMA (Design for Manufacture and Assembly) and Development process.
Figure 12. The DfMA (Design for Manufacture and Assembly) and Development process.
13. DfMA and Development Process
13. DfMA and Development Process
13. DfMA and Development
The Design for ManufactureProcess
and Assembly
The Design for Manufacture and Assembly(DfMA) and Development
(DfMA) and Development process
process for for
thisthis project
project
lies wholly
The within
lies Design
wholly for the development
Manufacture
within process
and Assembly
the development and
process(DfMA) additionally incorporates
and Development
and additionally process
incorporates some notions
for notions
some this project of
of lies
development,
withinhence
development,
wholly the the
the hence pairing as
pairing
development outlined
as andinadditionally
outlined
process inFigure
Figure 12.
12. incorporates some notions of development,
hence the pairing as outlined in Figure 12.
14. Proposed
14. Proposed DesignDesign Solutions
Solutions
14. ProposedTwo Design
prominent Solutions
methods of sealing havebeenbeendevised
devised to
Two prominent methods of sealing have to firstly
firstlymeet
meetthethe
most
mostoptimal criteria
optimal criteria
of
of working working
solely solely
withinwithin
the the building
building envelope,
envelope, the
the sealing
sealing solutions
solutions for
forbetween
between panels/modules
panels/modules
Two prominent methods of sealing have been devised to firstly meet the most optimal criteria of
are a compressed rubber gasket and a rigid plastic extrusion sliding seal solution.
are a compressed
working rubber
solely within thegasket andenvelope,
building a rigid plastic extrusion
the sealing slidingfor
solutions seal solution.
between panels/modules are a
compressed rubber gasket
14.1. Gasket Solution and a rigid plastic extrusion sliding seal solution.
14.1. Gasket Solution
14.1. GasketTheSolution
schematic of joint sealing principles as shown previously in Figure 7 provides an excellent
The schematic of
comprehensive joint sealing
assortment principles
of examples of allasthe
shown previously
principles which have in Figure
or can 7beprovides an excellent
used in sealing of
The
joints. One type of which caught great interest for the purposes of panelised construction wasan
comprehensiveschematic of
assortment joint sealing
of examplesprinciples
of all as
the shown previously
principles which in
have Figure
or can7 provides
be used in excellent
sealing
that of of
comprehensive
joints.gasket assortment
sealsoforwhich
One type ‘jointing of examples
element’
caught greatwhichof all
interest the
will principles
forcompress which have
underofinpanelised
the purposes or can
plane loading be used in sealing
as the resultant
construction was that of of
joints.pressure
gasket One
sealstype
or of as
to act which caught
a physical
‘jointing great
barrier
element’ tointerest
whichwater for the purposes
willpenetration
compress asunder
shown ofin
inpanelised
Figure
plane 13 construction
below. as thewas
loading that of
resultant
gasket seals or ‘jointing element’ which will compress under in plane
pressure to act as a physical barrier to water penetration as shown in Figure 13 below. loading as the resultant pressure
to act as a physical barrier to water penetration as shown in Figure 13 below.

Figure 13. Gasket and jointing element sealing principles [32].

