1.4.

3 Short-circuit

In this case, the consumer resistance is short-circuited by a fault (by metal or by

arcing) so that a very high line current flows.
A distinction must be drawn between symmetrical (three-pole) and asymmetrical (one or two-
pole) short circuits.

Only the three-pole fault can be represented in the single-phase equivalent circuit
diagram. That is why only this type of fault is examined in the following experiment.
When a short-circuit occurs, the transmitted power is generally much greater than the thermal
limit rating of the transmission line.
The faulty condition must thus be recognized by the network protection device and switched
off within shortest possible time.

Fig. 1 Single-phase equivalent circuit diagram of loss-free line with short-circuit and
corresponding vector diagram.

In this type of operation, the transmission line is short-circuited at the end, i.e. I2 = I12
et U2 = 0. The current I1 at the beginning of the transmission line results from the geometric
addition of the currents I10 through the operating capacitance CB/2 at the beginning of the line
and I12 through the line inductor.
The phase-angle 1 between U1 and I1 is exactly 90°; for low-loss transmission lines, it is still
about 85°.
1.6 Asymmetrical short-circuits

For the purpose of calculation, a three-phase network can be represented by a single-

phase network as long as it is symmetrically loaded (this also applies for the case of a three-
phase short-circuit).

For the case of asymmetrical operating conditions (e.g. single-line or two-phase short-
circuit), the single-phase representation of the conditions is no longer sufficient. A calculation
method, conceived by Fortescue, the so-called "method of symmetrical components", is now
generally used for these case. Here, the asymmetrical three-phase system is reduced to
symmetrical systems which are decoupled with respect to each other (so-called component
systems) on which the standard calculations can then be applied.

The two resulting symmetrical systems with three phases phase-shifted by 120° with
respect to each other are called positive-phase and negative-phase sequence systems; the third
system with three currents or voltages of equal phase is designated the zero-phase sequence
system. The zero-phase sequence system is always absent if the three-phase system under
consideration is a three-conductor system without a return conductor (earth, earth wire, cable
sheath, neutral conductor).

Initially, there is no relationship between the component systems. It is only through

the asymmetrical fault that a characteristic circuit connection is produced for the
corresponding fault type.
The linkage of symmetrical voltage components with other symmetrical voltage components
results in the terms of positive-phase sequence impedance, negative-phase sequence
impedance and zerophase sequence impedance.

Positive-phase sequence impedance Zm = Um/Im

Negative-phase sequence impedance Zg = Ug/Ig
Zero-phase sequence impedance Z0 = U0/I0

The positive-phase sequence impedance Zm of an electrical unit is the quotient of the

phase voltage and the conductor current when supplied from a positive-phase sequence
system. This is equal to the working impedance for transmission lines, the short-circuit
impedance for transformers and reactor coils, and for generators the effective generator
impedance at the moment of the shortcircuit.
The negative-phase sequence impedance Zg of a unit is the quotient of the phase voltage and
the conductor current when supplied from a symmetrical negative-phase sequence system.
For static installation (e.g. lines and transformers) the negative-phase sequence impedance is
equal to the positive-phase impedance, as the phase sequence has no effect on the level of the
current flowing.

The zero-phase sequence impedance Z0 of an electrical apparatus is the quotient of the

voltage and the current when all three phases are supplied with a single ac voltage.
The three phases of the apparatus are parallel and comprise the feed conductor, while a fourth
conductor (neutral conductor, earth, earth-wire, cable jacket, cable armor) serves as the
common return line. Thus this common return line carries three times the zero-phase
sequence current.
Mathematically the following value results:

Z0 = Zm + 3 · ZE

where Zm = positive-phase sequence impedance

ZE = return line impedance

From this definition, it follows that the zero-phase sequence impedance is always with
reference to star connection of the apparatus. Equipment in a delta connection cannot be
assigned to a zerophase sequence impedance.
There is no generally valid relationship between the zero-phase sequence impedance and the
positive or negative-phase sequence impedances of an apparatus. In transmission lines, for
example, the zero-phase sequence impedance is dependent on the type of line (overhead line
or cable), the line construction (earth-wire or cable jacket or armor) as well as the
conductivity of the soil, which assumes a part of the function of the return line.
The basis for studying the individual types of short circuits is the network illustrated in the
following Fig. 2, consisting of generator, transformer and transmission line.

