DATA MANAGEMENT FOR

LOCAL GOVERNMENT
PLANNING AND
DEVELOPMENT

Edited by
00 Muhamud Wambede Nabalegwa
Jamil Serwanga, Haroonah Nsubuga,
and Abbas Mohammed Omar
DATA MANAGEMENT FOR
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
PLANNING AND
DEVELOPMENT

Edited by
Jamil Serwanga, Haroonah Nsubuga, Muhamud Wambede Nabalegwa
and Abbas Mohammed Omar
ISBN: 9789970937257
© Copyright 2018 by Jamil Serwanga, Haroonah Nsubuga, Muhamud
Wambede Nabalegwa and Abbas Mohammed Omar
First Print 2018
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in
any language, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without prior written permission of the copyright owners.
Published by Kyeyune Publishers
Kampala, Uganda
Reg. No. 212001
Email: kyeyupu@gmail.com

Designed and printed by: Hope Media Solutions Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized

in any form or by any means, elctronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any informational storage system
without written permission from the author.

Printed in Uganda

i
PREFACE
On several occasions, the world has been wondering and henceforth
asking why Data Management for Local Government and Development?
This book endeavours as much as possible to provide sound and
concrete responses to these queries that are floated frequently the
world over. The queries may be justified simply because a good many
people are utilising and employing data in their day today work but have
never bothered to find out reasons for using and protecting data. What
is surprising is that, whether they know or they do not, they execute
their routine work and at the end of the day, they register some success
and failures.

However, due to the need to execute work professionally and with a lot
of accuracy and acumen, it is no longer acceptable that people should
continue guessing what they are doing and why they are doing what
they are doing. Time for guess work is over in this century. People at
all levels; (local government authorities inclusive) must use and protect
data professionally and effectively to forge the pace and the accuracy
desired for excellent planning for the growth and development of their
communities and organisations.

Whether the organisations they are working for are big or small,
international or domestic, public or private, they ought to address the
ever growing need for general information at all levels of management
and administration. This is so because they would be enmeshed in a
situation they may not be able to control if they went wrong in regard to
data usage, retrieval for better and informed decision making especially
at local government levels.

Managers and administrators need well collected, organised, processed

and stored data for their day today work execution for successful
interpretation and implementation of developmental plans or goals
ii
especially at lower local government levels. This is so because effective
planning demands regular, refined or up to date data and information.
If managers failed to plan effectively, they should then be planning to
fail at their work stations. Successful planning hinges on good data that
can easily be retrieved, accessed, interpreted and based upon for good
decision making processes. When such decisions are implemented,
the chances for success are very high.

Developmental programmes can also be easily monitored and

organised in a meaningful way. Thus, both qualitative and quantitative
data can easily be recorded and narrated, interpreted and translated
into concrete developmental activities and programmes by local
government authorities. Well articulated ideas, plans and efforts would
remain in the limbo of history and in local government offices if there
was no clean, refined and well articulated data to put them to use!

All the chapters of this book have been so much simplified that the
reader is effectively guided on how to enhance his/her understanding
and competencies required of him/her for effective management of
data for purposes of realising development at local government levels.
Our interest in publishing this book stemmed from practical experiences
of local government authorities who are really trying to devise means
and ways of enabling their local government systems graduate from
the vicious cycle of both poverty and poor management as they do not
have well aligned data on critical issues like adolescent reproductive
health, population density in their areas of jurisdiction, school going
children and school drop outs, quality of health care in place, quality and
quantity of existing infrastructure desired to support their development
goals, plans, efforts and agenda. Availability of this critical data enables
them to move to a level of utilising data on key socio-economic aspects
in their areas of jurisdiction.

We are therefore optimistic that this book will be found handy for
iii
local government authorities at Sub County, parish, village, district,
Population Secretariat, regional and also national levels on the one
hand, Central Government and Development Partners like Rockefeller
Foundation, DANIDA, UNFPA, UNICEF, UNDP, World Bank, African
Development Bank and many others on the other hand.

We would like to profoundly thank the contributors of the various articles

of this book, our sponsors; the former I@mak.committee, Kyambogo
University, Islamic University in Uganda and Zanzibar University, those
willing and ready to ignore the malaise in this book, but endeavour to
adopt and implement the valuable ideas advanced therein. We once
again express our sincere gratitude to those who have encouraged,
advised and supported our cause of publishing this book on data
management for local government planning and development. May
the Almighty God reward them abundantly.

Jamil Serwanga
Haroonah Nsubuga
Muhamud Wambede Nabalegwa
Abbas Mohammed Omar

iv
CONTENTS
PREFACE ............................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT .......................................................... vi

CHAPTER ONE .................................................................... 1

THE ROLE OF DATA IN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AT SUB-COUNTY
LEVELS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ................................................... 1
By: Jamil Serwanga, Haroonah Nsubuga and Muhamud Wambede Nabalega

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................... 18

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS FOR POLICY
FORMULATION AND DECISION MAKING PROCESS ......................... 18
By: Chemisto Haruna

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................... 33

DATA COLLECTION METHODS FOR SOCIAL ECONOMIC
ACTIVITIES AT LOWER LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ................................ 33
By: Kiboma Gimui, Masokoyi Wasswa and Kawalya Issa

CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................. 43

DATA MANAGEMENT AT LOWER LOCAL GOVERNMENT:
STORAGE AND PRESERVATION .......................................................... 43
By: ssesanga Idris and Kiyonga Hamid

CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................... 54

COMPUTERZED DATA STORAGE AND MANAGEMENT ..................... 54
By: Kalanzi Ismail

CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................... 64

CLOUD DATA STORAGE ....................................................................... 64
By: Abbas Muhammed Omar, Haroonah Nsubuga, Jamil Serwanga and Haji Ali Haji

v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We, the Editors of this book are strongly and fully convinced that putting
together ideas that culminate into a production of this nature is the effort
of many people and organisations. It would therefore bear numerous
loopholes that may be so glaring that its stature and value may be lost
without the genuine support and input of a third party. This piece of
work therefore is not unique because it has been beefed up by several
people and organisations that willingly and zealously accepted to share
their views and experiences with us either directly or indirectly. To all
of them, we register our sincere thanks and appreciation. Indeed the
list is long but the following people and organisations are specifically
mentioned here due to their unique and immense contribution to the
production of this book.

The World Bank; the donors of the Research Fund we utilised. The
management of Makerere University (the host of I@mak.com);
the organisers and managers of this project, the Islamic University
in Uganda and Kyambogo University; the employers of the main
researchers, for the continued advise, encouragement and support
to initiatives and efforts geared toward knowledge creation through
research and publication.

Special thanks go to I@mak.com which pre and finally qualified our

project proposal and funded all our research, training and publication
activities. Without their financial support, this project would not have
been realized.

We would like to express our gratitude to a number of people who were

incorporated into the project at the level of module development, paper
presentation and final fine tuning the presented papers at various fora
and workshops. These included; Mr. Johnson Kagugube Lubega from
the Directorate of District Statistics and Capacity Development of the
vi
Uganda Bureau of Statistics, Kampala.

Appreciation is also registered for the following people Mr. Chemisto

Haruna of the Islamic University in Uganda who researched and
presented modules on Data Presentation and Analysis, Mr. Kiboma
Gimui, Mr. Masokoyi Waswa and Dr. Kawalya Isa who researched and
presented modules on Data Collection Methods for Social Activities, Mr.
Ssesanga Idrris and Mr. Kiyonga Hamid whose module of presentation
focused on Data Management for Sub-County Chiefs: Storage and
Preservation, and Mr. Kalanzi Ismail whose module focused on Data
Storage Management.

We would like to extend our sincere appreciation to the following Districts

and Sub County authorities for accepting their staff to participate fully in
our various workshops on the subject of data management for effective
planning at local government level. These are; the Personnel Officer of
Sironko District, Bumasifwa Sub County, Busoba Sub County, Busano
Sub County, Bungokho Sub County, Bukhalu Sub County, Sioko T/C
Sub County, Bufumbo Sub County, Bungokho – Mutoto Sub County,
Bukhiende Sub County, Muyembe Sub County, Buyobo Sub County,
Bunambutye Sub County, Bukonde Sub County, Namanyonyi Sub
County, Wanale Sub County, Masira Sub County, Busiu Sub County,
Busulani Sub County, Buginyanya Sub County and Nakaloke Sub
County.

It is our sincere hope that the afore mentioned participants either in

their respective personal capacity or the Districts and Sub Counties
they represented benefited a lot from the rich experiences of the able
researchers and paper presenters in one way or another.

Despite the fact that this book is of immense value to many people who
have become stakeholders in its production, we are fully aware of its
weaknesses that are often typical of editors and authors. We bear the
vii
full responsibility thereof alone.

Editors:

Jamil Serwanga
Haroonah Nsubuga
Muhamud Wambede Nabalegwa
Abbas Mohammed Omar

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

THE ROLE OF DATA IN PLANNING AND

MANAGEMENT OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
AT SUB-COUNTY LEVELS OF LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS

BY

Jamil Serwanga1
Haroonah Nsubuga2
Muhamud Nabalegwa3

1 Acting Vice Chancellor of Equator University of Science and Technology - Project-

Uganda.
2 Senior Lecturer Department of Public Administration and Dean Faculty of Arts and
Social Sciences, Zanzibar University-United Republic of Tanzania (URT)
3 Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Kyambogo University-Uganda.
1
1.1 Introduction

The term, economic planning, has been understood differently by

different people under different environment. According to Jhingan
(2011), there is no agreement among economists with regard to the
meaning of the term “economic planning”. The term has been used
loosely in economic literature. Sometimes, the term economic planning
is connected with communism, socialism or economic development.
Likewise, any form of state intervention in economic activities has been
treated as planning.

From the above statement, it clear that there is some confusion of

the term economic planning. And this calls for a clear operational
understanding of the term so that it can be applied in development
activities at lower local government levels without any ambiguity.

In this regard, planning would be taken to imply a method or technique

or a means to an end being the realization of certain pre-determined
and well defined aims and objectives laid down by the central planning
authority or any other body concerned with development activities in
any country at both local and national levels (Jhingan, 2011).

According to Lewis as quoted by Jhingan, (2011), the term planning

can be understood in six different ways or senses. These six ways are
highlighted as follows:

(i) Geographical zoning of factors

(ii) Deciding what and how much money a government will spend
in future
(iii) Allocation of resources to the different sectors of the economy
by a quota system
(iv) Setting of production targets by the government for both the
2
 private and public enterprises
(v) Setting targets for the whole economy
(vi) The means government would use to enforce the achievement
of set national targets

It should be noted that, even though there are divergent views about
the meaning of the term planning, it is agreed upon by most economists
who have agreed that, the term would imply a deliberate control and
direction of the economy by the central authority for the purpose of
achieving definite targets and objectives within a specified period of
time (Jhingan, 2011).

The need of planning has been highly emphasized in economic

development literature. This is so especially in least developed
countries. This is in view of one of the key objectives of planning being
increasing the rate of economic development in concerned country. It
is expected that with planning at any one level would cause a positive
impact on capital accumulation and saving in the community.