The reasons whichFigurethese

Figure 13. types and
13.Gasket
Gasket of seals
and principles
jointing
jointing element
elementdrew fascination
sealing
sealing principleswas
principles due to their potential
[32].
[32].
suitability to for a specifically designed seal in between panels in prefabricated panelised
construction
The reasons was firstly
which thattypes
these the compressive force can be
of seals principles naturally
drew applied was
fascination through
duethetopFilacement
their potential
The
of thereasons whichduring
wall panels these types of seals
placement ontoprinciples drewconnections.
the supporting fascination Secondly
was dueiftocompressed
their potential
suitability to for a specifically designed seal in between panels in prefabricated panelised
suitability
enough to to
forwhich
a specifically
is not an designed
issue as theseal in between
mass of a timberpanels
basedinpanels
prefabricated panelised
of truck length construction
can easily be
construction was firstly that the compressive force can be naturally applied through the pFilacement
was firstly
over 1 that
tonnethe compressive
then the seal would force canto
be able beabsorb
naturally applied
the range of inthrough the pFilacement
plane tolerances of the wall
which is typically
of theexperienced.
wall panels during
Thirdly and placement onto the supporting connections. Secondly if compressed
panels during placement ontofinally the gasket
the supporting solution was Secondly
connections. envisioned ifto be able
compressed to be pre-installed
enough to which is
enough to the
which ispanel
not an issue as the
an mass of a timber based panels of truck lengthiscan easily be
not anonto
issue aswall
the mass ofmaking
a timber forbased extremely
panels ofefficient on-site
truck length caninstallation to which
easily be over 1 tonne of great
then the seal
over 1 tonne then the seal would be able to absorb the range of in plane tolerances which is typically
would be able to absorb the range of in plane tolerances which is typically experienced. Thirdly and
experienced. Thirdly and finally the gasket solution was envisioned to be able to be pre-installed
finally the gasket solution was envisioned to be able to be pre-installed onto the wall panel making for
onto the wall panel making for an extremely efficient on-site installation to which is of great
an extremely efficient on-site installation to which is of great importance to this form of construction
and is also the primary identified objective and differentiating factor with the conventional solution.
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 17 of 22
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23

The importance to this

gasket solution form of as
developed construction
shown aboveand in is Figure
also the14 primary
compromisesidentified
of a objective
specially anddesigned
differentiating factor with the conventional solution.
rubber extrusion profile whole one side is flat allowing for a dual face adhesive tape to be applied
The gasket solution developed as shown above in Figure 14 compromises of a specially
during the manufacture
designed of the extrusion
rubber extrusion andone
profile whole an side
aluminium extrusion
is flat allowing which
for a dual facehouses
adhesive the façade
tape to be panel
and frames
applied during the manufacture of the extrusion and an aluminium extrusion which houses for
the end of the timber panelised element. The opposite face is curved to allow the out of
plane movements
façade paneland to frames
and help the
thegasket
end of not to get caught
the timber panelised and ripped
element. during
The oppositehandling or installation,
face is curved to
allow for out of plane movements and to help the gasket not to get caught
with in between a carefully designed void. The void is such that that the centre has more material and ripped during
handling or installation, with in between a carefully designed void. The void is such that that the
cut out allowing for dual high pressure zone on the exterior and interior face respectively once
centre has more material cut out allowing for dual high pressure zone on the exterior and interior
compressed. Apart from providing a double barrier effect this also increases the stability of the seal
face respectively once compressed. Apart from providing a double barrier effect this also increases
when placed under of
the stability shear loads
the seal which
when placedare highly
under expected
shear loads whichwhen are the panel
highly is lowered
expected when the into place
panel is from
the adjacent panel.
lowered into place from the adjacent panel.

Figure 14. Profile of the D-Shaped EPDM Gasket.