Fig. 2 Network for individual types of short circuits

According to the EEC regulations, a network without load is assumed for the
calculations. The operating capacitances of the line are to be ignored. In the above figure, Z is
the earth impedance of the network, with a value from 0 (directly earthed neutral point) and
infinity (floating neutral point), depending on the type of neutral point connection. In order to
determine the fault currents for the individual types of short circuits, the symmetrical
components method is applied. Depending on the type of short-circuit, certain conditions may
be stipulated which, when transferred to the component level, determine how the component
systems are connected to each other. The generator voltage also remains symmetrical under
asymmetrical loads, that is, the asymmetry of the network is caused solely by the respective
fault.

For this reason, the effective generator voltage in the component systems appears only
in the positive-phase sequence system, while the negative and zero-phase sequence systems
do not supply any power. The voltage present when the short circuit occurs is referred to as
the initial voltage or subtransient voltage E". In order to stay on the sure side during the
calculation, normally the value UN √3 is used for it (single-phase representation!).
1.6.1 Two-phase to earth fault

As shown in Fig. 3, connection of the two outer conductor L2 and L3 to earth is the
precondition for the two-phase (or double-line) to earth fault

Fig. 3 Two-phase to earth fault

For the magnitude of the fault current IE at the short-circuit point we obtain:

where Zm, Zg and Z0 represent here the respective sums of the component impedances in the
path of the short circuit.
The voltage of the healthy conductor at the fault point amounts to:

The following Fig. 4 qualitatively shows the situation of the currents and voltages at the fault
point. For reason of simplification, all equivalent resistances of the network are ignored.

Fig. 4 Vector diagrams for currents and voltages at the fault point in a two-phase to
earth fault
1.6.2 Phase-to-phase unearthed fault

For a phase-to-phase unearthed fault a connection between two outer conductors L2

and L3 is assumed.
The following applies for the currents of the faulty conductors:

where Zm and Zg represent here the respective sums of the component impedances in the path
of the short circuit.

The voltages of the three conductors at the fault location demonstrate the following
values with respect to earth:

The following Fig. 5 qualitatively shows the situation of the currents and voltages at the fault
point; for reason of simplification all equivalent resistances of the network are again ignored.

Fig. 5 - Vector diagrams for currents and voltages at the fault point for a phase-to-phase
unearthed fault.
1.6.3 One-line to earth fault

For a one-line to earth fault in a low-resistance earthed network (short-circuit to

earth), a conductive connection between the outer conductor L1 to earth is assumed.
The following holds true for the short-circuit current:

The following Fig. 6 again qualitatively shows the situation of the currents and voltages at the
fault point; for reasons of simplification, all equivalent resistances of the network are ignored
here as well.

Fig. 16 - Vector diagrams for currents and voltages at the fault point for a one-line to
earth fault
THREE-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT

Objectives:
Measuring and interpreting the current and voltage ratios of a transmission line during a
threephase short-circuit.

Equipments :
1 DL 2108TAL Three-phase power supply unit
1 DL 2108T02 Power circuit breaker
1 DL 1080TT Three-phase transformer
1 DL 7901TT Overhead line model
1 DL 2109T26 Power meter
2 DL 2109T2A5 Moving-iron ammeter (2,5 A)
1 DL 2109T1PV Moving-iron voltmeter (600 V)

Experiment procedure

Assemble the circuit in accordance to the foregoing topographic diagram.

Set primary-side of three-phase transformer in delta connection 380V and using bridging
plugs set the secondary-side to star UN- 15%.