Improving on the market mechanism is sighted as another major

rationale for planning especially in least developed countries. It is
reported that market mechanism is not functioning properly in least
developed countries. This is said to be caused by the ignorance and
unfamiliarity about it by the members of the community.

With reference to the above observation, it has been argued that the
agenda for planning for development is necessary if poverty is to be
minimized in nations, if national and per capita income is to be raised, if
inequalities in income and wealth are to be minimized and if employment
opportunities are to be generated (Jhingan, 2011). In order to achieve
these targets and objectives, planning is highly emphasized and correct
data must be available to achieve the same. It has been argued that
in the process of development planning, the local community has to
3
be fully involved. This is derived from the observation that “Not only
is local; needs-based, this is to say, demand driven development
completely accepted as permitting the most effective, efficient use to
be made of scarce resources to satisfy actual needs, but it has come
to be given a role in its own right. It is now recognized that it is only
at the local level that mobilization of the common sense of purpose,
confidence, creativity and energies necessary to embark successfully
on the development can take place” (Kanyhama, 1998:3). A similar idea
is maintained by Blakely and Bradshaw (2003).

1.2 Role of Data in Economic Planning and

Management of Development Projects at
Lower Local Governments
The role of local governments in the process of planning and economic
development has been extensively studied and emphasized (Morgan,
2007). On this basis, it is pointed out that one of the pre-requisites for
successful planning by local government is the availability of statistical
data. This is in addition to the existence of planning commission,
objectives, fixation of targets and priorities, mobilization of resources,
balancing in the plan, incorrupt and efficient administration, proper
development policy, economy in administration, an education base and
public cooperation among others.

It stands out clearly that for sound economic planning and management
of resources and projects for the development of a country, a survey of
existing potentials of a country should be done. Through the surveys,
the deficiencies of the economy would also be identified. Also, from the
surveys, statistical data and information would be obtained regarding
the total available human and non-human resources of the country.
Data regarding the economic variables of the country for example,
natural resources, along with their degree of utilization, agricultural
and industrial output, and transport facilities among others are crucial
4
for fixing national development targets and priorities in the national
development plans.

In order to be successful with both local and national development

projects, data should be generated right away from the local levels of
the national economy. This would require a number of tasks and efforts
towards generating reliable data and information at the local or sub
county level of national administration.

Valeda (2007) is of the view that, information or data is crucial for

local and rural development. This is indicated by the potential of
rural community libraries and their impact on small-scale economic
development. This finding and experience needs to be taken up by
the local government development planners at all times and cost. The
need for data in the planning process for development has been further
emphasized by Josh (2016). Josh (2016) argues that “… it is clear that
economic development been accompanied by – and aided by – the
rise of institutions that provide data.”4 In the same manner, Josh (2016)
is of the view that “… without question, these data providers facilitated
economic growth.”

Governments at all levels are usually confronted with the need to collect
and analyse data from the various sectors of the economy. The data
collected would be used by various economic development agents,
local governments inclusive, to guide local and national development
policy decisions (Amankwah-Amoah, 2015). Therefore, it can be argued
here that with reliable data, development plans can be formulated and
managed in the most effective way for the realization of the set targets
and objectives. Similarly, where unreliable data is available, unrealistic
4 See Josh (2016)

5
development targets are to be set and the attainment of their targets
and objectives would be in vain. This scenario is prevalent in least
developed countries of the world.

Dan Tunstall5 points out that, “Information technology is rapidly

becoming available in Africa, even at local levels. While Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) are still used at the national level to map
resources and assess social, economic and environmental conditions,
opportunities are growing for these sophisticated systems to be applied
in decentralized, participatory planning processes for villages and
rural communities. Especially when supported by the use of modern
information technology, such processes promise to finally empower
members of the community as full partners in development planning
and management of the natural resources on which their livelihood
depend.” This observation puts into focus of the need to involve
advanced technologies in the process of data collection for effective
rural development.

The role of data in the management of local social problems is made

clear from one case study from the State of Missouri – USA. A study
was carried out in the State of Missouri regarding the role of data-
driven planning and coalition development in preventing cardiovascular
disease (CVD). It was found out that the CVD was one of the major
diseases in United States. In the process of trying to minimize cases,
the data-based planning and evaluation at the State and local levels
was found to be highly necessary. One of the major recommendations
coming from the study is that, expanded use of chronic disease
surveillance data for planning and evaluation will increase the probability
that localities, States and the nation will achieve Year 2000 Health
Objectives. In the study, the data-based planning process is described
as a possible model for use by other States and localities.6
5 Director, Information Program World Resources Institute – Preface to Tools for Local-Level Rural
Development Planning, Combining use of Participatory Rural Appraisal and Geographic Information
System in Uganda, by Frank. R Turyatunga (2004: iv).
6 Brownson R.C, Smith C.A, Jorge N.E, Deprima L.T, Dean C.G and Cates R.W (ND), The Role of Data-
driven Planning and Coalition Development in Preventing Cardiovascular Disease (http://www.ncbi.nlm.
nil.gov/articles/PMC accessed on 14/10/2013)
6
Regarding the quality of data and its effect on development plans,
Todaro and Smith (2012:525) are of the view that “The economic value
of a development plan depends to a great extent on the quality and
reliability of the statistical data on which it is based. When these data
are weak, unreliable, or nonexistent, as in many poor countries, the
accuracy and internal consistency of economy wide quantitative plans
are greatly diminished. And when unreliable data are compounded by
an inadequate supply of qualified economists, statisticians and other
planning personnel (as is also the situation in most poor nations),
the attempt to formulate and carry out a comprehensive and detailed
development plan is likely to be frustrated at all levels.”

1.3 Data Availability and Quality in Least

Developed Countries

For a number of reasons, data is highly needed at all levels of planning.

Data about the natural resources variables would be needed for effective
management for such resources. This is so because most people
especially in the rural areas of developing countries rely on natural
resources. And these natural resources have a variety of benefits to the
local people. The multiple uses of the natural resources require specific
local knowledge and strong communication (Turyatunga, 2004).

Modern technology for data collection such as the Geographic

Information System (GIS), would help the local government planners to
develop strong and realistic development plans which document broad-
based participation and use of accurate, up-to-date information. This
will easily attract financial resources inflow from the donors and central
government.

It is observed that data and statistics sometimes can be deceitful.7

7 David F. Mpanga (2013), “Numbers and Statistics can be very deceitful”, posted
on Sunday, July 28, 2013; The New Vision News Paper, Kampala Uganda
7
The reason identified for this occurrence is the absence of institutional
capacity to verify to validate the data collected and presented. This is
a pointer to the quality of data against which development investment
decisions should be based upon. It is true that for the success of
development planning quality – meaningful data is highly needed for
the validation of development hypotheses.

Jerven as quoted by Mpanga (2013), points out some challenges that

stand in the way for especially the African economies to carry out the
planning process based on clean and valid data. It is pointed out here
that, with evidence drawn from researches conducted in countries like,
Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and
Zambia, it is proved that many of the numbers that are presented for
the public utilization are of “dubious quality”. As noted earlier, the major
cause of such a problem is the lack of institutional capacity to collect,
store and process data. Likewise, the statistics offices are generally
understaffed and underfunded.

Another major problem identified by Jerven as quoted by Mpanga

(2013), is the problem of so many political and social pressures to have
the numbers presented in a certain pattern. It is argued therefore that
“even where the numbers could have been corrected, errors or gaps
are simply compounded in order to perpetuate the “growth” stories.
Apparently, gaps in the numbers are routinely filled not with empirical
data but with guesstimates and extrapolation.8

1.4 Data Management for Development at

Lower Local Government Level in Uganda, a
case of developing country
Development planners and researchers in developing countries
especially those engaged in empirical aspects of development and
research respectively, are facing a number of challenges. These
8 Ibid
8
challenges cut across most developing countries. Kothari (2004),
drawing experience from India points out the following to be among
the most crucial challenges facing researchers; the lack of a scientific
training in the methodology of research, the limited interaction between
the university research departments on one side and business
establishments, government departments and research institutions on
the other side, the fear of the business sector about the misuse of the
information given by them to the researchers – this is the case of lack
of secrecy and ethical values by the researchers.

The other challenges also indicated by Kothari (2004), include; the

challenge of overlapping studies as many studies are undertaken due
to lack of adequate information. Library facilities are wanting in many
developing countries. Much of the information obtained from these
libraries is not up-to-date. Last but not least is the challenge of delayed
availability of published data from government departments.

From a practical point of view, Turyatunga (2004) identified some other

challenges that stand in the way of collecting quality data especially
in the rural areas. In this case, the lack of access to electricity and
telecommunications is at the forefront for most rural areas. There is
also no capacity at lower local levels to handle some information. Thus,
some information developed by the community has been stored in
analog form. Rudimentary capacity to handle such data has also been
witnessed.

The creation of community databases is highly needed. This could be

through Participatory Rural Appraisal and other mechanisms. However,
it has been observed by Bakebwa (2001), as quoted by Turyatunga
(2004:10) that, “Although PRA methods have been used in rural
development planning for some time … data and information continue
to be lacking at community level. Information gathered during each
planning cycle is lost and subsequent planning activities have to start
9
from scratch and repeat basic data gathering. Because communities
have thus far not been able to retain information about their key strategic
resources, “outside” technocrats have determined how analysis will be
conducted, leaving local communities in a relatively passive role. This
challenge has created more problems in the process of development
planning at the lower levels – limiting the ability of the intended
beneficiaries of rural development to develop information on trends
and thus, has denied them the benefit of important hindsight, which
is key to planning for the future”. It means therefore that, community
access to complete resource inventories is paramount to lower levels
of development planning. The PRA will assist in minimizing the cost
to be incurred in the process of updating the information needed for
development planning at all levels.

Given the challenges related to the quality of data, there are a numbers
of ways through which quality data can be generated for planning
purposes at the lower government levels. These methods have been
tried in some parts of the world and include Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) and Geographic Information System (GIS) (Turyatunga, 2004).

Drawing experience from Uganda, Turyatunga (2004) points out that,

GIS-based approaches to information gathering have a number of
advantages in terms of mapping applications in rural development
planning. In this regard aerial photographs are found out to be very
expensive for both national and local-level applications. And at the
same time, these photographs are not easily accessible to the local
communities. A major requirement for the successful utilization of GIS
would be establishment of strong capacity-building for information
management. The capacity building is expected to take the form of
hands-on approach initially with some few facilitators. The trained
staff will then be responsible for the community capacity building. It is
however observed that, local training is receiving low investment and it
is not continuous in most parts of developing countries (Turyantunga,
2004).
10
1.5 Community Information System a
Necessary Condition for Effective Local
Government Planning: Evidence from
Uganda

Community Information System (CIS) was initiated in Uganda by the

Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) with the goal of responding to
the ever increasing demand for accurate, regular and reliable data/
information. Accurate, regular and reliable data/information is highly
needed to benchmark evidence based planning, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of government and other development
partners’ programmes at all levels of administration (UBOS, 2014). The
lower local government administration level is however emphasized in
this chapter.

