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Aung: Oh, no. I did one time in English 1.
ung (all student and school names are Mr. Anderson, he is the English teacher, and
pseudonyms) is a resettled refugee who, he asked us to write an essay, and I had no
until 2011 when she and her family moved idea what to write. And he’s like, “You have to
to the United States, spent most of her life in Thai turn this in by today!” And he’s like, “Write the
refugee camps because of civil unrest in Myanmar. essay!” So, I don’t know. I write all, I write with
Because she uses four languages, Aung often draws the Burmese language. And then when I turn it
on these languages to accomplish her academic and in, he’s like, “Can you translate?” So, I did trans-
personal goals. Yet, in a school system in which late, but it’s kinda wrong, ‘cause I don’t really
English is dominant, only her achievements in know how to translate at that time.
English are recognized. The following conversation
reveals the ever-present tensions in a multilingual, Aung’s experience sheds light on how multilin-
transnational teen’s life: gual teens agentively choose to use languages other
than English (LOTEs) to make sense of schoolwork
Shannon: Since even though these languages are often ignored or dis-
you moved to the couraged. Yet, how could Mr. Anderson recognize
U.S., do any of and build on Aung’s language use, and what other
your teachers ways does she use and benefit from her knowledge of
encourage you to four languages throughout the school day?
Authors (left to right)
use your other We explore these questions by examining four
Shannon M. Daniel is a lecturer
languages? specializing in language, literacy, teens’ perspectives of using LOTEs to make sense of
and culture in the Department
of Teaching and Learning at the world in and out of school. First, we frame students’
Aung: I don’t Vanderbilt University’s Peabody strategic use of multiple languages as translanguaging,
remember. College, Nashville, TN, USA; e-mail
shannon.m.daniel@vanderbilt.edu. or the practices associated with moving across lan-
Shannon: Do they Mark B. Pacheco is a doctoral guages and registers of speech to make meaning
student in the Department of
ever say anything Teaching and Learning at Vanderbilt (O. García, 2009). Next, we explore these practices
about Karenni or University’s Peabody College, through elicited firsthand accounts of how teens use
Nashville, TN, USA.
Burmese or Thai? language and how their dispositions toward language, 1
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy xx(x) xx/xx 2015 doi:10.1002/jaal.500 © 2015 International Literacy Association (pp. 1–11)
FEATURE ARTICLE
or language ideologies (Martínez, Hikida, & Durán, within the individual. Ideologies can be articulated by
2015), might influence this use. We then make peda- an individual or embodied in that individual’s activi-
gogical recommendations that build on students’ strate- ties, and there is an important relationship between the
gic translanguaging to achieve goals. Ultimately, we two (Martínez et al., 2015). For teachers, knowing why
seek to support teachers of multilingual students in students use language is critical for informing how that
building on students’ language practices, especially language can be leveraged in instruction.
teachers who are unfamiliar with translanguaging peda- Ideologies concerning students’ heritage lan-
gogies and do not share students’ knowledge of LOTEs. guages can pose significant challenges to incorporat-
ing LOTEs into instruction. Although scholarship on
language learning and bilingualism suggests that an
Translanguaging: Practices and individual’s first language can support the acquisition
Ideologies in the Classroom of a second (Antón & DiCamilla, 1998; Cummins,
Language is a resource for making meaning. O. 2007), and students’ heritage languages can be pro-
García’s (2009) concept of translanguaging suggests ductively integrated into English as a second language
that linguistic resources (i.e., knowledge of multiple and content area classrooms (Lucas & Katz, 1994),
languages and dialects) are part of a single language English-only instruction continues to be the norm in
system that an individual uses to create meaning and most U.S. schools. For this reason, even prominent
accomplish goals. As students and educators translan- models of English-dominant sheltered instruction in-
guage, or flexibly move across languages and registers clude some attention to integrating students’ first lan-
of speech, students can develop their proficiencies in guages (Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2008). We contend
multiple languages (Cummins, 2007), deepen their that greater attention to students’ actual translanguag-
metalinguistic awareness (Martin-Beltrán, 2014), and ing practices and ideologies will lead to more effective
strengthen important components of their reading pedagogical planning that leverages teens’ LOTEs.