Insert all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to overhead line model.
Set the supply voltage to UN = 170 V (use lowest possible voltage!): test short-circuit current
is about 1.5 A.

Due to the high current load on the components during short-circuit, the following
measurement must be carried out quickly.

Measure the voltage at the beginning of the line, the current at both line ends and the active
and reactive power consumed by the overhead line model:
U1 = …………… (V) P1 = …………… (W) U2 = …………… (Var)ind
I1 = …………… (A) I2 = …………… (A)

For quick approximate short-circuit calculations it suffices to take the inductive reactances of
the network into consideration: the result is then on the sure side, i.e. a short-circuit current
on the high side is calculated.

In three-phase short-circuit condition primarily there is a consumption of the inductive

reactive power.
ASYMMETRICAL SHORT-CIRCUITS

Objectives:
To measure the fault currents of asymmetrical short-circuits and to compare the results with
those for the three-phase fault.

Equipments:
1 DL 1013T1 Three-phase power supply
1 DL 2108T02 Power circuit breaker
1 DL 1080TT Three-phase transformer
1 DL 7901TT Overhead line model
3 DL 2109T2A5 Moving-iron ammeter (2,5 A)
1 DL 2109T1PV Moving-iron voltmeter (600 V))

EXPERIMENT N°8.1: TWO-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT WITH EARTH CONTACT

Experiment procedure

Assemble the circuit in accordance with the foregoing topographic diagram.

Set primary-side of three-phase transformer in delta connection 380 V and using bridging
plugs set the secondary-side to star UN - 15% .

Insert all bridging plugs connecting the capacitances to overhead line model.

Set the supply voltage UN = 170 V (same value as in experiment 3).

Due to the high current load on the components during short-circuit, the following
measurement must be carried out quickly.

Measure the partial short-circuit currents I2 and I3of the conductors L2 and L3 as well as the
shortcircuit current Ik and the voltage of the healthy phase Li with respect to earth:
I2 = …………… A I3 = …………… A Ik = …………… A
U1 = …………… V

The short-circuit current Ik is smaller than the two partial short-circuit currents since the two
partial currents are added together geometrically into the total short-circuit current at the fault
location.

Compare the measured values with those of the two-phase short-circuit without earth contact
(experiment 8.2) and of the three-phase short-circuit (experiment 3).

The partial currents in the case of two-phase short-circuit with earth contact are larger than
for a fault without earth contact.

The fault currents are below the value of the three-phase short-circuit current
EXPERIMENT N°8.2: TWO-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT WITHOUT EARTH
CONTACT
Experiment procedure

Assemble the circuit in accordance with the foregoing topographic diagram.

Removing the ammeter which measures the total short-circuit current in experiment 8.1 this
now simulates a two-phase short-circuit without earth contact.

Measure the short-circuit currents I2 and I3 as well the voltage of healthy phase L1 with
respect to earth:
I2 = …………… A I3 = …………… A V1 = …………… V

Compare the measured values with those of the two-phase short-circuit with earth contact
(experiment 8.1) and of the three-phase short-circuit (experiment 3).

The partial currents in the case of two-phase short-circuit with earth contact are larger than
for a fault without earth contact.

The fault currents are below the value of the three-phase short-circuit current.
EXPERIMENT N°8.3: SINGLE-PHASE SHORT-CIRCUIT
Experiment procedure

Assemble the circuit in accordance with the foregoing topographic diagram.

Alter the circuit of experiment 8.2 in order to be able to measure the current and voltage
ratios for a single-phase short-circuit.

Measure the short-circuit current Ik of the faulty phase L1 as well as the voltages of the two
healthy phases L2 and L3 with respect to earth:
Ik = …………… A U2 = …………… V U3 = …………… V

Compare the measured value of the short-circuit current with that of the three-phase short-
circuit.

The single-phase short-circuit current is considerably smaller than the current obtained in the
case of the three-phase short-circuit.