The specific objectives of CIS, as propounded by UBOS9 include the

following:
(i)  To facilitate regular and sustainable monitoring of effectiveness
of Government, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and other
poverty eradication initiatives among communities for timely appropriate
policy formulation and decision making;

(ii) To enhance the use of reliable and accurate data among communities
and households in the production processes for efficient utilization of
resources;

(iii) To support participatory development planning at the various levels

of local governments;
(iv)To facilitate identification of households by their socio-economic
characteristics and specific needs.
Still, according to UBOS (2014), it is indicated that, “The implementation
9 See www.ubos.org/statistical activities/community-system/district profiles/
community -statistics (accessed on 25/7/2016).
11
of CIS began during the Financial Year (FY) 2006/2007 in seven districts
namely; Kumi, Mayuge, Masaka, Nebbi, Kamwenge Masindi and
Bukedea.  In the Financial year 2007/2008, the programme expanded
to 16 more districts bringing the total to 23 districts namely;  Bukedea,
Kamwenge, Kumi, Masaka, Masindi, Mayuge, Nebbi, Adjumani,
Moroto, Iganga, Mbale, Kalangala, Kiboga, Nakaseke, Buliisa,
Kiruhura, Bushenyi, Ntungamo, Kabale, Gulu, Busia, Wakiso and
Rakai.  During the FY 2008/2009, the programme further expanded
to cover 28 districts including all the districts of the Lango Sub-region
namely, Apac, Amolatar, Dokolo, Lira and Oyam, which were covered
with support from UNICEF.

During the Financial year 2010/2011, ten (10) out of the 28 districts were
subdivided into new districts creating a total of 16 new districts. Also in
this FY, five (5) new districts namely;  Kanungu, Arua, Abim, Kayunga
and Manafwa were brought on board and baseline data collection was
done in Abim.  The baseline data for Kanungu and Kayunga districts
was generated during the FY 2011/2012.”10

Currently, there are roll out strategies which have enabled the CIS
programme to extend to 49 districts. It is also expected that the CIS will
be rolled out to all the districts of the country (UBOS, 2014).

It is further observed that the CIS is a multi-agency initiative. This is

true in the sense that, CIS was initiated with UBOS as the overall and
lead coordinator of the other agencies involved in the CIS. The other
agencies involved are the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic
Development (MFPED), Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social
Development (MOGLSD), the National Planning Authority (NPA), the
Ministry of Local Government (MLOG), the Ministry of ICT, Office of
Prime Minister (OPM) and the Local Governments. It is expected that
these agencies are to work together as a team to achieve the goals
10 See www.ubos.org/statistical activities/community-system/district profiles/
community -statistics (accessed on 25/7/2016)

12
of CIS. If this happens, then, accessibility and quality of data will
improve –adding value to the decision making process at the lower
local governments in Uganda.

Operationally, the CIS is designed in such a way that, it generates

data at the household, parish and sub-county levels. This process is
accomplished by using four registers. According to UBOS (2014), the
four registers identified as follows:

(i) Community register; (ii) Household register; (iii) General Parish

Information, (iv) Micro Finance and Cooperatives.

Some challenges however, have been encountered during the

implementation of the CIS since it was launched in Financial Year (FY)
2006/2007. The challenges have been so much linked to the process
of collecting data using the household register. The key challenges
encountered are identified as lengthy duration of administration,
longer duration of data collection, high cost of implementation and
delayed processing of data (UBOS, 2014). The costs of the identified
challenges have been reflected in reduced production of cost effective
and timely community level data (UBOS, 2014). In order to overcome
these challenges a new approach has been however developed in
terms of implementation of the CIS. This new approach is based on
four major components namely the community register, the community
survey, birth and death registration and the administrative information.11
It is imperative therefore, that, for effective data management at
the lower local government levels in Uganda, the local government
managers have to take keen interest in the operationalization of the
CIS at their Sub county levels.

11 See www.ubos.org/statistical activities/community-system/district profiles/

community -statistics (accessed on 25/7/2016)
13
1.6 Conclusion

The achievement of local and national development goals will entirely

depend on the availability of valid data, its quality and accessibility.
Local and national governments are expected to create an enabling
environment for the effective and efficient ulitilization of available data
for the development and planning processes. Periodical upgrading of
the available data is necessary and this will require strong capacities
at both national and local levels for information management. Thus
concerted effort will be needed from all the stakeholders in the system
of development. The stakeholders in this case are the national and
local governments, NGOs, International Development Agencies and
the local communities.

14
References

Amankwah-Amoah, J. (2015). “Safety or no safety in numbers?

Governments, big data and public policy formulation”,
Industrial Management & Data Systems. Vol. 115
Iss 9 pp. 1596 – 1603. New York, Emerald Group
Publishing Limited.

Blakely, E. J. & Bradshaw, T.K. (2003). Planning Local Economic

Development Theory and Practice (3rd Edition), New
Delhi, Vistaar Publications.

Brownson, R.C., Smith, C.A., Jorge, N.E., Deprima, L.T., Dean, C.G
& Cates R.W. (ND). The Role of Data-driven Planning and Coalition
Development in Preventing Cardiovascular Disease.
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nil.gov/articles/PMC accessed
on 14/10/2013)

Jhingan, M.L. (2011). The Economics of Development and Planning

(40th ed.). New Delhi Vrinda Publishers (p) Ltd.

Josh, G. P. (2016). “Big Data: The Key for Economic Development”.

http://www.wired.com/insights/2013/03/big-data
-the-key-to-economic-development,
(Accessed on 7/4/2016).

Kanyhama, D. (1998). Accessibility Planning and Local Development,

The Application Possibilities of the Integrated Rural
Accessibility Planning (IRAP). Geneva, ILO.

Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology, Methods and

Techniques (2nd Revised ed.). New Delhi, New Age
International Publishers.
15
Morgan J.Q (2009), The Role of Local Government in Economic
Development, Survey Findings from North Carolina,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
Mpanga D.F (2013), “Numbers and Statistics can be very deceitful”,
posted on Sunday, July 28, 2013; The New Vision
News Paper, Kampala Uganda.

Todaro, M.P., & Smith, S.C. (2012). Economic Development, 11th

Edition. (Singapore) Pte Delhi, Pearson Education.

Turyatunga F.R (2004), Tools for Local-Level Rural Development

Planning, Combining use of Participatory Rural
Appraisal and Geographic Information System in
Uganda, World Resource Institute, Washington DC.,
USA.

Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) (2012), Sub county Development

Programme, Implementation of the Community
Information System (CIS), Mayuge District Socio
Economic Report Volume II, Uganda Bureau of
Statistics, Kampala.

Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) (2014),

Community Statistics, Uganda Bureau of
Statistics, Kampala.

United Nations Development Programme (2007),

Case Evidence on “Capacities for Integrated Local
Development Planning”, A UNDP Capacity
Development Resource (Draft Copy),
Capacity Development Briefs,
Capacity Development Group, UNDP.

16
Valeda F. D (2007), Local Economic Development in Uganda and the
Connections to Rural Community Libraries and
Literacy, New Library World, Vol. 108 No. 5/6, 2007,
PP. 2003-217, Emerald Group Publishing Limited,
New York.

17
 CHAPTER TWO

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS FOR

POLICY FORMULATION AND DECISION
MAKING PROCESS

Chemisto Haruna12

12 Lecturer at the Islamic University in Uganda Department of Mathematics and

Statistics, Faculty of Science.
18
2.1 Introduction

This Chapter is intended to equip the reader especially the lower local
government managers/planners with knowledge and skills in data
presentation and analysis for policy formulation and decision making
process at sub-county level.

2.2 Objectives of the Chapter

In this chapter and by its conclusion, the reader is expected to be able

to:
(a) Explain the meanings of the most commonly used terms in
data presentation and analysis.
(b) Distinguish between the types of data that may be collected
or required at the sub-county level for planning.
(c) Appreciate the various methods and techniques of data
presentation and analysis.
(d) Choose appropriate techniques of data presentation and
analysis that are suitable for each set of data.
(e) Outline the steps involved in data analysis.
(f) Develop a strategy for ensuring appropriate data
presentation, analysis and dissemination for planning and
decision making at the sub-county.

2.3 Data Presentation and Analysis at

Sub-county level

The processing of statistical information has history that extends as far

back to the beginning of mankind. Long time ago, communities compiled
statistical data to provide descriptive information relative to all sorts of
things such as taxes, wars, agricultural crops, births, deaths and even
certain events of interest to the community. With the development of
probability theory, communities are now able to use statistical methods
19
that not only describe important features of the data but also methods
that allow communities proceed beyond the collected data into the area
of decision making through generalisations and predictions.

2.4 Definition of Key Terms

In this section, definitions of key terms as used in data presentation and
analysis are presented.

Data: according to Krishnaiah (1980), data is facts about something

that can be used in calculating, reasoning, or planning. In other words,
data can be defined as any information of interest to the statistician that
is collected in a systematic manner for a given purpose. For example,
number of households with toilet facilities, number of school going
children in a given village, number children born in a given sub-county
every year, population distribution in the sub-county and the like. Data
most frequently used is numerical (given in numbers) but at times, data
could be categorical, for example, level of education could be given
certain numbers by way of coding.

Statistics: the term statistics has two meanings, as in singular sense

and in plural sense. According to Miller and Yang (2007), in plural sense,
it means a systematic collection of numerical facts and in singular
sense; it is the science of collecting, classifying and using statistics.
These definitions give a narrow meaning to the term statistics as they
do not indicate its various aspects as are witnessed in its practical
applications. From this point of view, the definition given by Croxton
and Cowden appears to be the most comprehensive and meaningful:
“by statistics we mean the collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical data.”

Variables: variations of specific distinctions with respect to a set of

data about a particular individual. For example, information regarding
a given population in a sub-county may indicate the age, sex, height,
20
weight, level of education and the like. These are the variables by which
the population in the sub-county may be described or distinguished.

Discrete Variables: number of people, cows, goats, children,

households in a given parish or sub-county are examples of discrete
variables because they take on values such as 0,1,2,3,…..

Continuous Variables: weight, height and the like. This may relate to
people in a sub-county. These are very good examples of continuous
variables because they take on any value within a given range.

Data Analysis: according to Berner (2010), data analysis implies

interpreting, organizing and changing data in order to bring out the
useful information. The findings or results of data analysis should be
related to possible causes and implications that will enable one refocus
the programme or redesign it. When data analysis does not enable the
establishment of possible causes and implications, it means the set of
data used has some errors and one may have to take another look at
it closely.

Any statistical exercise or activity may consist of the following four

major steps:

(a) Collection of data by counting, measuring or testing or by

any method that befits the process or purpose of collection.
(b) Organizing and presenting the data so collected in a
convenient manner or form.
(c) Analysing the collected data using appropriate methods of
analysis.
(d) Interpretation and dissemination of the results so obtained
for consumption or use by the relevant or interested
sections of the general public.

21
2.5 Importance of Data Presentation and
Analysis
Data presentation and analysis is important in policy formulation,
decision making and planning process because of the following
reasons:

(i) Provides evidence for taking appropriate decisions, policy

formulations and planning.
(ii) Enables the substantiation for decisions taken at all levels.
(iii) Clarifies issues that are based on community needs and
priorities that are realistic for planning, policy formulation
and decision making.