comprehension tool kits, such as summarizing and Furthermore, students, teachers, and families
understanding vocabulary (Jiménez et al., 2015). can hold conflicting and complex attitudes toward
However, language is not something that a stu- heritage languages that might equate only English
dent simply “has” but a repeated and expansive prac- with legitimate school participation (Lee & Oxelson,
tice in which he or she continuously engages. 2006; Valdés, 2005). Educators must be aware of ide-
Translanguaging practices include code- switching, ological constraints on translanguaging, such as atti-
translating, and language brokering, or interpreting tudes toward language use in schools, and practical
between culturally and linguistically diverse individu- constraints, such as how to include multiple lan-
als (Tse, 1996). Because multilingual youths translan- guages in instruction when the teacher might not
x x(x) xx/xx 2015
translates for a parent at the doctor, for example, perceive their language use across contexts. With the
could be productive in helping that student attend to goal of informing translanguaging pedagogies, we
text features when summarizing (Borrero, 2011). asked these two questions:
Translanguaging pedagogies must begin from the
bottom up, or build on the actual language practices of 1. How do multilingual students use LOTEs to
multilingual students (O. García, 2009). To do this, support meaning making?
educators can attend to how practices relate to lan- 2. How do students perceive their language use
guage ideologies, or student and teacher “beliefs, or and language abilities in and out of school?
feelings, about languages as used in their social worlds”
(Kroskrity, 2004, p. 498). These ideologies can include
perceptions about which languages hold power or pres- The Study
tige in academic and social spheres, are useful for jobs, Multiple Languages in English-Only Schools
and should be incorporated into instruction. Ideologies Our study takes place in the larger context of public ed-
2 vary across populations, are fluid, and can even conflict ucation in the United States, where English-dominant
schooling is the norm. Because English-dominant edu- of a larger sample of 20 students. Participants were
cational settings and policies are often “subtractive in selected through criterion-based purposive sampling
nature, ignoring the linguistic resources…students (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) to include a range of lin-
bring to the classroom” (E.E. García, 2005, p. 89), guistic proficiencies, ages, lengths of time in the
most scholars argue for dual- language programs. United States, and aspirations.
Nevertheless, English-only educational policies con- With assumptions that teens participate in mul-
tinue to prevail, and the four students in this study at- tiple Discourses and their participation is responsive
tend school in a state where classrooms are English to their environments (Gee, 1996), we conducted
only by law. The students attend school in a semistructured interviews using Seidman’s (2006)
Southeastern U.S. city where the percentage of English three-part structure that focuses on participants’ histo-
learners exceeds the national average. As a new immi- ries, details of experiences, and meaning making.
grant gateway city, over 70 languages are represented Interviews and observations reveal teens’ perceptions
among students from over 130 countries. on language use across contexts. We described and
theorized the data with open and axial coding of field
notes and interviews (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) and
Methods included codes such as “using strategies for success,”
Our findings derive from interview data across two “reflecting on language knowledge and value,” and
qualitative studies with multilingual learners in sec- “translanguaging for school” using HyperResearch.
ondary school settings (see Table 1). Shannon’s five- To establish trustworthiness, we served as peer de-
month ethnographic study takes place in an briefers for each other’s data analysis, triangulated
after-school, refugee youth services program that is interview data with observations, and corroborated
held 2:00–5:00 p.m. daily in the students’ high findings through consultation with participants’ pro-
school. Data collection on the two teens from gram directors or teachers.
Shannon’s study included 20 days of observation with
field notes and videotaping, two interviews, and two
focus group interviews with both participants out of a Four Transnational Teens and
larger sample of 13 students. Mark’s study takes place Their Translanguaging Practices
over four weeks in an eighth-grade English language Across four teens with varied language knowledge,
arts classroom. Data collection on the two teens en- histories, goals, and school contexts, patterns
tailed 12 days of observation with field notes and vid- emerged. First, all students indicated that their
eotaping and two interviews with each participant out LOTEs were not useful, or gave the impression that
Mah-nin 18, grade 12 Chin (NL), Approximately 4 years Oak High: 1,791 students:
Burmese, and (started school in March • Approximately 35% white,
English 2011) 28% Hispanic, 22% black, and
14% Asian
Aung 19, grade 12 Karenni (NL), Approximately 4 years • 25% of students labeled
Burmese, Thai, (started school in October English learners
and English 2011)
• 74% of students receive free or
reduced-price meals.