Figure 14. Profile of the D-Shaped EPDM Gasket.
The extruded rubber is made from ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) and has the
double-sided
The extruded rubber tape applied
is made to thefrom
flat face and thenpropylene
ethylene coiled up into longmonomer
diene lengths before deliveryand
(EPDM) to the
has the
prefabrication factory.
double-sided tape applied to the flat face and then coiled up into long lengths before delivery to the
Once delivered at the panel/module prefabrication factory the seal can be affixed to the end of
prefabrication factory.
the panel by simply peeling off the backing tape and sticking the seal to the clean outer flat face of
Once thedelivered
aluminium atextrusion
the panel/module
and then applied prefabrication
all the wayfactory
up or downthe sealandcan
thenbecutting
affixed to to the end of
length,
the panelalternatively
by simply the peeling
seal canoffbethe
cutbacking
to lengthtapepriorand sticking
to adhesion thethe
onto seal to the clean
aluminium outer
extrusion flat face
which may of the
aluminium make handlingand
extrusion easier
thenhowever
applied it introduces
all the way an extra
up orstep of measurement.
down and then cutting to length, alternatively
the seal can beIf cut
handling and transport
to length prior to damage
adhesion is aonto
concern,
the particularly
aluminiumwith tying panels
extrusion which together
may makefor either
handling
of these tasks then the seal can simply be applied on site when the truck arrives however the
easier however it introduces an extra step of measurement.
aluminium surface will need to be checked for damage and cleaned before affixing the seal. Another
If handling
matter toand transport
recognise is thedamage
introduction is a of
concern,
another particularly withmay
task on site which tying panels
or not be ontogether
the criticalfor either of
path
these tasks then theon
dependent seal
thecan simply
logistics andbedelivery
appliedalthough
on site the
when
riskthe truck arrivesdamage
of unwarranted however theseal
of the aluminium
is
surface will need to
mitigated. Thebe checked
gasket forinstalled
is to be damage on and cleaned
the outside edgebefore
of the affixing
panel andthe thusseal.
act asAnother
a waterproofmatter to
recognisebarrier which is installed
is the introduction prior totask
of another wallon placement
site whichandmay
thusor requires
not be no on on
thesite workpath
critical and dependent
most
importantly no on site work which would require access from the
on the logistics and delivery although the risk of unwarranted damage of the seal is mitigated. external face however from the
internal side the design gap can be filled with an expandable foam, rock wool insulation or any other
The gasket is to be installed on the outside edge of the panel and thus act as a waterproof barrier which
insulating materials to minimize the effects of thermal conductivity of the building components in
is installed prior
heat to wall
transfer whichplacement
allows the and thus requires
solution no on site
and the building to work and most
be versatile in a importantly
variety of climateno on site
work which would[35].
conditions require
Lastlyaccess
the EPDM from the external
D-Seal gasket canface however
absorb from of
a wide range the internalcomfortably
tolerances side the design
gap can be duefilled
to its highly
with anflexible nature thus
expandable a physical
foam, rockassumption is the prefabricated
wool insulation or any other elements stay within
insulating materials
these range of design tolerances however if the gap notably larger
to minimize the effects of thermal conductivity of the building components in heat transfer than expected then there may notwhich
be adequate compression of the seal and a larger dimensioned gasket must be used.
allows the solution and the building to be versatile in a variety of climate conditions [35]. Lastly the
EPDM D-Seal gasketSeal
14.2. Sliding canSolution
absorb a wide range of tolerances comfortably due to its highly flexible nature
thus a physical assumption is the prefabricated elements stay within these range of design tolerances
The schematic of joint sealing principles uncovered in the literature review as shown previously
howeverin if Figure
the gap notably
7 which largeranthan
provides expected
excellent then there
comprehensive may not
assortment ofbe adequate
examples of allcompression
the principles of the
seal and a larger dimensioned gasket must be used.

14.2. Sliding Seal Solution

The schematic of joint sealing principles uncovered in the literature review as shown previously in
Figure 7 which provides an excellent comprehensive assortment of examples of all the principles which
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23