Thus, plans, policies and decisions that are based on accurate data
presentation and analysis increase the credibility of the decision makers
and ensure that, their policies, plans and decisions taken are realistic
and representative of the needs and priorities of the communities.

2.6 Data Coding and Tabulation

The processing of data includes recording, coding, editing, entering
either manually or electronically and cleaning in order to ensure that
before actual analysis, the data is improved as much as possible to
make it free of error and is in the form that allows accurate and efficient
manipulation. Thus, the major steps in data processing include the
following:

(i) Recording, that is, collecting information about some

issues or services provided and noting.
(ii) Categorizing, that is, generating the category of individuals,
by sex/gender, level of education, poverty, district and the
like.
(iii) Editing and cleaning to ensure no question is omitted and
logical consistency.
22
Consider, as a case study, the following set of data that has been
collected or recorded by a given sub-county using appropriate
techniques and having taken into account all the factors that affect the
process of data collection.

2.7 Data Arrangement and Organisation

The variables that have been used in the afore mentioned example
are a set of data to distinguish these individuals in the sub-county are
district of origin, age, number of children, number of cows, housing units
in the household and presence of a toilet facility. Consider just one of
the variables; say the number of children possessed by each individual.
The 30 recordings on the number of children of these individuals may
be too many to comprehend on a quick glance. Therefore, the objective
is to summarise this set of data in a form that is easy to understand
or grasp and this can be done easily by preparing a table in which
the number of children of the individuals that are similar are placed
together.

Table 2.1 Data for 30 Individual Households in a given Sub-county

Individual District of Age No. of No. of cows No. of houses Presence

origin Children owned in household of toilet

1 1 50 10 6 3 1
2 2 58 8 6 2 1
3 1 50 4 4 1 2
4 2 58 3 5 2 1
5 1 25 3 5 2 1
6 2 40 6 6 3 1
7 3 55 6 10 3 2
8 1 22 2 3 2 1
9 2 25 2 5 2 1
10 3 40 9 12 3 2
11 1 25 9 6 2 1
12 1 55 5 7 3 1
13 2 40 4 5 2 2
14 1 50 12 15 4 1
23
 15 1 55 9 10 3 1
16 2 58 10 18 4 1
17 1 68 16 20 5 1
18 4 68 12 16 6 1
19 2 40 8 8 3 2
20 2 58 6 9 2 2
21 1 25 5 7 3 1
22 1 40 10 22 5 1
23 4 35 4 7 3 2
24 1 35 6 11 4 1
25 3 55 18 25 6 1
26 2 68 24 3 2 2
27 1 75 18 15 8 1
28 4 40 8 9 4 1
29 3 55 5 8 3 1
30 1 58 15 18 4 1

District of origin coded as: 1 – District A

2 – District B
3 – District C
4 – District D
Presence of toilet facilities is coded as: 1 – Yes; 2 – No

It should be noted that, the district of origin and presence of toilet
facilities are categorical variables.

In the above example, consider the number of children of the 30

individuals in the given sub-county. This set of data can be organised
in ascending order as follows:

2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6
6 6 6 8 8 8 8 9 9 9
10 10 10 12 12 15 16 18 18 24

Certainly, this is not the best way of arranging this particular set of data,
but it is better than the data given in Table 3.1. A table can be formed
showing the number of times a particular number of children that are

24
possessed by the individuals appear. This is called frequency which is
usually denoted by symbol f.

The total frequency in Table 3.2 is 30 indicating the number of individuals

in the sub-county. Similarly, a table indicating the age or number of cows
possessed or presence of a toilet facility in the individuals’ households
in the sub-county could also be generated accordingly.

Table 2.2 Frequency Table showing the number of children

possessed by individuals in a given Sub-county

Number of children Frequency (f)

2 2
3 2
4 3
5 2
6 4
8 4
9 3
8 3
12 2
15 1
16 1
18 2
24 1
∑ 30

2.8 Frequency Distribution Table

When dealing with a large set of data, it is more convenient to construct
a frequency distribution which consists of three major columns; a
column for a given characteristic of the data, a column for the tallies
and a column for the frequency. It would indeed be more cumbersome
25
to write a large set of data in ascending or descending order. Thus
the information on age could be presented in the following frequency
distribution table as presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Frequency Distribution table showing the ages of

individuals in the Sub-county

Age Tally frequency

x f fx
22 / 1 22
25 //// 4 75
35 // 2 70
40 ///// / 6 240
50 /// 3 150
55 ///// 5 275
58 ///// 5 290
68 /// 3 204
75 / 1 75
30 1401

2.9 Grouped Data

For a relatively larger set of data, it is always useful to arrange the
values in regular groups or classes each of which, has the same range.
From the given data set, it is advisable to use a frequency distribution
table to construct the classes. Consider the case of the age of the
individuals. This was recorded to the nearest unit. For example, the
age of an individual recorded as 58 means that the individual’s age is
between 57.5 and 58.5. Similarly, the age recorded as 22 indicates an
age between 21.5 and 22.5. Thus, the ages recorded as 22, 27, 28, …,
29 could all be included in the class interval 20 and 29.

26
Table 2.4 Frequency Distribution Table showing the Ages of the
Individuals in a given Sub-county

Class Class Tally Frequency cumulative

interval Mid-point frequency
x f cf fx
20 – 29 24.5 ///// 5 5 122.5
30 - 39 34.5 // 2 7 69.0
40 - 49 44.5 ///// / 6 13 267.0
50 - 59 54.5 ///// ///// /// 13 26 708.5
60 - 69 64.5 /// 3 29 193.5
70 - 79 74.5 / 1 30 74.5
30
1435.0

It should be noted that the numbers for each class interval indicate the
limits. For example 20 and 29 are lower and upper limits of that class
interval. Once the groups are not given, then it is advisable to use the
following guidelines in constructing the class intervals:

(i) The number of class intervals have to be between five and

fifteen
(ii) Class intervals have to be of equal class width
(iii) Class width should be an odd number to ease computations,
say 5 or 15, and the like.
(iv) Make tallies and add up the frequencies after completion

These guidelines only help when one is constructing the class groups.
Otherwise, one may be given a grouped data that may not obey the
above guidelines.

27
2.10 Graphical Presentation of Data
Other than presenting data in table form, it can also be presented
graphically. The most commonly used graphs to present data are:

(i) Pie-Charts
(ii) Bar Graphs
(iii) Histograms
(iv) Frequency Polygons
(v) Frequency Curves (Ogives)

2.11 Simple Statistical Computations

When data is collected, interest is on determining some critical
measures which are required for making certain decisions. Most times,
one is interested in the total or average. From the above example
one may be interested in the average age of the individuals living in a
given sub-county or the total number of children of school going age
in the sub-county or average number of children possessed by each
individual in the sub-county.

There are three most common values or measures that indicate the
average namely; the Mean, Median and Mode. The mean is defined as
the arithmetic average of the distribution and the median is the middle
value in the distribution while the mode is the most frequently occurring
value or that value with the highest frequency.

28
Table 2.5 Frequency Distribution Table showing the Age of the
Individuals in the Sub-county

Age Tally frequency

x f fx cf
22 / 1 22 1
25 //// 4 75 5
35 // 2 70 7
40 ///// / 6 240 13
50 /// 3 150 16
55 //// 5 275 21
58 //// 5 290 26
68 /// 3 204 29
75 / 1 75 30
Total 30 1401

Mean
Considering Table 3.5, one may be interested in determining the
mean age of the individuals in the sub-county. The procedure is to
have the corresponding elements in the age column multiplied by the
corresponding elements in the frequency column. The sum of the
column marked fx is divided by the total number of individuals.
Thus the mean (average) age µ = ∑fx = 1401 = 46.7
∑f 30

Hence, the average or the mean age of the community in the sub-
county (using the above example) is approximately 47 years.

However, in the case of grouped data in Table 3.4 the mean age can
be estimated assuming that all the observations in each class are
concentrated in the class mid-point.

29
Thus the mean (average) age µ = ∑fx = 1435 = 47.83
∑f 30
In the case of grouped data, the average or mean age of the community
in the sub-county is estimated at approximately 48 years.

Median
The median is the middle number or term in the distribution. For
ungrouped data, the median depends on the number of observations
and is n/2, where n is the number of observations, while for an odd
number of observations, the median is the (n+1)/2. If the number of the
observations is even, then the median is the average of the two middle
terms. The data, however, has to be arranged in either ascending or
descending order.

For grouped data, the median has the following simple formula which is
used to obtain an estimate of the exact median within the median class,
where Lb is the lower class boundary of the median class, cfm-1 is the
cumulative frequency of the class before the median class, i is the class
width of the median class and fm is the frequency of the median class.

Median = Lb + ( N/2 – cfm-1) x i = 49.5 + (15 – 13) x 10 = 51.04

fm 13

Thus, the median age of the community in the sub-county is
approximately 51 years.

Mode
The mode is the most common observation. In the case of ungrouped
data, the mode is therefore the age with the highest frequency, which
in this case, is 40 when the age distribution is not grouped. However,
when the age distribution is grouped, then the following simple formula
is used to obtain an estimate of the mode, where Lb is the lower class
30
boundary of the modal class, d1 is the difference between the frequency
of the modal class and that of the class before the modal class, d2 is
the difference between the frequency of the modal class and that of the
class after the modal class and i is the width of the modal class.

Mode = Lb + ( d1) xi = 49.5 + 7 x 10 = 53.62

(d1+d2) 17
Thus, the most common age of the community in the sub-county is
approximately 54 years.

2.12 Conclusion
No doubt, the values mean, mode and median among others will have
profound implication, indication and direction of policy designs and
directions to the planners at the lower local government levels. These
values should be taken seriously for any development decisions to be
meaningful.

31
References

Berner, M. (2010). Statistics for Public Administration: Practical Uses

for Better Decision Making. ICMA Press
Garner, M. and Wagner, C. and Kawulich, B. (2009).
Teaching Research Methods in the Social Sciences.
Ashgate Publ. Delhi
Goodwin, J. (2012). SAGE Secondary Data Analysis: Sage Library of
Research Methods. SAGE, London.
Johnson G. (2015). Research Methods for Public Administrators.
Revised Edition. M E Sharpe, London
Krishnaiah, P. R. (1980). Handbook of Statistics. Vol. 31. Motilal
Banarsidass, Delhi.
Miller G. J. and Yang K. (2007). Handbook of Research Methods
in Public Administration. 2nd Edition. CRC Press,
Washington
Schwester, R. W. (2015). Teaching Research Methods in Public
Administration: Advances in public policy
and administration. IGI Global, New York

32
 CHAPTER THREE

DATA COLLECTION METHODS FOR SOCIAL

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AT LOWER LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS

Kiboma Gimui13
Masokoyi Waswa14
Kawalya Isa15

13 Former Lecturer at the Islamic University in Uganda, Faculty of Arts and Social
Sciences, Department of Geography
14 Former Lecturer at the Islamic University in Uganda, Faculty of Management
Studies, Department of Public Administration
15 Lecturer at the Islamic University in Uganda, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences,
Department of Political Science
33
3.1 Data Collection Methods for Social
Economic Activities

Sapsford and Jupp (2006) defined data collection as simply a process

of how information is gathered. There are various methods of data
collection such as personal interviewing, telephone, mail and internet.
Depending on the survey design, these methods can be used separately
or combined. Data collection method is the strategy and system used to
gather information on the participants, programmes and other elements
of the evaluation

The qualitative data is numeric information that is subject to statistical

analysis while qualitative data is text based information that provides
descriptive details. Qualitative data is often collected from interviews,
focus group discussion or observation.