Rachel 15, grade 8 Spanish (NL) Approximately 2 years West Middle: 872 students:
and English (started grade 7 in 2010) • Approximately 48% Hispanic,
23% black, 21% white, and
Mertal 14, grade 8 Bahdini (NL), 14 years (born in the 7% Asian
Sorani, and United States) • 27% of students labeled English
English learners
• 92% of students receive free or
reduced-price meals.
Mah-nin: You mean here or in my country? Shannon: So, when you study, do you write a lot
or just read a lot?
Shannon: Here.
Mah-nin: Yeah, I read and put in my mind.
Mah-nin: I don’t use my language here.
Shannon: And repeat a lot in your mind?
Shannon: What about Burmese?
Mah-nin: Yeah.
x x(x) xx/xx 2015
Mah-nin: Yeah.
ing about legislation and executive branch and
judicial branch and all that stuff. In your head,
Each day, Mah-nin uses three languages to make
are you thinking in Chin or Burmese or English
sense of schoolwork, responsibilities, and leisure ac-
or—?
tivities. Spending time with Mah-nin and Aung in an
Mah-nin: I’m thinking Chin. informal environment made clear how they move be-
tween LOTEs and English with grace and ease. One
Shannon: Chin? afternoon, for instance, Mah-nin showed Aung the
faux brochure she was making on Germany for her
social studies class. The girls engaged in rapid
“On their own volition, these Burmese dialogue. When checking their work against
teens participate in effective the teacher’s written directions, they switched to
English, switched back to Burmese, and then sought
4 translanguaging practices.” the program director’s help in English. Interestingly,
Mah-nin thinks in Chin but takes notes in Burmese. Shannon: So, she’s speaking in English, and you
Although our interviews did not reveal her perspec- write in Burmese? Later, you think about it and
tives on why she writes in Burmese instead of Chin, a translate back to English?
possible reason for this choice might be that the
Aung: Yep, yep. The first year when I come
Burmese notes helped her in talking with her friends
here, I use the dictionary. And then the second
who share the Burmese language, whereas the num-
year, I can live without dictionary.
ber of peers who speak Chin was much smaller.
What value, though, does she place on her use of Shannon asked if using LOTEs is helpful, and Aung
LOTEs? Shannon asked Mah-nin which languages agreed. Nevertheless, Aung explained,
are important and why. Despite using Burmese and
Chin to make sense of school, Mah-nin views English If you always use your language, it’s like you’re
as most important for her future, whereas Chin is val- not really learning English. Just [use LOTEs]
ued mainly to connect with her past. sometimes when it’s really needed….I mean,
In her words, Chin was important “because I you should speak in English….If you speak in
your language, it’s like you don’t really want to
have to know my cultural language.” English is valu-
learn English.
able because “after high school, I have to work, so I
have to speak better English and to write English.” This language ideology about which languages
Even though Mah-nin is “thinking Chin,” she does should be used conflicts with Aung’s visions for her
not seem to value this translanguaging as a resource- future. Since age 9, she has dreamed of becoming a
ful practice, likely because the English- dominant flight attendant, which was strengthened when she
school environment does not encourage her to do so. first experienced air travel on her way to the United
Furthermore, she said that she had no Burmese peers States. Aung excitedly described her motivations:
in her classes, which limited her abilities to translan-
guage for academic meaning making during the Because you can serve people food and make
school day. people happy. And like, they feel sad on the
plane, or if they scared, you can treat them
Aung: “I Write It With Burmese” good, take care of them. Especially people don’t
The introduction to this article reveals how Aung stra- know how to speak, like refugee to the U.S.,
tegically translanguages when writing for school, they don’t know how to speak, and they want to
even though her teacher did not suggest, a cknowledge, eat or drink something, and they can’t say.