Buildings 2018, 8, 117 18 of 22

which have or can be used in sealing of joints has again been used in the conceptualisation phase of
designing and development new waterproof seals specifically suited for panelised prefabricated
construction.
have or can be used in sealing of joints has again been used in the conceptualisation phase of designing
The labyrinthnew
and development seal waterproof
principle acts as aspecifically
seals method to suited
aid in waterproofing as it creates aconstruction.
for panelised prefabricated difficult path
for the water to travel due to the sharp right angles. This principle coupled
The labyrinth seal principle acts as a method to aid in waterproofing as it creates a difficult with the finger principle
path
in
forwhich greatly
the water lengthens
to travel due to the the sharp
waterright
ingress path
angles. Thiswas figuredcoupled
principle as an interesting
with the fingerdesign option
principle in
especially
which greatly when coupled
lengthens thewith
water the theory
ingress pathof was
drained
figuredprotection as presented
as an interesting designprior
optioninespecially
6 water
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23
proofing theorywith
when coupled as itthe is theory
easier ofto drained
slow theprotection
path of water and drain
as presented priorit in
than to stop
6 water it entirely,
proofing theorythis
as
would additionally
it is easier to slow
which havethebe
or cansuitable
path for
of water
be used timber based
andofdrain
in sealing itsystems
joints hasthan
againto asused
stop
been it it
provides
entirely,
in athis
level of breathability.
would
the conceptualisation additionally
phase of The
be
H-section
suitable for designing
timber and
principles asdevelopment
based depicted
systemsin new itwaterproof
asFigure seals
15 works
provides specifically
a levelthrough suited for panelised
the merging
of breathability. Theof prefabricated
two planer
H-section elements
principles as
construction.
typically
depicted glass however
in Figure 15 it was
works figuredthe
through that perhapsofinstead
merging two of glass
planer and instead
elements of merging
typically glass it was it
however a
The labyrinth seal principle acts as a method to aid in waterproofing as it creates a difficult path
smooth aluminium
was figured that extrusion
perhaps insteadprofile
of which
glass and provided
instead of the guide
merging itfor
wasa rigid
a plastic
smooth
for the water to travel due to the sharp right angles. This principle coupled with the finger principle extrusion
aluminium to slide
extrusion
down.
profile which provided
in which greatlythe guide for
lengthens a rigidingress
the water plastic extrusion
path was figuredto slide
as an down.
interesting design option
especially when coupled with the theory of drained protection as presented prior in 6 water
proofing theory as it is easier to slow the path of water and drain it than to stop it entirely, this
would additionally be suitable for timber based systems as it provides a level of breathability. The
H-section principles as depicted in Figure 15 works through the merging of two planer elements
typically glass however it was figured that perhaps instead of glass and instead of merging it was a
smooth aluminium extrusion profile which provided the guide for a rigid plastic extrusion to slide
down.

Figure 15. The joint principles which inspired the sliding seal solution [32].
Figure 15. The joint principles which inspired the sliding seal solution [32].