Types and Sources of Data

Secondary data: This is data that was previously collected for
some other purpose. This type data is easily accessible, relatively
inexpensive and quickly obtainable. It is useful when it is not feasible for
an entity or local government or any agency to collect primary data for
example population census (Thiel, 2014). Therefore, the examination
of secondary data is a prerequisite to the collection of primary data.
But, due to the fact that, secondary data was collected for some other
purpose, their usefulness to the problem at stake may be limited.
Secondary data could be in form of data bases, published material and
online data bases among others.

Primary data: This type of data may be qualitative (opinions) or

quantitative (numbers). This is data collected directly from respondents
on a particular issue.

34
3.2 Data Collection Methods
Both qualitative and quantitative data may be collected using the
following methods and techniques:

3.2.1 Surveys and questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are used to gather specific information
from participants, families, staff and administrators, teachers,
community members and other stake holders. Data collected often
includes demographic information, satisfaction levels and opinions
about projects, programmes, plans and people among others.

Surveys and questionnaires are usually administered on paper in a

structured or semi-structured format. Respondents often choose from
among a set of forced – choices or provided responses. These can
include options of Yes or No or scaled responses for example agree,
strongly agree, disagree, strongly disagree. Gideon (2012) commented
that surveys and questionnaires can be administered in person, by
mail, or over the telephone or via email or internet and today through
the various social media.

Types of information that can be collected using surveys and

questionnaire methods may include the following:

(a) Youth and family demographics: programme characteristics

(activities, staffing, levels of parental involvement).
(b) People’s programme participants (how often, for how long, in
which programme activities).
(c) People perception of and satisfaction with the programme.
(d) Youth outcomes (academic adjustment and achievement,
social skills, risk taking behavior, attitude, self concept,
employability and the like).

The following advantages are said to be associated with surveys and

35
questionnaires as methods of data collection:

(a) Less time consuming

(b) Can be administered to large groups of individuals
(c) Effective for assessing programmes satisfaction

On the other hand however, there are some challenges that are likely
to be encountered when using surveys and questionnaires during the
process of data collection. Some of the challenges are identified as:

(a) Data entry and analysis can be time consuming

(b) Receiving filled surveys from respondents may be difficult.
(c) Only appropriate for literate respondents

All in all, surveys and questionnaires are the most commonly used
methods for collecting data by programmes involving social economic
activities.

3.2.2 Interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

Interviews and focus groups discussions are most often used to gather
detailed and qualitative descriptions of how programmes operate and
how stakeholders perceive performance the performance of plans and
projects and programmes.

Interviews are conducted on a one-on-one basis. On the other hand,

focus group discussions are conducted in small groups of 5-7 people.
Interviews and focus group discussions are usually conducted with
targeted samples of stakeholders such as staff, administrators, youths,
families, funders/donors and community members.

Interviews and focus groups can be conducted physically or through

telephone contact or through social media. In the two cases, questions
are generally open-ended and responses are documented in thorough
36
and detailed notes or transcriptions. However, some interviews are
structured in such a format to capture quantitative responses.

Types of information that can be collected through Interviews and

Focus Group Discussions
• Student, family and community background i.e. demographics
• Programme characteristics (goals, needs, implementation
level, staff hiring and training programmes accessibility,
community involvement)
• People’s programme participation (how often, are community
members involved in the programme)
• People’s perception of and satisfaction with the programmes
• Youth outcomes (academic adjustments, social skills, attitudes,
self concept)

Advantages of Interviews and FGDs

• Provide rich data that paint a broader picture
37
 • May highlight issues not previously considered or information
that is useful for interpreting quantitative data collected through
other methods
• Small focus groups may increase the comfort level of
participants for revealing full information

Challenges of Interviews and FGDs

• Can be difficult to elicit participation from individuals who have
time constraints.
• Interviews and lager focus groups may intimidate some
participants
• Documentation and analysis can be time consuming and may
require the help of some one versed in qualitative analysis

3.2.3. Observation as a Data Collection Method

Observations are a generally unobtrusive method for gathering
information about how programmes or initiatives operate. They are
usually conducted by external evaluators or researchers. Observations
may be used to verify and supplement information gathered through
other methods. This is often a method used to assess programme
quality standards.

Observations can be highly structured, with protocols for recording

specific behaviors at specific times or unstructured, taking a “look and
see” approach. They are most reliable when they are conducted over
a period of time to minimize the chances of the observation days being
atypical.

Types of information that may be gathered by the Observation

Method
• Programme characteristics (implementation, activities,
interpersonal interactions, administration and management,
health and safety)
38
Advantages of Observation as a Data Collection Method
• Provide highly detailed information from an external perspective
on what actually occurs in programmes and activities.
• Trained evaluators may provide less biased description than
programme staff or stakeholders.

Challenges of Observation Method

• Can be time consuming,
• Can be labour intensive and expensive,
• Observers must be trained and consistent with one another

3.2.4. Tests and Assessment

These are developed or used specifically for the programme
evaluation to quantify characteristics of the programmes, participants
or outcomes. Examples include achievement and psychological tests
(e.g. assessments of depressive symptoms and self esteem). They
may be standardized or created by programme evaluators for the
specific programme.

Type of Information that can be collected by Tests and Assessment

• Programme implementation (staffing models, activity offerings,
management and organizational strategies).
• Youth outcomes (academic achievement, self esteem, mental
health and wellbeing, social skills and development, risk taking
behaviour, career maturity, fitness).

Advantages of Tests and Assessment Methods

• Often more varied and reliable than perceptions or opinions.
• Comparing scores before and after the programme is a strong
method for assessing whether outcomes actually changed over
time.

39
Challenges of Tests and Assessment Method
• Can be costly and time intensive
• May require scoring by an external source

3.2.5 Document Reviews

Document reviews analyze existing programme records and other
documents not gathered or developed specifically for the evaluation.
Examples include recruitment and attendance records, budget, staff
records and annual reports. They are particularly useful for documenting
implementation.

Type of Information that can be obtained from Document Reviews

• Family and community demographics
• Programme characteristics (implementation, activities and
curricular, budgets)
• People programme participation (how often and for how long)
• Student characteristics before and after the programme (academic
achievement, school attendance, limited English proficiency status,
Universal Primary Education, local language usage in learning and
the like).

Advantages of Document Review Method

• Records are tailored to programmes
• Saves on evaluation time and costs
• May elicit a high degree of accuracy from staff if they are also
used for accountability purposes

Challenges of Document Review Method

• Documents may not be available or applicable for some indicators
• Sometimes documents may be incomplete due to staff time
constraints

40
3.3 Conclusion
More methods of data collection are available for use depending on the
nature of the data needed by the local government authority including
the planners. However, selection of one or more methods will depend
on a number of factors from the perspective of the local government
unit interested in the data. The data collection method selection criteria;
may include time, funds availability or generally the budget, human
resource and nature of respondents among others.

41
References

Axinn, W.G. and Pearce, L.D. (2006). Mixed Method Data Collection
Strategies. Cambridge University Press, London

Gideon, L. (2012). Handbook of Survey Methodology for the Social

Sciences. Springer, New York

Nishishiba, M. Jones, M. and Kraner, M. (2013). Research Methods

and Statistics for Public and Nonprofit Administrators: A
Practical Guide. SAGE, London

McNabb, D.E. (2015). Research Methods in Public Administration and

Nonprofit Management. Taylor & Francis, London

Pawar, M.S. (2004). Data Collecting Methods and Experiences: A

Guide for Social Researchers. New Dawn Press, Delhi

Thiel, S. (2014). Research Methods in Public Administration and Public

Management: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis, London

Sapsford, R. and Jupp, V. (2006). Data Collection and Analysis.

SAGE Publ. London

42
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA MANAGEMENT AT LOWER LOCAL

GOVERNMENT: STORAGE AND PRESERVATION

Ssesanga Idris16
Kiyonga Hamid17

16 Former University Librarian, Islamic University in Uganda

17 Lecturer, Islamic University in Uganda; Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences,
Department of Mass Communication
43
4.1 Introduction
The objectives of this chapter are to expound on the concept of data
management, storage and preservation; explain the rationale behind
data management with particular emphasis to data storage and
preservation in the context of decentralized service delivery at the
lower local government levels; and examining the ways and means for
harmonious storage of data and preserving it for sustainable use at the
lower local government levels.

The role of data or information at all levels of human endeavors is critical.

The role of relevant data for timely planning, decision making, resource
allocation and control as well as empowerment among others cannot
be under-estimated more so, in the decentralized service delivery
to the grass root communities. Local authorities for example Sub-
Counties need data and information for their survival and sustainable
development.

The type of Data / Information needed to cause sustainable development

should meet the following attributes:

• It should be adequate,
• It should be accurate,
• It should be relevant,
• It should be timely delivered to Local authorities, if it is to be of
value to them.

It is such Data/ Information that should be availed to leaders at both HLGs

and LLGs (Higher Local Governments & Lower Local Governments) for
effective service delivery to grass root communities. This is the cardinal
goal of the decentralization principle in Uganda a case of effective
service delivery at the grassroots communities.

However, it should be noted that if relevant, accurate, adequate and

44
timely data/ Information is to cause development and competitive
advantages to Local governments especially at Sub-County levels,
such available data or Information should be used on a sustainable
basis. Such information or data should be used not only to benefit the
present leaders and generation but also the next generation (posterity).
This therefore calls for all efforts to be made to ensure effective storage
and preservation of the available Data and Information if it is to be used
on sustainable basis. This is the basis on which this topic is premised.

The main purpose of this chapter is to equip the reader and more
especially data managers at lower local government with skills and
knowledge on how to store data or information and be able to avail it in
time when required to aid the planning, decision making and resource
control among others at Sub-county or village levels.

4.2 Additionally, the objectives of this chapter

are:
• To enlighten the reader about the concept of data management
and what it entails
• To explore the rationale behind Data management in the context
of decentralized service delivery to the grass root communities
• To examine the obtaining Data storage systems at the Sub-
county levels with a view of bridging the weaknesses exhibited
if any
• To identify, discuss and recommend the appropriate data /
Information storage and preservation mechanisms that ensure
continuous use of the available data on a sustainable basis.

In the process of understanding data management, there are some

key concepts that need to be defined. Some of these key concepts are
described here under:

45
4.3 Meaning of Data
There is no universally accepted definition of the term, but generally
data refers to un processed information. Martin (2005) defined data
as raw facts, ideas and it is only after such scattered raw facts, ideas,
suggestions have been organized, interpreted and made meaningful
that we get information. Data in the context of sub-counties constitutes
say, raw facts about some things such as the forest reserves existing
in the sub-county, the swamps existing in the sub-counties, the women
existing in the sub county, the rain fall patterns of a certain sub-county,
20% elderly women among others.