That’s not good for them. At least, like, if I can
or extend this practice. Aung speaks multiple lan-
speak Burmese or Karenni, and the refugee
say a few words in the languages of his Thai, Mexican, Mark: Tell me why.
and Somali classmates. Having grown up in the
Mertal: Because I want to stay close to my home-
United States, Mertal speaks Bahdini with his par-
town, my relatives, and everybody. I feel like—
ents, the dialect of Kurdish that is most common in
it’s like a good feeling when you go over there.
their prior home of Zaxo, Kurdistan, and English and
You know everybody, you see, you feel protected.
Bahdini with his older brother.
Mertal wants to move back to Kurdistan after col- Despite Mertal’s recognition that his languages
lege. To facilitate this dream, his dad teaches him to impact his sense of belonging in multiple communi-
read and write in Bahdini. Mertal is also learning to ties, we see the same pattern as with Aung and Mah-
read and write in Arabic by participating in weekly nin: None of the students identified using LOTEs in
religious studies at the mosque. Recently, he has be- school until pressed with more specific questions:
gun learning Sorani, another Kurdish language, with
his friends, and he watches television shows in Arabic, Mark: How do you feel about speaking Bahdini
Bahdini, and English with his family. in school?
Mertal perceives his multilingualism as a means Mertal: I mean, I feel, it’s OK. There’s nothing
to learn about different cultures, interact with more really great or anything.
people, and connect with others to build community:
Mark: Do you get chances to speak in Bahdini
I didn’t want to be racist, like American, like in school?
only learn one language….But I was happy to
learn that language, too, because there’s like Mertal: I mean, if I have to speak it, if I’m in
mostly all them continents like know English, so trouble, or if I need something, then yeah, I
I was happy for that and Kurdish. Kurdish, I was speak it, but, there’s not use to speaking it in
happy to know Kurdish, because, like, you go school, because you don’t need it.
you can talk to a Kurdish person, mostly a lot of
people know Kurdish in [this state]. You walk to Mark: OK. Um, would you want to use it?
Burger King and walk back, there was, like, one Mertal: I would—I would like to, like, pick it up
Kurdish guy and in like a Charger. He was like,
some more, like learn all the long words.
“You’re a Kurd,” and he was like, “OK, I’ll give
you a ride back home.” Mark: So, you want to learn more, but there’s
no chances?
For Mertal, being multilingual implies being able
to participate in communities unavailable to his Mertal: Yeah.
x x(x) xx/xx 2015
Rachel: Yeah.
Implications for Schools
Here, Rachel shares that she practices Spanish while and Classrooms
reading independently and serving as her family’s lan- To summarize, all four students productively trans-
guage broker. language and do so despite the tensions between 7
FEATURE ARTICLE
their language practices and their perspectives on school norms can promote translanguaging further.
the values associated with LOTEs. These practices For instance, Mah-nin uses Burmese constantly in
were productive in supporting students’ academic the after-school program with Burmese friends, but
development, as in Aung’s note-taking in Burmese, she has few classes with peers who speak her lan-
Rachel’s independent reading in Spanish, and Mah- guages. To promote strategic translanguaging
nin’s clarification of content in Chin. These prac- among teens, schools with diverse populations can
tices were also productive in connecting students to try placing students who share LOTEs in the same
larger goals and communities that extend beyond content classes.
the classroom, as in Mertal’s use of Bahdini and On their own volition, these teens participate in
Sorani to engage friends, family, and members of his effective translanguaging practices, including identi-
community. However, all four teens also seem to fying cross-language connections, using bilingual dic-
have internalized dominant ideologies in the U.S. tionaries, and discussing texts in their heritage
school system, where English is of primary impor- languages. Student practices show that even when
tance, possibly confirming Martínez et al.’s (2008) LOTEs are not valued in content area classrooms,
argument: students use multiple languages in their thoughts,
writing, and speech. Although these four students
Perhaps students do not see translating as useful
represent diverse experiences, their comments reveal
or valuable in school precisely because it is not
valued in school. Perhaps they have learned that
some important commonalities in their language use
schools value only a narrow range of language (see Table 2). Teachers can begin to recognize these
uses, and not their own larger linguistic skill sets. practices as common across their multilingual stu-
(p. 425) dents, help students value these practices, and lever-
age them in instruction.