An intricate
An intricate aluminium
aluminium extrusionextrusion (as (as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 16) 16) hashas been
been designed
designed such such that that the
the
aluminium extrusion will house the façade panel,
aluminium extrusion will house the façade panel, frame the outside edge of the frame the outside edge of the wall, aligned
aligned the the
facade baton,
facade baton, nailed
nailed into
into the
the timber
timber stud stud behind
behind and and whenwhen faced faced back back to to back
back withwith an an adjacent
adjacent wall wall
Figure 15. The joint principles which inspired the sliding seal solution [32].
panel at aa nominal
nominal gap gap of of 10
10 mm
mm provide
provide aa smoothsmooth track trackfor forthetherigidrigidplastic
plasticextrusion
extrusionto toslide
slidedown.
down.
A specially designed An intricate
designed aluminium
sliding
sliding seal made
seal extrusion
made from
from (asaashown
rigid in
rigid Figure 16)plastic
extruded
extruded has been
plastic (asdesigned
(as shown such
shown that the
in Figure
in Figure 17) is such
17)
aluminium extrusion will house the façade panel, frame the outside edge of the wall, aligned the
that it
that it applies
applies an appropriate
appropriate amount amount of of pressure to the aluminium extrusion. Enough Enough so so that
that firm
firm
facade baton, nailed into the timber stud behind and when faced back to back with an adjacent wall
contact is
contact is made
made throughout
throughout the length but not
not too
too much
much which
which makes
makes the
the
panel at a nominal gap of 10 mm provide a smooth track for the rigid plastic extrusion to slide down. seal
seal too
too hard
hard to
to slide
slide down
down
by an
by an individual
individual
A speciallyworker
worker
designed or sliding
or applyseal
apply toomade
too much
much from pressure
pressure so that
so
a rigid extruded thatplastic
itit would
would be so
be
(as shown soinhard
Figureto17) slide
is such down such
down such
that the
that that it must
the worker
worker applies an
mustexert appropriate
exerta force
a force amount
capable of pressure
of
capable buckling to the
of buckling the aluminium
section
the section at extrusion.
at a Enough
a distance so that
comfortable
distance firm
for repeated
comfortable for
contact is made throughout the length but not too much which makes the seal too hard to slide down
movements from a stationary bent position. The sliding
repeated movements from a stationary bent position. The sliding of the seal can be done of the seal can be done simultaneously and
by an individual worker or apply too much pressure so that it would be so hard to slide down such
out of the that
simultaneously waythe while
and another
out
worker wall
waya if
of theexert
must being
while
force lifted
another
capable into
wallplace
of buckling the so
if being as long
lifted
section a that
at into all comfortable
place
distance the
so aswalls
long in eachalllevel
that
for the
have been
walls in each completed prior
levelmovements
repeated have beentofrom
moving
completed to prior
a stationarythe bentnext level, this
to position.
moving to along
The the with
next
sliding theseal
oflevel,
the fact
thiscanthat bethe
along installation
with
done the fact
process
that the can simultaneously
be purelyprocess
installation and outfrom
done of thebe
can waypurely
withinwhilethe another wall
buildings
done from if being
envelop
within liftedtheinto buildings
offers place
greatso asadvantages
long that all the
envelop in terms
offers great of
walls in each level have been completed prior to moving to the next level, this along with the fact
speed of construction
advantages in terms ofand costofasconstruction
speed compared toand the cost
conventional
as compared solution.
to theFigures
conventional18–20 show the
solution.
that the installation process can be purely done from within the buildings envelop offers great
flexibility
Figures of
18–20 the
show
advantagessealintoterms
the handle
flexibilitywide
of speed ofofrange
the seal ofto
construction worst
and case
handle costwideincompared
as plane
rangetolerances,
of worst
to the in addition
case
conventional in plane totolerances,
solution. this there
is also
in flexibility
addition to this
Figures inthere
handling
18–20 showis the
also offlexibility
out ofofplane
flexibility thein tolerances
handling
seal to handle of too
wideout asofindicated
range plane byinthe
of worsttolerances
case gap
plane too between
as indicated
tolerances, the topby
andgap
the bottom in external
betweenaddition
thetofaces
this and
top there
of theis also
seal
bottom flexibility
with
external in handling
the faces ofofthe
aluminium outextrusion.
of plane
seal withtolerances too as
Thisaluminium
the gap canindicated by fromThis
beextrusion.
filled the
the gap between the top and bottom external faces of the seal with the aluminium extrusion. This
internal
gap can face withfrom
be filled insulating materials
the internal facetowith
minimize the effects
insulating materials of thermal
to minimize conductivity
the effectsof the of building
thermal
gap can be filled from the internal face with insulating materials to minimize the effects of thermal
components
conductivity in
of heat
the transfer
building which
components allows in theheatsolution
transfer and the
which building
allows
conductivity of the building components in heat transfer which allows the solution and the building theto be versatile
solution and in a
the variety
building of
climate
to conditions.
be versatileto be in a variety
versatile of climate
in a variety conditions.
of climate conditions.