Such raw ideas/ messages are meaningless to anybody unless they

are organized and interpreted to make meaning out of them to aid
decision making and planning. For example, if one adds that 20% of
the elderly women in Sibanga Sub county are un employed, when one
compares the rainfall patterns and realizes there is a sharp variation on
what used to be in the past, then such is meaningful information that
there perhaps climatic changes which the leaders need to take note of
in order to advise their communities accordingly.

4.4 Data Management Explained

Data management entails all efforts that are geared towards ensuring
that the data collected or generated is reliable, accurate, authentic,
adequate and relevant for purposes for which it was created. Such data
/ Information should continue to be available for sustainable use.

According to Briney (2015), Data Management involves a whole

range of activities or processes including but not limited to acquisition,
generation, processing, storage, preservation and control, retrieval &
dissemination, appraisal and disposal.

However, for purposes of this chapter, concentration is on storage and

preservation of data and information. At this juncture, it is assumed that
46
all the above data and information management processes (activities)
have been taken care of and we have reliable, accurate, adequate as
well as relevant data (information) in place. Therefore, the task at this
point is to ensure that such information (data) is stored and preserved
well for sustainable use of this data by the Local authorities for effective
planning and decision making.

4.5 The Concept of Data Storage

Data storage is a systematic effort that ensures that the information
generated is well documented and kept well for present and future
use (Piramanayagam and Chong, 2011). According to Borghoff et.al.
(2007), data storage entails a range of:

• Good human behaviors, that is to say; integrity, honesty not to

abuse and corrupt the data (information) in its storage systems.
• Equipments; right equipments for each format or type of data/
information medium (albums for data in form of photographs,
flash disks, CDs for data/ Information in form of electronic
formats, safes, cabinets for data/ information in form of paper
files, charts, graphs) just among others.
• Procedures; the key questions here are; who is in charge of
what? when?, why? and how? Who is authorized to access
what data or information? When and in what format? And in
what amount or quantity?

It should be noted that data storage has a strong link to the type/ format
of data to be stored because it determines the documentation of data
as well as the storage equipment to be used and even the retention
schedules of such data.

47
4.6 Meaning and Scope of Data
Documentation
Data documentation refers to the medium or format in which data
(information) is captured from the diverse sources during data collection
and generation methods and how it is reported to the intended or
potential users.
Therefore, data is captured and documented differently according to
the type and format of data. It can be documented through:

• Photographs (still photos)

• Digital format, slides, photos, scans
• Charts
• Maps
• Tables
• Graphs
• Reports
• Registers
• Minutes
• Publications (bulletins, brochure, magazines and newsletters)
just among others.

It should be noted that documentation is one of the crucial steps in data

management.

4.7 Data Storage Equipments

Data should be well stored to ensure its format, state and content is not
compromised. Sustainable use of data calls upon it to be kept secure
from manipulation, corruption, damage, theft as well as keeping them
neat. Table 5.1 is a typical form that provides the various types of data,
storage equipment and the potential threats.

Table 4.1: Form providing various data, storage equipment and

potential threats
48
S.N TYPE/ FORMAT OF
DATA
1 Paper documents
2 Photographs
3 Digital data/
information
4 Charts, maps,
graphs
5 Slides, films, micro-
fiche, transparences
STORAGE POTENTIAL
EQUIPMENT (S) THREATS
File folders, box Theft, abuse, dirt,
files, cabinets, safe rodents, moisture,
fire, pests, strong
heat, radiation
Frames, albums, Theft, abuse, fire,
cabinets, safe, moisture, rodents,
drawers pests, dirt, radiation
Flash discs, Theft, manipulation,
computers, CDs, viruses, dirt,
External Hard Discs moisture, radiation,
fire
Special folders, Theft, abuse,
safes, filing cabinets dirt, moisture, to
much light, pests &
rodents
Slide cabinets, dark Man, dirt, rodents,
rooms, drawers moisture, heat,
radiation

4.8 Documentation of Statistical Data

Statistical data as shall be the major data expected from the respondents
may be documented as given in Table 5.2 for sustainable use.

49
 Table 4.2: Typical sample of how statistical data is documented
SN Item Size/ Qty Ownership Productivity Village(s) Parish Status Market
1.0 Natural resources
Forest coverage
Land acreage
Rivers
Lakes
Quarries;
1. sand
2. stones
Wetlands
Rainfall patterns
2.0 Agricultural Production
Animals:
1. Cows

50
2. Goats
3. Pigs
4. Poultry
Crops:
1. Coffee
2. Cotton
3. Tea
4. Banana
3.0 Social Services
3.1 Schools:
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
 3.2 Health services:
1. Clinics
2. Dispensaries
3. Hospitals
3.3 CSOs:
1. NGOs
2. CBOs
3. Mosques
4. Churches
5. Associations

51
4.9 Conclusion
Given the objectives of this chapter as mentioned earlier on, data
management, storage and preservation provide the rationale behind
data management with particular emphasis to data storage and
preservation in the context of planning and development and service
delivery at the lower local government levels. Lower local government
managers are expected to pay much attention to the aspects of data
management, storage and preservation. This will add value and
meaning to the decision making processes by lower local governments
regarding development processes and programmes.

52
4.10 References
Briney, K. (2015) Data Management for Researchers: Organize,
maintain and share your data for research success. Pelagic
Publishing, New York
Borghoff, U.M., Rödig, P., Scheffczyk, J. and Schmitz, L. (2007)
Long-Term Preservation of Digital Data: Principles and
Practices. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg
Martin, M. (2005) Local and Regional Government Information: How to
Find It, how to Use it. Greenwood Press, London
Berman, F. (2008). Got data?: a guide to data preservation in the
information age. Communications of the ACM, 51(12), 50-56.
Altman, M., Adams, M., Crabtree, J., Donakowski, D., Maynard, M.,
Pienta, A., & Young, C. (2009). Digital preservation through
archival collaboration: The data preservation alliance for the
social sciences. The American Archivist, 72(1), 170-184.
Berman, F. (2008). Got data?: a guide to data preservation in the
information age. Communications of the ACM, 51(12), 50-56.
Piramanayagam, S.N. and Chong, T.C. (2011) Developments in Data
Storage: Materials Perspective. Wiley, London

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

COMPUTERZED DATA STORAGE AND

MANAGEMENT

Kalanzi Ismail18

18 Former Computer Technician, Islamic University in Uganda

54
The chapter aims at enabling the reader especially development
planners and data managers at lower local government levels to acquire
knowledge and skills in managing storage devices in order to eliminate
crisis of data and time loss due to breakdown of data storage devices.

Additionally, the chapter provides an explanation of the need of various

storage facilities in data collection and analysis. At the end of this
chapter, planners are expected to go smoothly the process of choosing
appropriate data storage devices and acquire appropriate skills of using
them without losing data at all levels.

In the process and system of using computers to manage data, there

are some commonly used terms. Some of these terminologies are
highlighted here:

A computer
This is a system composed of hardware and software that can be used
to accomplish tasks as speedy and accurately as possible.

Software
These are the programs that can enable a computer to perform various
tasks.

Hardware
This comprises the physical devices (Equipments) of a computer.

Desktop
The desktop is considered to be the working area of the screen of the
computer.

Icons
These are the graphical representations of various programmes.

55
Folders
These are containers in which files can be stored on a computer.

File
This is a collection of related information.

Clicking
This is the pressing of the mouse buttons.

Double clicking
Double clicking involves the rapid pressing and releasing of the mouse’s
left button.

Right clicking
This is the pressing of the right button of the mouse.

5.1 Data Storage Devices

A data storage device is a hardware device designed to store information
Khurshudov (2001). It is evident that IBM was the first to introduce a
data storage device in 1956. From this time tremendous effort and
progress has been made in the field of hard disk drive system and
technology (Morris and Truskowski, 2003).

Various forms of data storage do exist. In this case Balasa is of the

view that “Many different forms of storage, based on various natural
phenomena, has been invented. So far, no practical universal storage
medium exists, and all forms of storage have some drawbacks.
Therefore, a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage,
each with an individual purpose.” According to Khurshudov (2001) two
main types of storage devices used in computers are identified; the
primary storage device and the secondary storage device

56
5.2 The Primary storage device
A primary storage location holds data for short period of time. The data
stored in a primary storage gets lost immediately when a computer is
switched off.

5.3 The Secondary storage device

A storage medium that holds information until it is deleted or overwritten.
Every piece of information stored on a secondary storage device must
be given its specific name called file name.

5.4 Units used to Measure Devices Storage

Capacities
The standard unit is called the ‘BYTE’ the other units include the
following:

(i) Kilo Byte (KB)

(ii) Mega Byte (MB)
(iii) Giga Byte (GB)
(iv) Tera Byte (TB)

Converting from one Unit to another

1024 Bytes = 1 KB
1024 KB = 1 MB
1024 MB = 1 GB
1024 GB = 1 TB

Merits and Demerits of some Storage Devices

The Hard Disk

This is the inbuilt main storage device inside a computer.

Merits of Hard Disk

• Very fast access to data. The access speed is about 1000 KB
57
 per second.
• Provide high storage capacity, up to 150TB.

Demerits of Hard Disk

• Heavy to move with.
• Very sensitive to mechanical shock.

A Compact Disk (CD)

Data can be stored on a Compact Disk (CD) by using special
programmes such as Nero and NTI. Data stored cannot be directly
edited and can easily be destroyed by light and scratches on the CD
surface.

Merits of a Compact Disk

• CD-ROMs can hold large quantities of data of about 650 MBs.
• They are relatively tough as long as the surface does not get
too much scratched.

Demerits of a Compact Disk

• You cannot save files to a CD- Rom (although CD-R and CD-
RW discs now do exist and can be written on without using
special programmes).
• Once they get deep scratches, the data is unrecoverable.

Floppy Disks
Floppy disks are one of the oldest storage devices which are rarely
used today. A floppy disk would store less data of about (1.5MB) and
can easily be damaged due to poor storage.

The main advantage of floppy disks was that they were very cheap to
buy and very common. However, floppy disks were associated with the
following demerits:
They were easily physically damaged if unprotected and magnetic
58
fields could damage the data.
• They were relatively slow to access because floppy discs
rotate far more slowly than hard discs, at only six revolutions
per second.

A Flash Disk
This is a portable storage device that can store a large amount of data
compared to floppy disks. It can be inserted (connected) to a USB
(universal serial bus) port of a computer in order to transfer data.

Merit of Flash Disks

• They are very easy to move with and commonly sold.
• they can store more data up to (15GB) depending on the size
you buy
• They are speedy when accessing data.

Demerits of Flash Disks

• Sometimes they are damaged by poor removal from a
Computer.
• Flash disks are expensive to buy compared to CD or floppy
disks. However, currently the cost of flash disks is reducing
with the advancement in technology.