Often, English as a second language class- We suggest that classrooms that emphasize the
rooms or after-school programs are the only com- use of LOTEs can help students feel more comfort-
munal spaces in which multilingual students feel able translanguaging across linguistic proficiency
comfortable translanguaging in schools. Changing levels. We envision environments where students
• Note-taking in LOTEs while listening to or reading • Prompt students to discuss challenging or new content in LOTEs
English texts through think-pair-share activities.
• Repeating content in LOTEs to study for tests • Reinforce existing understandings of concepts by asking students
• Drafting writing assignments in LOTEs to summarize or paraphrase information into their LOTE.a
• Making cross-language comparisons when • Develop students’ metalinguistic awareness through activities
reading that encourage cross-linguistic comparisons, such as translation
J OURN AL O F A DOL E SCE NT & A DULT L IT ER ACY
• Talking with friends in LOTEs to make sense of • Establish a constellation of literacy practicesc that makes
school assignments multilingualism the norm, rather than the exception, in your
• Learning new languages with family and friends classroom.
• Language brokering for family and classmates • Have students interview classmates about their language
practices, create a multilingual word wall, and share some of your
own language-learning experiences.
• Discuss with students the rewards and challenges of their
emerging bilingualism.
Note. LOTEs = languages other than English.
a
Borrero, N. (2011). Nurturing students’ strengths: The impact of a school-based student interpreter program on Latino/a students’ reading
comprehension and English language development. Urban Education, 46(4), 663–688. bJiménez, R.T., García, G.E., & Pearson, P.D. (1996).
The reading strategies of bilingual Latina/o students who are successful English readers: Opportunities and obstacles. Reading Research
8 Quarterly, 31(1), 90–112. cReyes, I. (2012). Biliteracy among children and youths. Reading Research Quarterly, 47(3), 307–327.
use and learn English while also translanguaging desire to learn English while using, maintaining,
individually and collaboratively. To leverage the and strengthening their heritage languages. Mah-
full potential of these practices, teachers must ac- nin, for example, said, “I have to speak better
tively make space for students’ translanguaging in English, [but] I like…Burmese people are here.”
the classroom. Through making cross- language Aung knew she needed to “speak English,” but she
connections when reading, describing new vocabu- recognized the value of speaking Burmese and
lary in LOTEs, and encouraging discussions of Karenni to “help them” (people in her commu-
content in multiple languages, teachers can help nity). Mertal said he “didn’t need [Bahdini]” in
teens recognize the great linguistic resources they school but recognized a need to deepen his under-
have and begin to leverage them for academic standing of the language if he wished to work in
success. Kurdistan. Rachel said she needed to use Spanish
To support reading comprehension, teachers “just so I don’t forget” but that doing so in school
can work alongside bilingual students to translate “is so hard.” All students wished to develop their
texts into their heritage languages (Jiménez et al., English, but they feared losing their heritage lan-
2015). To strengthen metalinguistic awareness, guages and recognized challenges in using them
teachers can facilitate students’ discussions, composi- productively in school.
tions, and revisions of multilingual texts through Thus, to support students’ translanguaging
student- led language exchange activities (Martin- practices, teachers must begin to implement trans-
Beltrán, 2014). Teachers can tap into teens’ local languaging pedagogies that encourage the develop-
knowledge of their communities by investigating ment of the full range of students’ linguistic
community literacies (Jiménez, Smith, & Teague, resources (see Table 2 for suggestions) and must
2009). For example, local multilingual newspapers make the efforts necessary to get to know their stu-
can be leveraged to help teens see the purpose of text dents (see the Take Action sidebar). After years of
and graphic features (Pacheco & Miller, 2015). In English-only schooling, students might feel strange
social studies, discussions about what transnational using LOTEs in class. Similarly, teachers accus-
citizenry might mean in contemporary, globalized tomed to teaching only in English might feel uncer-
societies can help students view their multilingual tain when students discuss a concept in a language
abilities as useful practices for school, work, and pro- the teacher does not understand. We emphasize
ductive citizenry. These pedagogies have potential that a simple conversation with students can begin
for enhancing students’ academic and linguistic de- to reveal their linguistic practices, proficiencies,
velopment and for challenging deficit ideologies and perspectives, which in turn can lead to instruc-
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