Figure 16. The designed Aluminium Extrusion (Alloy 6066, T5) for the Sliding Rigid Plastic Extrusion
solution.
 Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23
Buildings
Buildings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23
Buildings 2018,
2018, 8,
8, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 19
19 of
of 23
23
Buildings 2018, 8, 11716. The designed Aluminium Extrusion (Alloy 6066, T5) for the Sliding Rigid Plastic
Figure 19 of 22
Figure
Figure 16.
16. The
The designed Aluminium Extrusion (Alloy 6066, T5) for the Sliding Rigid Plastic
Figure
Extrusion The designed
designed Aluminium
16.solution. Aluminium Extrusion
Extrusion (Alloy
(Alloy 6066,
6066, T5)
T5) for
for the
the Sliding
Sliding Rigid
Rigid Plastic
Plastic
Extrusion
Extrusion solution.
Extrusion solution.
solution.

Figure 17. The designed rigid plastic extrusion for sliding down the aluminium extrusion to seal the
Figure 17. The
Figure
Figure
designed
17. The rigid
designed plastic
rigid plasticextrusion for sliding
extrusion for slidingdown
down the
the aluminium
aluminium extrusion
extrusion tothe
to seal seal the
Figure 17. The
The designed
17.between
joint/gap designed rigid
rigid plastic
wall panels. plastic extrusion
extrusion for
for sliding
sliding down
down the
the aluminium
aluminium extrusion
extrusion to
to seal
seal the
the
joint/gap between
joint/gap
joint/gap between
betweenwall panels.
wall
wall panels.
panels.
joint/gap between wall panels.

Figure 18. The designed rigid plastic extrusion sliding down the aluminium extrusion to seal a
Figure
Figure 18.
18. The
The designed rigid plastic extrusion sliding down the aluminium extrusion to seal aa
Figure
worst-case
Figure 18. The The designed
18. designed
designed
scenario ofrigid rigid
rigid plastic
plasticplastic
the joint/gap extrusion
extrusion
between
extrusion
sliding
sliding
wall panels
sliding down
down
down
being the
close
theclose
aluminium
thetogether,
aluminium onlyextrusion
aluminium extrusion
extrusion5 mm to
apart
to apart
seal
seal
toadue
seal a
to
worst-case
worst-case
worst-case scenario of the joint/gap between wall panels being together, only 5 mm due to
worst-case scenario
tolerances. scenario of
of the
the joint/gap
joint/gap between
between wall
wall panels
panels being
being close
close together,
together, only
only 55 mm
mm apart
apart due
due toto
scenario of the joint/gap between wall panels being close together, only 5 mm apart due to tolerances.
tolerances.
tolerances.
tolerances.

Figure 19. The designed rigid plastic extrusion sliding down the aluminium extrusion at the
Figure
Figure 19. designed
19. The
Figure The designed
rigidrigid plastic
plastic extrusion
extrusion slidingsliding
down down the aluminium
the aluminium extrusion
extrusion at designed
at the the
Figure 19.
designed 10The
19. mm designed
The designed rigid
rigid plastic
joint/gap betweenplastic extrusion
thissliding
extrusion
wall panels, is whatdown
sliding down
is aimedthe aluminium
aluminium extrusion
thefor. extrusion at
at the
the
designed
10 mm
designed 10
joint/gap
10 mm
mm joint/gap
between
joint/gap between
wall
between wall
panels, panels,
this
wall is this
what
panels, is
this is what
aimed
is what is aimed
for.
is aimed for.
for.
designed 10 mm joint/gap between wall panels, this is what is aimed for.

Figure 20. The designed rigid plastic extrusion sliding down the aluminium extrusion to seal a worst-case
scenario of the joint/gap between wall panels being far apart, at 15 mm apart due to tolerances.