A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

Camden (2015), defined a Personal Digital Assistant as a palmtop
computer that functions as a personal organizer but also provides email
and internet access. The main purpose of a personal digital assistant
is to act as an electronic organizer or day planner that is portable. It
can be used to store data before it can be transferred to a personal
computer.

Merits of PDAs
• They don’t depend on computers to store data because they
59
 have most of the features of a computer.
• Speedy when accessing data
• Can store huge data

Demerits of PDAs
• They are very expensive to buy.
• They need serious maintenance to operate normally and
effectivelly
• They are complicated even though it depends on the model.

The common management routines of secondary storage devices

include the following:
• Disk partitioning
• Virus scanning
• Freeing disk space
• Disk checking
• Defragmenting
• Formatting

Disk partitioning
This is the logical dividing of a storage device into more than one part.
It is mostly performed on new hard disks and damaged ones.

Steps:
• Right click on my computer and click on manage.
• From the menu which appears, click on disk management.
• Right click on the disk for partitioning and select ‘new partition’.
Then follow the wizard.

Virus scanning (everyday)

A virus is unwanted program which enters your computer and destroys
your stored files (Piramanayagam and Chong, 2001). A virus can infect
all types of storage devices used on a computer. To get rid of viruses,
60
we must have antivirus and perform daily scanning.
Steps:
• Open my computer and right on the storage to be scanned and
select scan from the popup menu which appears.
• Another way is to set the antivirus to scan automatically daily.

Sources of viruses include

• The internet
• Removable devices

Freeing disk space (weekly)

As we work with files, they fill up our storage devices with temporary
files whenever power goes abruptly. If the temporary files accumulate,
they can make computers not to be able store data anymore and
eventually can collapse. In order to free up disk space, we need to
follow the following steps:

Steps
• Open my computer, right click on the partition you want to free,
select properties and click on Disk Cleanup.
• Wait for the computer to scan the space and check in the box
for the files to be removed and click ok for the process to start.

Disk checking
This is the repairing of damaged storage devices. Many computers get
disk damage and continue to work but can let you down when you do
not expect. And mostly on crucial moments when you are badly in need
of your data. So, in order to avoid sudden break down of our storages,
we need to carry out the following steps.

Steps
• Open my computer, right click on the disk part to check and
select properties.
61
 • Select tools from the menu which appears.
• Click on ‘check now’ and check the combo box options and
then click ‘start’.

Defragmenting
This is the restoring of lost program files on disks which may cause halt
in smooth use of the storage device.

Steps
• Open my computer, right click on the disk part to check and
select properties.
• Select tools from the menu which appears.
• Click on ‘defragment now’.
• Click on defragment from the menu which appears.

Formatting
This is the preparing of a storage device for storing data. The most
common file systems used when formatting are FAT and NTFS.

Steps
• Right click on the device to be formatted.
• Select ‘format’ from the dialogue box.
• Choose the file system you want to use from file system pop
down menu and click start button.

Points to remember
• You need to choose an appropriate storage device to use. (For
instance PDA for data collection and scheduling, flash or floppy
for quick data mobility and transfer and CD and Hard disks for
data backup)
• Perform the six storage device management routines
appropriately.

62
References
Balasa, F. (2010). Data Storage, In-Tech, Intellectwebb.org Accessed
on 6/7/2018 at 3:27pm)
Camden, R. (2015). Client-Side Data Storage: Keeping It Local.
O’Reilly Media, New York
Clark, T. (2005). Storage Virtualization: Technologies for Simplifying
Data Storage and Management. Addison-Wesley
Khurshudov, A. (2001). The Essential Guide to Computer Data
Storage: From Floppy to DVD. Prentice Hall, London
Morris, R.J.T and Truskowski, B.J. (2003). The Evolution of Storage
System, IBM System Journal Vol 42, No 2.
Piramanayagam, S.N. and A1 - Chong, T.C. (2011). Developments in
Data Storage: Materials Perspective. Wiley and Facet, London.
Schroader, A. and A1 - Cohen, T. (2011). Alternate Data Storage
Forensics. Elsevier Science. London.
Services, E.M.C.E. (2010). Information Storage and Management:
Storing, Managing, and Protecting Digital Information. Wiley.
Roebuck, K. (2011). Cloud Data Storage: High-impact Strategies
- What You Need to Know: Definitions, Adoptions, Impact,
Benefits, Maturity, Vendors. Lightning Source.

63
 CHAPTER SIX

CLOUD DATA STORAGE

Abbas Mohammed Omar19

Haroonah Nsubuga20
Jamil Serwanga21
Haji Ali Haji22

19 Directorate of Library Services, Zanzibar University

20 Senior Lecturer Department of Public Administration, and Dean Faculty of Arts
and Social Sciences, Zanzibar University
21 Ag. Vice Chancellor of Equator University of Science and Technology - Project-
Uganda
22 Lecturer Department of Information Science, Zanzibar University

64
6.1 Introduction
We live in big data world. As an information society, we have a growing
reliance on creating and consuming data which must be available
whenever and wherever it may be desired. Data and related information
services are enabled or provided via information technology services
combining applications, facilities, networks, servers, storage hardware
and software resources. More data can be stored in the same or
smaller physical footprint than in the past, thus requiring less power
and cooling per gigabyte, terabyte, petabyte, or exabyte. As a result
of this increasing reliance on information, both for home and personal
use along with business and professional needs, more data is being
generated, processed, moved, stored and retained in multiple copies
for longer periods of time.
The rapidly expanding generation of Internet-based services such
as email, blogging, social networking, search and e-commerce have
substantially re-defined the behavior and trends of web users when
it comes to creating, communicating, accessing content, sharing
information and storing data (Wei, 2013). Recently, there has been a
great deal of publicity about cloud data storage.

Cloud storage is associated with a new paradigm for the provision

of computing infrastructure. This paradigm shifts the location of this
infrastructure to the network to reduce the costs associated with the
data management. Hence, organizations, companies and individual
users are enabled to access data services from anywhere in the world
on demand.
This chapter highlights the general concept of cloud data storage
focusing on definition of cloud data storage, types of cloud data storage,
general purpose of data storage, common cloud storage use, cases
and providers, benefit of cloud data storage, challenges of cloud data
storage and cloud data storage implementation.

65
6.2 Definition of cloud data storage
Cloud data storage refers to the practice of storing electronic data with
a third party service accessed via the Internet. It is an alternative to
traditional local storage or physical data storage, where recorded data
is stored on a hard disk or portable storage, or, alternately, a server
or device connected to a local network. It can also be called “hosted
storage,” “Internet storage” or “online storage” (Beal, 2015). Zhao et.al.,
(2014), defined online data storage as a virtual storage approach that
allows users to use the Internet to store recorded data in a remote
network. This data storage method may be either a cloud service
component or used with other options not requiring on-site data backup.
Carlson (2013), looks at cloud storage as a model of data storage in
which the digital data is stored in logical pools, the physical storage spans
multiple servers (and often locations) and the physical environment
is typically owned and managed by a hosting company. These cloud
storage providers/companies are responsible for keeping the data
available and accessible and the physical environment protected and
running. People and organizations buy or lease storage capacity from
the providers to store user, organizational, or application data.

Likewise, Leli (2015), defined cloud storage as a service model in which

data is maintained, managed, backed up remotely and made available
to users over a network (typically the Internet). Users generally pay
for their cloud data storage on a per-consumption, monthly rate.
Cloud storage services may be accessed through a co-located cloud
computer service, a web service application programming interface or
by applications that utilize application programming interface, such as
cloud desktop storage, a cloud storage gateway or Web-based content
management systems.

66
6.3 Types of cloud data storage

As identified by Schulz (2011), there are three main types of data cloud-
based storage: public, private and hybrid. 

Public cloud storage services provide a multi-tenant storage

environment that is most suited for unstructured data. Data is stored
in global data centers with storage data spread across multiple regions
or continents. Customers generally pay on a per-use basis similar to
the utility payment model. This market sector is dominated by Amazon
Simple Storage Service, Google Cloud Storage and Microsoft Azure.

Private cloud, or on-premises, storage services provide a dedicated

environment protected behind an organization’s firewall. Private clouds
are appropriate for users who need customization and more control
over their data.

Hybrid cloud, is a mix of private cloud and third-party public cloud

services with orchestration between the platforms for management.
The model offers business flexibility and more data deployment options.
An organization might, for example, store actively used and structured
data in an on-premises cloud and unstructured and archival data in a
public cloud.

In recent years, a greater number of customers have adopted the

hybrid cloud model Agrawal (2013). Despite its benefits, a hybrid
cloud presents technical, business and management challenges. For
example, private workloads must access and interact with public cloud
storage providers, so compatibility and solid network connectivity
are very important factors. An enterprise-level cloud storage system
should be scalable to suit current needs, accessible from anywhere
and application-agnostic.

However, in recent years, the number of vendors offering online data

storage for both consumers and businesses has increased dramatically.
Some services store only a particular kind of data, such as photos,
67
music or backup data, while others will allow users to store any type
of file. Most of these vendors offer a small amount of storage for free
with additional storage capacity available for a fee, usually paid on a
monthly or annual basis.

6.4 General purpose of data storage

Data storage is taken for granted by many people while not being really
understood, particularly when there is no more room to save files or
photos. Then storage becomes frustrating, if not a nightmare, when you
cannot find the file or document that you need. Even worse is after a
disaster (fire, flood, hurricane, virus or data corruption, theft or accidental
deletion), when you realize what should have been preserved was not
adequately protected. Cost is also a concern, whether it is how much
you have to pay to park your files, videos, or other data somewhere, or
to have it backed up or to purchase more disk storage devices.

What is the earliest form of data storage used by human beings? When
this question is raised, answers such as stone, paper, tape and so on
often come up before someone suggests “the brain.” Although the brain
is the data storage system that the Creator has provided us with, it is
not sufficient for all purposes. Even though the brain can be used for
storage of certain kinds of information, how reliably one can retrieve
the information depends on the individual and the circumstances.
Moreover, information stored in a person’s brain cannot be transferred
to others after the life of that person. Thus, we need data or information
storage systems for at least two main purposes notably:

i. To reliably preserve data and information for retrieval when it

is needed, and
ii. To spread, share or communicate information/knowledge to
others.

6.5 Common cloud storage use cases and

providers
According to Schulz (2011), the most common use cases are cloud
68
backup, disaster recovery and archiving infrequently accessed data.
A greater number of customers also use cloud storage services as a
capital cost-cutting measure. They can just spin up the compute and
storage resources for the duration of the project and then spin them
down when it ends. Currently, there are several cloud data storage
providers, here is a list of some common providers as reviewed and
compared by cloudnewsdaily.com;
SugarSync’s: provides backup for unlimited machines, Mac or
Windows and there’s a 30-day free trial so you can make sure it is
worth it. You can add or edit a file on one device and it will instantly
be available on another – and you can back up your existing folder
structure.

IDrive: allows you 5GB of storage and the use of unlimited machines –
a generous start. You won’t get a free trial and it can only be used with
Windows and Mac. It offer a ‘one stop shop’ solution that enables you
to back up everything – PC, Mac, devices and even Facebook pictures
into the same account.

BackBlaze: is designed differently to most cloud services. You simply

download the software, install it and then backup occurs automatically.
There is no need to select different files and folders. It just happens.
BackBlaze hunts around your computer and finds photos, music,
documents and other critical files. When your computer is not in use,
it copies, compresses and encrypts them, before sending them to a
secure data centre for safe keeping.

Dropbox: perhaps the biggest and best-known name in cloud storage,

Dropbox is many people’s first and last experience of a cloud provider.
They are a highly popular choice for personal storage. Dropbox syncs
your files automatically and allows you to share them with your family
and friends, even if they do not have a Dropbox account. It is supremely
usable and intuitive and files can be accessed from any device. You
can share folders to collaborate on documents, though it is not really
suitable for business use – it is designed for individuals and casual
users, rather than enterprises.
69
Google drive: the giant of the web, Google provides a reliable and
low-cost solution for cloud storage (and much more besides). You get
15 GB of free storage and if you need more, it is just $ 1.99 a month
for 100 GB.

Mega: provides 50 GB of free storage and it is available for Windows,

Mac and Linux. Mega has only been around since 2013, but it has
carved out a good reputation for itself.

Norton: is a big name in online security. They have powerful antivirus

and other products and they have branched out into cloud storage too.
With their security background, it is therefore not a surprise that they
offer strong encryption. Important files are backed up automatically and
you can easily add more storage as you need it.

OpenDrive: offer unlimited space on unlimited machines which support

Windows or Mac systems. You get 5 GB of free storage as well as
desktop versions. There is an Android app you can download to back
up and share files quickly and easily from a tablet. 

ADrive: is a pretty flexible option, supporting Windows, Mac and

Linux systems. You can use unlimited machines and there is a 50 GB
free starter option. You can access files from anywhere and share or
edit them online. There are good search tools and folder upload for
simplicity.

6.6 Benefits of cloud data storage

There are several advantages of cloud data storage. However, many
individuals and organizations use a mix of on-site and online storage
capabilities. For example, they might use local storage for files they use
frequently and online storage for backup or archive data. Or they might
use local storage for personal data and online storage for files that they
wish to share with others. Hereunder are benefits of storing data on
cloud as identified by information professionals;

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Source: adopted from http://cloudnewsdaily.com/cloud-storage/

i. Advantages of online data storage and similar services include

data backup security and convenience. Smaller organizations
and entities have networks that are unable to efficiently handle
data backups or provide compliance with security standards. In
such cases, a vendor that provides online data storage is often
a viable solution
ii. Organizations need only pay for the storage they actually use,
typically an average of consumption during a month. This does
not mean that cloud storage is less expensive, only that it
incurs operating expenses rather than capital expenses.
iii. Businesses using cloud storage can cut their energy
consumption by up to 70% making them a more green
business. Also at the vendor level they are dealing with higher
levels of energy so they will be more equipped with managing
it in order to keep their own costs down as well.
iv. Organizations can choose between off-premises and on-
premises cloud storage options, or a mixture of the two options,
depending on relevant decision criteria that is complementary
to initial direct cost savings potential; for instance, continuity
of operations (COOP), disaster recovery (DR), security and
records retention laws, regulations and policies.
v. Storage availability and data protection is intrinsic to object
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 storage architecture, so depending on the application, the
additional technology, effort and cost to add availability and
protection can be eliminated.
vi. Storage maintenance tasks, such as purchasing additional
storage capacity, are offloaded to the responsibility of a service
provider.
vii. Cloud storage provides users with immediate access to a broad
range of resources and applications hosted in the infrastructure
of another organization via a web service interface.
Cloud storage can be used for copying virtual machine images from
the cloud to on-premises locations or to import a virtual machine image
from an on-premises location to the cloud image library. In addition,
cloud storage can be used to move virtual machine images between
user accounts or between data centers.
Online data storage also offers distinct advantages for backup and
disaster recovery situations because it is located off site. In a fire, flood,
earthquake or similar situation, on-site backups could be damaged, but
online backups won’t be affected unless the disaster is very widespread.
Like local storage, portable storage devices offer fast data transfer along
with some data transfer and sharing capabilities. However, portable
storage is not quite as convenient as online data storage, particularly if
you want to share files with a large number of users. Portable storage
devices are also easy to lose or damage and they offer limited storage
capacity.

Generally, using on-site storage is faster than using Internet storage.

This is so because one does not have to wait for files to upload or
download. However, on-site storage is more susceptible to loss due
to theft, natural disasters or device failure. By contrast, most online
data storage facilities offer enhanced physical security and automated
backup capabilities to ensure that data is not lost. Online data storage
also enables easier data transfer and sharing.

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6.7 Challenges of cloud data storage
Given the obvious benefits of Cloud Storage, raises the question as to
why many more organizations have not already adopted cloud storage
for on-premises applications and alleviate present expensive storage.
According to IMEXResearch.com, there are traditional IT barriers which
must be overcome when considering integration of cloud storage into
today’s production environments.
Performance and data transfer rates become key issues as the
distance between the data and the user increases - which is what
happens in cloud computing.
Even unlimited bandwidth without solving the latency problem will not
improve the performance because it is the latency - or the chattiness
- of the protocols, plus the speed of light limitations that cause the end
user experience to be very poor.
Not all data access patterns are well suited to the cloud, particularly
if there are large distances to cover. In such cases, bandwidth becomes
not only a challenge but a financial consideration.
Cloud storage isn’t about to replace the storage network in the data
center any time soon, at least not for data-intensive, high performance,
low-response time, transactional applications and for mission-
critical data. But there is pretty many chances where companies
and organizations of all sizes will augment their on-premise storage
with cloud storage potentially from various vendors in a hybrid model
deployment. However, hybrid models tend to bring interoperability
issues and the need to deal with different tools, API’s, management
infrastructure and the like.
The popular storage use cases tend to be infrequently accessed
data scenarios including archiving, backup and offsite data protection.
Performance and data transfer rates become key issues as the distance
between the data and the user increases - which is what happens in
cloud computing. It will be a hybrid cloud storage world-wide for many
years to come with a lot of that storage living in private clouds. Many
large enterprises deal with petabytes of data and their processing.
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Apart from the above mentioned traditional IT barriers, a survey
conducted by IMEX Research reveals that both small and large
enterprises today are concerned about:
Security & Data Availability - Concerned about the security of their
data, once it is in the hands of the cloud provider whose multi-tenancy
infrastructure is shared by others. Numerous questions arise when
considering cloud storage, including “is my data secure?”, “Am I in
compliance?”, “what happens if a provider loses a disk drive?”, “is my
data protected?”, “how do I know if my data is truly unusable when
I delete it?”, and many others. StorSimple allows you to provide an
encryption key. They are rightfully worried about the availability of their
data and how that impacts their day-to-day operations. What happens
if a cloud storage service is offline for a period of time?
Performance - Legitimately concerns about application performance
if the application storage is in the cloud. Will the cloud storage service
satisfy my workloads?
Bandwidth limitations – Bandwidth is a limiting factor when accessing
a public storage cloud, as they are accessed over the Internet.
Primary storage deduplication and compression, minimizes bandwidth
consumption dramatically while also improving performance.
Latency constraints – Latency is the silent killer of application
performance, both in terms of response time and throughput.
StorSimple takes advantage of parallelization, persistent connections,
and TCP optimizations to overcome latency and improve performance.
Manageability - Are concerned about being locked into their proprietary
cloud storage infrastructure and applications services. They do not
have vendor independent tools or industry standards to evaluate the
applicability or measure the effectiveness of cloud storage for their
environment.
Costs - Many cloud storage services charge their customers based
on the amount of storage capacity consumed and the amount of
bandwidth consumed. Much as reducing cloud storage costs through
deduplication and optimization and taking advantage of pay-as-you-
grow schemes helps but choosing a cloud storage vendor which meets
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all other criteria remains a challenge.

6.8 Online Storage Implementation

In most cases, setting up online data storage is incredibly easy, but the
exact process will depend on the vendor. For most consumer online
storage services, the process entails nothing more than setting up
an account with a user name and password, although in some cases
users will also need to download and install some software. Using
these online data storage services is also very simple and many offer
intuitive drag-and-drop interfaces. Again, the exact details vary by
vendor. For business-oriented online storage services, the set up and
use procedures can be slightly more complex because they generally
offer more options for configuration, security and reliability. However,
because they want to appeal to as many customers as possible,
enterprise vendors generally make their services as easy to use and
maintain as possible.

6.9 Conclusion
Today, the term cloud storage has become increasingly common.
Although many people use the terms “cloud storage” and “online
storage” interchangeably, technically, cloud storage is a particular
kind of online data storage. In order to be considered cloud storage, a
service must be sold on demand, provide elasticity (the user can have
as much or as little as desired) and offer self-service capabilities. Cloud
storage comes in all shapes and forms. Direct comparison between
providers is often difficult because they focus on different aspects of
the service. Often people will base their decision on the amount of free
storage available.

However, this is only one element that you might want to consider. Most
solutions will include a degree of free storage, though if you are backing
up photos and media, this can run out quickly. It is therefore worth
looking ahead to see how much you will have to pay and how much
space it will get you. Aside from that, you should look at what operating
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systems are supported and whether you will be able to back up and use
files from more than one machine – if you are working on documents at
home as well as in the office, for example, this may be important.

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6.10 References
Agrawal, D., Das, S. and Abbadi, A.E. (2013) Data Management
in the Cloud: Challenges and Opportunities. Morgan &
Claypool, California.

Balasa Florine (2010) Data Storage. In-teh, Delhi

Beal, V. (2015) Online Data Storage. Available at

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/O/online_data_storage.html

Carlson, M. (2013) Cloud Data Management and Storage A

Standards-Based Approach. McGraw-Hill Education. London.

Lehner, W., Sattler, K.U. (2013) Web-Scale Data Management

for the Cloud. Springer, New York.

Leli, S. (2015) Cloud Storage. Available at

http://www.searchcloudstorage.techtarget.com/definition/
cloud-storage accessed 9/3/2017

Schulz, G. (2011) Cloud and Virtual Data Storage Networking.

Taylor & Francis, London.

The Promise and Challenges of Loud Storage. Available at http://

www.imexresearch.com/newsletters/Aug10/Promise_of_Cloud/
eNewsletter_Promise_&_Challenges_of_Cloud%20Storage-2.pdf
accessed 10/3/2017

Wei, C.H. (2013) Modern Library Technologies for Data Storage,

Retrieval, and Use. Facet, London

Wheeler, A. and Winburn, M. (2015) Cloud Storage Security: A

Practical Guide. Elsevier Science, London.

Zhao, L., Sakr, S., Liu, A., Bouguettaya, A. (2014) Cloud Data
Management. Springer International Publishing. London
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ABOUT THE EDITORS

Jamil Serwanga
Acting Vice Chancellor Equator University of Science and
Technology -Project - Uganda

Haroonah Nsubuga
Dean Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Zanzibar Univer-
sity

Muhamud Wambede Nabalegwa

Dean Kyambogo University Graduate School

Abbas Mohammed Omar

Director of Library Services Zanzibar University

Kyeyune Publishers, Kampala-Uganda