A key physical assumption which relates to the performance of the seal is that the geometry of
the extrusions is to be accurate to that of the design, this is especially important for this solution for
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 20 of 22

both the aluminum extrusion and the rigid plastic extrusion due to the complex geometry and hence
complex manufacturing. Furthermore if the walls are outside the design tolerances of plus and minus
5 mm the prefabricated elements will simply be too close together or too far apart for this solution will
not work in its current configuration. To address the circumstance of experiencing tolerances outside
that which have been designed for the regular backing rod and caulking still can be applied as a failsafe
otherwise extrusions of a larger and smaller dimension can be made for use if the construction ever
exceeds the design tolerances.
Other than the direct pressure between elements the manner in which the waterproofing is made
comes down to the path in which the water must take to reach the interior of the wall. It is with a
labyrinth design that the rigid plastic and aluminium extrusions hinder the capability for wind driving
rain to penetrate whist also allowing for a drainage path for any water which does happen to past the
outer layer of protection.
Additionally, the principle of pressure equalization also aids in preventing water ingress.
The pressure equalization works by utilization of an air barrier which is formed between the interior
backing wall and the external cladding and having this region of space ventilated. As long as the
interior backing wall is impermeable to air flow and the cavity region is free to ventilate and normalise
air pressure to that of the external face then the pressure differential through the cladding is minimised.
This means that the pull force or suction force onto the water is mitigated, although having the correct
amount and shape of gaps to ensure ventilation (including weep holes) but not to allow significant
direct water penetration is a key balance which needs to be made.

15. Conclusions
Waterproofing sealing methods of joints commonly practiced have served well in conventional
construction however with many prefabricated systems emerging in the building industry new
and novel means of weatherproofing between panels and modules need to be developed purpose
specific to this application. The methodological approach proposed for the design and development
of the waterproof sealing of joints in prefabricated construction has been thoroughly explored and
has resulted in identifying, understanding overcoming the technical challenges of an ideal solution
such as installation without access from the exterior face of the building and satisfying building
tolerances. Flow charts have been used to convey the overview and the processes within which
include DfMA principle being incorporated into understanding and developing seals specifically for
panelized and modular forms of prefabricated construction, particularly the vertical joints between
fully completed assemblies. Two purpose developed weatherproof sealing solutions has been proposed
specific for prefabricated panelised and modular systems which have incorporated design criteria
which are encompassing of the entire design, manufacturing and assembly processes. These strategies
have enabled the development a resourceful and holistic set of processes which are tailored for the
proposed solutions and can be adapted and used for similar forms of product research particularly
in the design and development of waterproof seals for joints between panels and modules in
prefabricated construction.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.O., K.S. and P.M.; Data curation, K.O.; Formal analysis, K.O.;
Funding acquisition, P.M.; Investigation, K.O.; Methodology, K.O.; Project administration, K.S. and P.M.; Resources,
K.S. and P.M.; Software, K.O.; Supervision, K.S. and P.M.; Validation, K.O.; Visualization, K.O.; Writing—original
draft, K.O.; Writing—review & editing, K.O.
Funding: This research was funded by the Australian Research Council (Project ID: IC150100023).
Acknowledgments: The author would like to acknowledge the generous support provided by the University of
Melbourne and Australian Research Council (Project ID: IC150100023).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to
publish the results.
Buildings 2018, 8, 117 21 of 22

Appendix A

Table A1. Rubber gasket seals in literature.

Title Author Citation

Sealing force prediction of elastomeric seal material for PEM fuel cell under temperature cycling [36]
Stress relaxation behaviour of EPDM seals in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell environment [37]
Sealing force prediction of elastomeric seal material for PEM fuel cell under temperature cycling [38]
Temperature-dependent leak tightness of elastomer seals after partial and rapid release of compression [39]
Long-term stress relaxation prediction for elastomers using the time—temperature superposition method [40]
Improvement of hardness and compression set properties of EPDM seals with alternating multilayered structure [41]
Method for the evaluation of elastomeric seals by compression stress relaxation [42]
The influence of rubber material on sealing performance of packing element in compression packer [43]
Stress relaxation in viscoelastic materials [44]
Improvement of hardness and compression set properties of EPDM seals with alternating multilayered structure [41]
Extrusion, slide, and rupture of an elastomeric seal [45]

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